Essentials of Behavioral Science Research: a First Course in Research Methodology
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Essentials of Behavioral Science Research: A First Course in Research Methodology Howard Lee California State University Distributed by WWW.LULU.COM Morrisville, NC 27560 Essentials of Behavioral Science Research: A First Course in Research Methodology Copyright © 2007 by Howard Lee. All rights reserved. Published and Distributed by WWW.LULU.COM 3131 RDU Center Drive, Suite 210 Morrisville, NC 27560 Printed in the United States of America Table of Contents Chapter 4 39 Calculation of Means and Variances 39 Kinds of Variance 40 Chapter 1 1 Population and Sample Variances 41 Science and the Scientific Approach 1 Between-Groups (Experimental) Variance 41 Science and Common Sense 1 Error Variance 43 Four Methods of Knowing 3 Components of Variance 48 Science and Its Functions 4 Covariance 49 The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Study Suggestions 50 Theory 5 Chapter Summary 51 Scientific Research a Definition 7 The Scientific Approach 8 Chapter 5 53 Problem-Obstacle-Idea 8 Hypothesis 8 Sampling and Randomness 53 Reasoning-Deduction 8 Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representa- Observation-Test-Experiment 10 tiveness 53 Chapter Outline-Summary 12 randomness 55 An Example of Random Sampling 55 Chapter 2 13 Randomization 56 Problems and Hypotheses 13 Sample Size 60 Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements 14 Kinds of Samples 62 Hypotheses 14 Some books on sampling. 67 The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses 15 Chapter Summary 68 Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses 15 Problems, Values, and Definitions 17 Chapter 6 69 Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hy- potheses 17 Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Concluding Remarks-the Special Power of Hy- Science Research 69 potheses 19 A Beginning? 70 Chapter Summary 21 General Considerations 72 Deception 73 Chapter 3 23 Freedom from Coercion 73 Constructs, Variables and Definitions 23 Debriefing 73 Concepts and Constructs 23 Protection of Participants 73 Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Con- Confidentiality 73 structs and Variables 24 Ethics of Animal Research 74 Types of Variables 28 Study Suggestions 74 Independent and Dependent Variables 28 tChapter Summary 75 Active and Attribute Variables 30 Continuous and Categorical Variables 32 Chapter 7 77 Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables 33 Examples of Variables and Operational Defini- Research Design: Purpose and Principles 77 tions 34 Purposes of Research Design 77 A Stronger Design 78 Chapter Summary 109 Research Design As Variance Control 80 A Controversial Example 81 Chapter 10 111 Maximization of Experimental Variance 82 Control of Extraneous Variables 83 Research Design Applications: 111 Minimization of Error Variance 85 simple Randomized Subjects Design 111 Chapter Summary 86 Factorial Designs 113 Factorial Designs with More than Two Variables Chapter 8 87 114 Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria 87 Research Examples of Factorial Designs 114 Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches Flowers: Groupthink 114 87 Correlated Groups 120 Symbolism and Definitions 88 the General Paradigm 120 Faulty Designs 89 One group Repeated Trials Design 121 Measurement, History, Maturation 90 Two group, Experimental Group-Control Group The Regression Effect 90 Designs 122 Criteria of Research Design 91 Research Examples of Correlated-groups Designs Answer Research Questions? 91 122 Control of Extraneous Independent Variables 92 Multigroup Correlated-groups Designs 125 Generalizability 93 Units Variance 125 Internal and External Validity 93 Factorial Correlated Groups 125 Analysis of Covariance 127 Chapter 9 97 Chapter Summary 133 General Designs of Research 97 Chapter 11 135 Conceptual Foundations of Research Design 97 A Preliminary Note: Experimental Designs and Quasi Experimental and N = 1 Designs of Re- Analysis Of Variance 99 search 135 The Designs 99 Variants of Basic Designs 135 The Notion of the Control Group and Extensions Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental of Design 9.1 100 Designs 135 Matching versus Randomization 102 Nonequivalent Control Group Design 135 Some ways of matching groups. 102 No-treatment Control Group Design 136 Matching by Equating Participants 102 Time Designs 140 The Frequency Distribution Matching Method 103 Matching by Holding Variables Constant 104 Matching by incorporating the Nuisance Variable into the Research Design 104 Participant as Own Control 104 Additional Design Extensions: Design 9.3 using a Pretest 105 Difference Scores 106 Concluding Remarks 108 Study Suggestions 108 Chapter 1: Science and the Scientific Approach 1 Whitehead (1911/1992, p. 157) at the beginning Chapter 1 of the 20th Century pointed out that in creative thought common sense is a bad master. “Its sole Science and the Scientific Approach criterion for judgment is that the new ideas shall look like the old ones.” This is well said. Common sense may often be a bad master for the evaluation of TO UNDERSTAND any complex human activity one knowledge. But how are science and common sense must grasp the language and approach of the alike and how are they different? From one viewpoint, individuals who pursue it. So it is with understanding science and common sense are alike. This view would science and scientific research. One must know and say that science is a systematic and controlled understand, at least in part, scientific language and the extension of common sense. James Bryant Conant scientific approach to problem-solving. (1951) states that common sense is a series of One of the most confusing things to the student of concepts and conceptual schemes1 satisfactory for the science is the special way scientists use ordinary practical uses of humanity. However, these concepts words. To make matters worse, they invent new and conceptual schemes may be seriously misleading words. There are good reasons for this specialized use in modern science-and particularly in psychology and of language; they will become evident later. For now, education. To many educators in the 1800’s, it was suffice it to say that we must understand and learn the common sense to use punishment as a basic tool of language of social scientists. When investigators tell pedagogy. However, in the mid 1900’s evidence us about their independent and dependent variables, emerged to show that this older commonsense view of we must know what they mean. When they tell us that motivation may be quite erroneous. Reward seems they have randomized their experimental procedures, more effective than punishment in aiding learning. we must not only know what they mean-we must However, recent findings suggest that different forms understand why they do as they do. of punishment are useful in classroom learning Similarly, the scientist's approach to problems (Tingstrom, et al., 1997; Marlow, et al., 1997). must be clearly understood. It is not so much that this Science and common sense differ sharply in five approach is different from the layperson. It is ways. These disagreements revolve around the words different, of course, but it is not strange and esoteric. "systematic" and “controlled.” First, the uses of This is quite the contrary. When understood, it will conceptual schemes and theoretical structures are seem natural and almost inevitable what the scientist strikingly different. The common person may use does. Indeed, we will probably wonder why much "theories" and concepts, but usually does so in a loose more human thinking and problem-solving are not fashion. This person often blandly accepts fanciful consciously structured along such lines. explanations of natural and human phenomena. An The purpose of Chapters 1 and 2 of this book is to help the student learn and understand the language and approach of science and research. In the chapters of 1. A concept is a word that expresses an this part many of the basic constructs of the social, abstraction formed by generalization from particulars. behavioral and educational scientist will be studied. In "Aggression" is a concept, an abstraction that expresses a some cases it will not be possible to give complete and number of particular actions having the similar satisfactory definitions. This is due to the lack of characteristic of hurting people or objects. A conceptual background at this early point in our development. In scheme is a set of concepts interrelated by hypothetical and such cases an attempt will be made to formulate and theoretical propositions. A construct is a concept with the use reasonably accurate first approximations to later, additional meaning of having been created or appropriated more satisfactory definitions. Let us begin our study for special scientific purposes. "Mass," "energy," by considering how the scientist approaches problems "hostility," "introversion," and "achievement" are and how this approach differs from what might be constructs. They might more accurately be called called a common sense approach. "constructed types" or "constructed classes," classes or sets of objects or events bound together by the possession SCIENCE AND COMMON SENSE of common characteristics defined by the scientist. The term "variable" will be defined in a later chapter. For now let it mean a symbol or name of a characteristic that takes on different numerical values. 2 Chapter 1: Science and the Scientific Approach illness, for instance, may be thought to be a the scientist is constantly preoccupied with relations punishment for sinfulness (Klonoff & Landrine, among phenomena. The layperson also does this by 1994). Jolliness is due to being overweight. using common