Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of mate- rial prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder. Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke. Veröffentli- chungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

„The Passion of the Christ” A Critical and Historical Perspective

Daniel Burston

First published in English in: Fromm Forum (English version) 9 / 2005, Tuebingen (Selbstverlag) 2005, pp. 24-30. -

Copyrigth © 2005 and 2011 by Professor Dr. Daniel Burston, 5514 Raleigh St., , PA 15217, USA, E-Mail: burston[at-symbol]duq.edu.

Though released on Ash Wednesday, (March The answer? have profound 15), 2004, The Passion of the Christ elicited a respect for religion, and the genius of Mel torrent of controversy many months prior to its Gibson is that he has marketed this film as a release. Many articles about the movie came to spiritual experience. It masquerades as a sa- my attention, including one entitled „The Pas- cred work of art, a Hollywood production sion: The Movie and Its Aftermath,” by Rabbi disguised as the holy wood of the cross. It Benjamin Blech, professor of Talmud at Yeshiva asks to float above criticism because the University who, like me, saw this movie some- theater has become a cathedral and you, what reluctantly, and was quite relieved when it the viewer, are privileged ... to ... witness was over. In his own words, to the word of God.

As the movie ... came to an end ... the Further below, Rabbi Blech posed another, woman seated next to me, a total stranger, more disturbing question, namely, are the ex- turned and asked how I had liked it. I was periences reported by many of the film’s avid in no mood for a theological discussion so I viewers genuinely religious, quasi-religious, or simply said I was appalled by the violence. merely pseudo-religious? And is the film anti- „You must be Jewish,“ she said. Semitic, as some critics charged? If so, does it For a moment I felt complimented. threaten the future of Jewish/Christian dialogue? Surely what she meant was that I had re- Or are those who criticize the film and its maker acted by way of my religion's sensitivity and expressing a veiled antipathy to the message of abhorrence of bloodshed. But ... the words the Gospels - an „anti-Christian bias” – as right that followed made me understand the real wing pundits angrily alleged? And how do psy- problem with a film that has already chotherapists address or interpret the vivid and achieved a veritable cult following. „ occasionally overwhelming feelings of empathy, are always going to find fault,“ she said, exaltation, rage, revulsion, pity, shock and fear „with a story that tells the truth about our that the film elicits in their patients? Lord!“ These are not idle questions. Though it is al- And then I understood. How is it pos- ready among the biggest box-office draws of all sible for so many to witness graphic images time, in the same league as Gone With the that ensure nightmares -- and happily bring Wind, Star Wars and Titanic The Passion of the their children along with them? How can Christ has been available to the public for an American society that becomes frantic at merely one year. The full impact of film will not the momentary sight of a breast at the Su- be known for some time. In the meantime, per Bowl be so indifferent to the 90-minute many who seek the services of psychotherapists display of unimaginable cruelty? harbor strong feelings about the film, positive or

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negative. This may pose no problem if the pa- should they risk provoking their clients by a tient and therapist are from the same religious candid self-disclosure in the interests of fostering background. But if the therapist is Jewish, while a deeper, more authentic interpersonal rapport? the patient is Christian - or vice versa - they may There is no single, simple formula for an- find themselves teetering on the edge of an swering these questions. The answers will vary, abyss of mutual misunderstanding that decades depending on the patient’s background, needs of interfaith dialogue have not yet adequately and maturity, and the therapist’s theoretical ori- resolved. entation. Having said that, however, the thing These facts first came to my attention in that worries me most about the discussions that April of 2004. On March 29th, the Jewish Fac- should ensue on this issue is that they will ulty Forum at Duquesne University joined Du- probably be carried out in a purely a-historical, quesne University’s Center for Interpretive and pan-clinical frame of reference. That just won’t Qualitative Research, the Campus Ministry, the do! Some understanding of the theological dif- College of Liberal Arts to sponsor a public talk ferences between the Jewish and Christian faiths on the movie featuring a theologian from Union is absolutely indispensable for understanding the Theological Seminary. As Chair of the Jewish different impact this film had on viewers – even Faculty Forum, I made a special effort to insure viewers who are unversed in the teachings of that my students knew about the forthcoming their faith, but are influenced by them uncon- event, and made an effort to attend, and was sciously. somewhat disappointed that one particular But before we focus on differences, how- graduate student did not show up. Then, by co- ever, let us start by emphasizing what Judaism incidence, I ran into this student a few days and Christianity share in common. From the later, and asked him about his absense. He very outset, Judaism and Christianity state that pleaded scheduling difficulties, but admitted that each and every human being is made in the im- he wished to distance himself emotionally from age and likeness of God. They converge in their this controversy, since his duties as a therapist-in- emphasis on the virtues of justice and mercy, training obligated him to listen sympathetically and their urgent desire is to foster a truth-loving to a patient who professed to have had some disposition. Yet Judaism and Christianity also sort of spiritual epiphany while viewing the film. caution us that each and every human being also Needless to say, I was curious to know how has innate propensities to violence, greed and he dealt with his dilemma – his anger at the film deception that can only be averted through con- and its reception, on the one hand, and his obli- scious choice and decision, and a resolute de- gations to his clients on the other. His solution termination to hold adult human beings ac- was straightforward. In the course of dialogue countable for their choices. This emphasis on in- with his patient, he simply ignored his own feel- dividual accountability for sin and righteousness ings, and attempted to elucidate what the film underscores the teaching on the Day of Judg- meant to his client in terms of his own personal ment, in which the Almighty, who is indifferent frame of reference, always mindful of the role of to worldly status or accomplishments, and specific images as metaphors or signifiers for knows the most innermost recesses of our other experiences or aspects of the client’s life. hearts, weighs our good deeds against our evil He felt that this was the responsible way to pro- ones, and rewards us accordingly. ceed, in the circumstances, despite the fact that his therapeutic composure was, by his own ad- The question then arises: why do Judaism and mission, somewhat artificial and contrived. I Christianity share these core convictions? Quite then found myself wondering how many thera- simply, because they were rooted in the reli- pists and therapists-in-training – Jewish, Chris- gious environment that Jesus grew up in. He ab- tian, and non-religious - are in similar situations. sorbed these ideas with the very air he breathed, And what should they do, in such circumstances? and in all probability, from older contemporar- Should they do what is expected or them, and ies like Rabban Gamaliel and the very Pharisees what they generally expect of themselves? Or whom the Gospels roundly condemn for their

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ostensible lack of realism, generosity, and spiri- original sin. But Judaism only meets Christianity tual authenticity. This fact is not controversial half-way on the subject of sin. Jews acknowl- anymore, at least among scholars. But it was not edge the existence of a yetzer ha’ra – an „evil always so. In an influential book entitled Das impulse” or „inclination” – that exists in every- Wesen des Christentums, published in 1900, Ad- one, without exception. Yetzer ha’ra is a generic olph Harnack attempted to uproot and distance term that covers a multitude of sins, including Christianity from its Jewish antecedents, and de- idolatry, gratuitous violence, deception, theft, il- fined the core of Christian faith in a completely licit sexual conduct, arrogance, hard-heartedness a-historical fashion. He even chastised Luther and malicious gossip. What can be done about and the other Reformers for not eliminating all it? traces of lingering Jewish influence. Broadly speaking, there are two schools of If you survey the current scene, most Chris- thought. One school, represented by Solomon tian scholars have finally shed this thoughtless Schechter, maintains that people generally per- condescension (Gomes, 1999; Boys, 1999. ) But form deeds, even very good deeds, for very the attitudes of many church-going Christians mixed motives. By this account, which is fa- are still closer to Harnack’s mentality than they vored by Orthodox Jews, our baser passions of- are to the current scholarly consensus. In fact, in ten supply some of the motivation for our best a manner of speaking, they are about 100 years behavior, and we are ultimately dependent on out of date. If that were not the case, then „The God’s grace to help us put our baser passions to Passion of the Christ” would not be wildly suc- good use (Schechter, 1961, chapters 15 & 16). cessful. People would simply shrug it off as an The emphasis here is not on final forgiveness of anachronism. Instead, in scholarly circles, the sin, much less on abolishing passions that are in- film generated considerable anxiety, which Gib- trinsic to human nature. No, the overall implica- son wielded as a political tool to drive a wedge tion here is that arrogance, ambition, envy, lust between Christians and Jews, on the one hand, (and so on) can be deflected from their targets and between (and within) Christian denomina- and consecrated to a higher purpose, - like tions on the other. How did he accomplish this Freud’s concept of sublimation, but with a su- if, as he insists, this was not his intention? And pernatural twist. what, indeed, was the film-maker’s basic inten- The second school of thought, represented tion here? by Leo Baeck and Erich Fromm, for example, In an interview with Peggy Noonan, pub- maintains that we are not dependent on God’s lished in Reader’s Digest (March, 2004), Mr. grace, on the Messiah or on any sacrificial act, Gibson conveyed the message of his movie in no matter how exalted or extreme, to be re- the following words. He said: deemed in God’s eyes. We are all sinners, at least potentially, but we are also endowed with Passion. It is about obsessive love. It was choice and free will, and are therefore person- the whole point of Christ’s incarnation – ally responsible for how we manage and over- God becoming man. The purpose of the come our yetzer ha’ra, and will be judged ac- sacrifice was to expiate the transgressions of cordingly (Fromm; 1966; Friedlander, 1968, all mankind. I believe that, and billions of chapter 5). Despite its contemporary appeal, this others do too. These are the testimonies of teaching has deep roots in tradition. The most the Gospels, and they speak of love. They radical formulation of this position is the doc- speak of ransom, and a complete forgetting trine of tikkun olam, which states that unless or of self, for the sake of all others, which is until we release all the sparks of the Divine that really the height of heroism. He became the are trapped in the world through acts of right- whipping boy so that we can have chance eousness and mercy, the Messiah will tarry in- ... (pp. 90-91). definitely. The upshot of this teaching is that it is not really up to the Messiah to straighten us out. In speaking of „the transgressions of all man- At the very least, we are partners or collabora- kind,” Mr. Gibson is referring to the doctrine of tors with God, rather than his dependents. This

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is the meaning of Abraham Joshua Heschel’s fa- fare, then deliberately re-inserted (minus English mous phrase, „God in search of Man” (Heschel, sub-titles) just prior to its release. In that scene 1955). based on Matthew 27:24, Pontius Pilate sup- But regardless of which position Jews em- posedly succumbed to pressure from a Jewish brace on the subject of sin, Jews generally insist mob to crucify Jesus, and washed his hands of that while we all inherit Adam’s propensity to the matter, while the Jews willingly assumed sin, being human, we do not inherit his guilt per collective guilt for the murder of Jesus in perpe- se (Fromm, 1966). In short, Jews distinguish be- tuity. The verse reads: tween a propensity or desire to sin and actual guilt. This is critical. Adam’s sin, however de- ... when Pilate saw that he was gaining plorable and fraught with consequences, was nothing, but rather that a riot was begin- still his sin. He was the first man, and being en- ning, he took water and washed his hands dowed with moral judgment, was responsible before the crowd, saying, „I am innocent of for himself. In God’s eyes, therefore, I am re- this man’s blood, see to it yourselves”. And sponsible for my sins, not for yours, or my fa- all the people answered, „His blood be on ther’s, or anyone else’s, for that matter. Of us and our children!” (Matthew 27:24) course, that is Rabbinic teaching, and if you delve into the pre-Rabbinic texts you find that This account of events preceding the crucifixion the tradition is quite equivocal on such matters, does not tally with the preponderance of his- because there are many places where the Bible torical evidence. But just for the sake of argu- speaks of collective or inherited guilt. In Exodus ment, let us assume, hypothetically, that the 20:5-6, for example, God describes himself as Jews were collectively responsible, and that I have inherited their guilt. If that were so, then I, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the a Jew living in the 21st century, would be children to the third and the fourth genera- vaguely responsible for the judicial murder of a tion of those who hate me, but showing man I never met – an event which occurred steadfast love to thousands [of generations] 2,000 years ago, without my prior knowledge of those who love me and keep my com- or consent. mandments. But if we are responsible for our personal sins alone, then it stands to reason that the peo- As Ronald Schechter points out, this wrathful ut- ple really responsible for the death of Jesus were terance begs the question of where I stand in re- the individuals who arrested or betrayed him, lation to the Almighty if my father hated God, who beat and murdered him. And if so, their but my great-great grandfather loved him. If I offspring are not guilty of any misdeed, no mat- am not judged on my own merits, what then? ter what their ancestors said or did, any more There is no point belaboring this issue now. The than contemporary Christians are guilty for the real point here is that the authors of the Torah heinous sins committed against Jews in centuries were conversant with the notion of collective past. Why? Because among other things, per- and intergenerational guilt, which was some- haps, Jesus was a Jew, whose death furnished times extended to Israel as a whole, or to Israel’s the excuse for hundreds of thousands of mur- enemies, or to egregious sinners, but never, as it ders, many as hideous as the one he suffered, happens, to humanity as a whole, and for all prior to the 20th century. After all, until very re- time. Judaism, ancient and modern, abounds in cently, many Christians acted as if having em- partial analogies to the concept of original sin, braced Jesus as their savior, they were now but no exact equivalent to it is found in the He- above reproach for doing the very things Jesus brew Bible or the Rabbinic literature. forbade – at least to Jews. This accounts for the The notions of individual and collective sickening litany of Crusades, Inquisitions and guilt are central to the controversies surrounding pogroms that punctuate the history of Jews in a scene that Mr. Gibson reluctantly deleted from the West. The Passion of the Christ, to much public fan- Sadly, this fact was not evident to many

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Christians during the Middle Ages, when Passion 53, presumably – was the pivotal point of hu- plays took root as a liturgical/theatrical genre. man history. Eventually, the sheer perversity of this state of So despite a half century of animated and affairs finally dawned on Christian clergymen, increasingly fruitful interfaith dialogue, many who repudiated the idea that the Jews are solely Christians still experience the characteristic Jew- or chiefly responsible for the murder of Jesus at ish refusal to acknowledge guilt for the death of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Vatican II was Jesus as „theologically incorrect.” Jewish stub- equally emphatic on this point, and needed to bornness on this score is usually mistaken for a be, considering that prevailing attitudes towards smug assertion of our moral superiority, as Jews did not change much in the intervening proof of our spiritual poverty, or at the very centuries. Since then, Catholic teaching has been least, a refusal or inability to understand or re- emphatic, declaring that we are all responsible spect the Christian faith, sometimes summed up for the death of Jesus – Jews and Gentiles alike. in the now fashionable phrase, an „anti- While this represents a vast improvement Christian bias.” By this reckoning – which is still over the previous state of affairs, it is still fraught surprisingly commonplace – I am guilty of refus- with potential for misunderstanding. Why? Be- ing the Savior until proven innocent, and inno- cause when my Christian friends and colleagues cent if – and only if - I freely acknowledge my assure me that everyone is responsible for Jesus’ guilt. A pretty paradox, isn’t it? (Try wriggling death, regardless of race or creed, etc., this puts out of that one!) me, a Jew, in a potentially untenable position. Leaving the question of sin aside, momen- On one level, I object to holding anyone alive tarily, one thing that distinguishes Judaism from today responsible for crimes committed two Christianity is the way our faiths enfold and in- millennia ago, regardless of their faith (or lack of terpret sacred history into the narratives that it). From a strictly juridical point of view, this at- sustain our collective identities. Like his Christian titude is illogical, indefensible, and violates all counterpart, the average Jew’s sense of history is statutes of limitations that I, for one, am aware punctuated by pivotal events – the Creation, the of. And on a deeper, existential level, where we Flood, the Exodus, Sinai, the Temple, Exile and broach questions of fundamental ontology, the return, and so on. Some Christians share this very idea of collective or inherited guilt gives me sense of sacred history. But for the average pause for doubt and reflection precisely because Christian, the pivotal events in the Hebrew Bible I am a Jew, and have good reason to be wary merely prepare the way for Jesus’ ministry, and of such things. How then can I respond to this the episodes that are most pertinent to his faith heartfelt statement of faith? are the (alleged) predictions or premonitions of To begin with, I can respect my neighbor’s Jesus’ eventual arrival, and the events surround- belief as an honest expression of faith in God. ing Jesus’ birth, his ministry, his trial, his crucifix- And I can value this statement, as a symbolic re- ion and resurrection, as related in the Gospels. fusal to demonize or denigrate other human be- Jesus’ religious education and development, (on ings without justification. I can also cherish this which the Gospels are strangely silent), and the assurance as a token of human fellowship, rec- events that unfolded in the aftermath of his cru- ognizing that the person who stakes his faith in cifixion are of interest to scholars, perhaps, but this statement is affirming the unity of the hu- irrelevant to the average Christian’s faith, or man species in his own religious idiom. All this I relatively inconsequential by comparison. For gladly do. But at the end of the day, while I the Christian believer, everything hinges on this have no wish to offend, I cannot actually share particular story, which is as timeless, fresh and or endorse this particular profession of faith un- relevant today as it was two millennia ago, reservedly without abandoning my own. Why? when Jesus first preached his message. Because the assertion of universal guilt or com- In contrast with Christians, who are apt to plicity in the death of Jesus is predicated on the forget or to minimize events that occurred be- idea that Jesus really was the Messiah, and fore and since Jesus’ crucifixion, Jews are com- therefore, that his sacrifice – foretold in Isaiah manded to remember them vividly. In Hebrew,

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this injunction is summed up in a single word - admit it, even gravely insulted that their theo- zachor . This injunction is inscribed in the name logical perspective is greeted with gratitude and of the Jewish New Year – Yom ha’Zicaron, or relief, but also a certain skepticism and reserve. Day of Remembrance – and stated repeatedly Why? Because the average Christian’s personal during the Passover Seder, and invoked at other identity is rooted first and foremost in the appli- times and places to underscore the need for psy- cation of lessons learned from Jesus’ life to the chic continuity, and as an antidote to the threat present day. It hinges on the life of a single man, of identity-diffusion, assimilation, or conversion. coupled with a relative indifference with respect Indeed, without exaggeration, the remembrance to other events that occurred before, during and of things past is as deeply tied to the Jew’s sense after Jesus life, including many events that have of personal identity as the Passion is to the aver- a crucial bearing on how we Jews are apt to in- age Christian. And what does the Jew remem- terpret this same man and his teaching. By con- ber? trast with the average Christian, who emulates Among other things, the Jew remembers – and identifies with Jesus, the Jew is exhorted to and is sharply reminded, when he or she forgets identify with all his ancestors and emancipators, – that our Roman overlords crucified more than but not to divinize any of them – including ten thousand Jews in the first century C.E. Some Isaiah’s suffering servant. But no one - not were slaughtered against their will, no doubt, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Elijah, David or but many risked their lives willingly, and died al Solomon - is as central to Jews as Jesus is to Kiddush Hashem – sanctifying the name of the Christians. Almighty. Jesus died this way too, no doubt, While no one person or event plays the and for that many Jews, myself included, honor central role that Jesus and his Passion play for him. But since Jews no longer believe in collec- Christians in the Jewish faith, not all people or tive or inherited guilt, and do not construe the events are of equal importance, however. Some messiah as the „Son of God”, we are not apt to people, some events, matter more than others. construe this tragic event as being pivotal for the And the pivotal event of the 20th century for all entire human species. Jews is the Shoah, in which six million Jews Another thing the Jew remembers is that up died. Hutton Gibson, ’s father, re- until recently, the customary pretext for killing, cently dismissed the Shoah as „all – or almost all raping, looting or otherwise injuring and hu- – fiction” in the tabloid press. Fortunately for us, miliating Jews was that we refused to acknowl- decent Christians dismiss Hutton Gibson’s re- edge our guilt or complicity, and/or to embrace mark as evidence of a crude, egregious and per- Jesus as our Savior. So in addition to resenting haps pathological hostility to Jews. But the at- the untenable position scripted for us by Chris- tempt to discredit this nodal point of collective tian theology – guilty until proven innocent, in- memory could also be construed an extremely nocent if (and only if) we plead guilty – many aggressive expression of a more pervasive reluc- Jews still recoil at the suggestion that they have tance to reckon with the impact of events that some lingering culpability, because they feel a fall outside a view of sacred history centered on reflexive loyalty to the memory of their for- a single (and singular) person. bears. Not all Christians are this stubborn, of In any case, contemporary Jews rejoice in course. The (largely forgotten) „death of God” Christians’ newfound determination to absolve movement that swept theology during the fifties us of any special guilt where Jesus is concerned, and sixties was a response to the horrors of but respectfully decline to embrace the theologi- Auschwitz. For the last half century or so, the cal perspective that is invoked to justify this wel- Nazi death camps have had almost as much im- come change of attitude. This is less than the pact on Christian theology as it has on Jewish whole hearted endorsement many Christians thought (Gomes, 1999). So read „symptomati- crave and expect. Some Christians who wish to cally,” Hutton Gibson’s ex- embrace their Jewish counterparts are quite dis- presses a deep aversion to all these post-War appointed or, if they can bring themselves to developments. Evidently, Mr. Gibson’s father

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prefers „the good old days” before the war, tality, but expect Jews not to notice - or not to when Christian theologians were impervious to worry, if they do. It is as if, in the minds of historical trends, and just not listening to Jews. many Catholics, two different religious sensibili- Although he does not endorse his father’s ties are in conflict, and have wrestled each other extremist views, Mel Gibson does not distance to a temporary standstill. Who knows which himself from them with the clarity and vigor one will triumph, in the long run? one would expect from the maker of a film like That said, Jews everywhere are still pro- this, either. Moreover, Mr. Gibson openly de- foundly grateful to Paul VI for relinquish- plores Vatican II, and deems anyone who does ing the ’s historic objective of not share his „traditional Catholic” faith as des- converting Jews. And thankfully, after the Vati- tined for eternal damnation, including his own can took the lead, many Protestant denomina- wife who is – shudder! - Episcopalian! (Lawler, tions, urged on by Reinhold Niehbur, relin- 2004, p. 77.) God save us from Christians like quished their mission to the Jews as well. Many, this. I feel safer among the lions! but not all. Southern Baptists, who are among Moreover, since he rejects the Pope’s au- President Bush’s most ardent supporters, are still thority, Mel Gibson did not comply with the resolutely determined to „save” the Jews. That United States Conference of Catholic Bishop’s being so, it is instructive to note that in a pre- Criteria for the Evaluation of Dramatizations of election survey, the majority of Mr. Bush’s most the Passion, which was published in 1988. This ardent supporters held fast to the belief that document was published with the express pur- Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass de- pose of defeating anti-Semitism, and contains struction, and had active ties with Al Quaida, al- nine specific guidelines that dramatizations of though these questionable pretexts for invading the Passion are supposed to follow (Bishops’ Iraq have been thoroughly disproved and at- Committee For Ecumenical and Interreligious Af- tributed to „faulty intelligence.” And it is appar- fairs, 1988). Mr. Gibson ignored at least five of ent that many of the people who cling to these them. This did not deter him from seeking an far fetched claims about Iraq also echo Mr. Gib- audience with the Pope who, according to the son’s absurd contention that his personal fantasy popular press, gave – then retracted – his bless- of Jesus’ crucifixion is faithful re-enactment of ing. Nor did it deter the Knights of Columbus, a what actually transpired that fateful day. They powerful lay Catholic organization, from giving are, by and large, the same people . Mr. Gibson their „Man of the Year” Award. It This fact has obvious implications for psy- did not even deter the American Conference of chotherapists engaged in dialogue about this Catholic Bishops from giving Mr. Gibson’s film a movie with patients. If psychologists have ringing endorsement, nullifying their own well learned anything from the 20th century, it is that wrought criteria once and for all. many people prefer to cling to illusions rather Many Jews simply shrug at these develop- than question authority, or entertain serious ments, and dismiss them as internal matters that doubts about the veracity or reliability of their Jews are wise to ignore, at least in polite con- religious and political leadership. People like this versation. Perhaps they are right. But surely we repose a great deal of trust in their leaders, and may be forgiven if we find these developments tend to abdicate the use of their critical faculties puzzling, to say the least. Why? Because if recent when it comes to appraising and evaluating developments are any indication, many Catho- truth claims. This doesn’t make them „bad peo- lics cherish a lingering ambivalence toward Jews, ple”. They can be as decent or sympathetic as and indeed, toward their own tradition. On the anyone else in certain situations, provided that one hand, most Catholics affirm Vatican II, and their sense of collective or corporate identity is see it as the beginning of an historical rap- not threatened. But they can also be positively prochement between our two faiths (see, e.g. allergic to the truth if it is discrepant with their McBrien, 2003). On the other hand, many of deeply held convictions. these same people embrace and defend an ag- Gustav Le Bon and Sigmund Freud de- gressive spokesman for the pre-Vatican II men- scribed people like this in their works on group

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psychology before the second World War, as These caveats also apply to atheists. Why? Be- did Erich Fromm, albeit from a very different cause for a psychotherapist without any religious perspective (Burston, 1991).Therapists must ap- affiliation or belief, the temptation to trivialize, proach patients like this with caution, because dismiss or merely reduce these disparate ways of they are apt to mistrust anyone who encourages framing one’s identity to some simpler, more them to question authority and use their own idiosyncratic (and presumably pathological) critical faculties, or to acknowledge or embrace process may be even greater than it is for the re- a point of view that is antipathetic to those of ligious therapist who, in the effort to understand their cherished (religious or political) leaders. his client, manages to transcend his own frame Unless the therapist aspires to displacing these of reference – without abandoning it, of course. other, more powerful authority figures in the patient’s imagination – something he or she em- Having said all that, I confess that I am ex- phatically should not do - the resulting (inner tremely reluctant to dignify the highly emotional and interpersonal) turbulence could result in a experiences reported by many of the film’s symbolic demotion, in which the status of the viewers by calling them „religious experiences”. therapist shifts (in the patient’s mind) from that In the final analysis, this may be a semantic issue. of a surrogate friend or mentor to that of the Much depends by what we mean by the term devil’s disciple, a smooth tongued adversary „religious”. If we judge the religious import of a with an evil agenda, or a basically good person movie – or any artistic production – chiefly on who is fatally blinded or compromised in an the basis of its ability to evoke or express some area that renders their utterances on other issues deep-seated collective conflicts, and efforts to suddenly suspect. Either way, it could shatter the overcome them (à la Freud), or alternatively, therapeutic alliance completely. So unless a deep take the Jungian view that we are dealing with sense of trust has been established, a therapist archetypal material, and that questions of his- who found the film profoundly problematic is torical veracity and actual guilt are irrelevant, probably better off not owning this with pa- then we have no solid grounds, and no cogent tients like this, unless the patient signals a grow- criteria, from which to question the authenticity ing readiness to broach questions like these in of these claims. Disparate as they are on the face other areas as well. of it, the classical Freudian and classical Jungian But even patients who trust their therapists, positions tend to converge at this point because and who show a strong desire to think critically, they psychologize theological and social/ethical or to understand belief systems different than issues. The politics, the historicity of the film’s their own, can lose confidence if the therapist is imagery becomes irrelevant by comparison with ignorant or indifferent to the claims of culture, the way it is taken up subjectively by the viewer tradition and the lingering impact of historical at a supposedly „deeper” psychological level. experience on individual clients. In other words, If, however, we deem the essence of relig- therapists treating patients who come from a ion to be the experience, the expression and different faith background but do not take the conscious cultivation of justice, mercy and a disparate forms of collective identity, of inter- truth-loving disposition, then the Freudian and preting and authenticating sacred history just Jungian standpoints lose relevance, except inso- mentioned into account, risk alienating their pa- far as they illumine the obstacles to the realiza- tients in profound and profoundly unhelpful tion of these inherently social and ethical goals. ways. Unless or until they are able to enter into I am not anti-Christian. I know that faith in the (often inarticulate) ways in which their cli- God is a precious resource, not to be squan- ents feelings about this film are shaped by their dered or taken lightly. But as Abraham Heschel religious background and education, they will often said, God speaks to us in many different never be able to get a clear reading of the more idioms – Jewish, Christian, Muslim and so on - personal conflicts and contradictions that pre- and we are commanded to love our neighbors sumably prompt them to bring their feelings regardless of what they believe. Like the Chris- about the movie to the consultation room. tian colleagues whose fellowship I cherish, I look

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forward to the day when Jews, Christians and Buber, M., 1961, Two Types Of Faith, New York: members of all faiths can live together in har- Harper & Row. mony and understanding. But sadly, I don’t Burston, D., 1991, The Legacy of Erich Fromm, Cam- deem that day to be either imminent or inevita- bridge: Harvard University Press. Friedlander, 1968, Leo Baeck: Teacher of Theresien- ble, or anything more than an objective possibil- stadt, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ity. Sadder still, the remarkable success of „The Fromm, E., 1966, You Shall Be As Gods: A Radical In- Passion of the Christ” and the controversies sur- terpretation of the Old Testament and Its Tradi- rounding it have pushed the eventual realization tion, Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Premier Books. of the hope for a vibrant and humane religious Gomes, P., 1998, The Good Book: Reading the Bible pluralism into an ever more distant future. with Mind and Heart, New York: Avon Books. Hack, C., ed., 2004, Passionate Controversy : A Viewer’s Guide to The Passion of Christ, References Lulu.com Publishing. Heschel, A.J., 1955, God in Search of Man, New Adato, A., Cunneff, T., Longsdorf, A, Ehrich, K., York: Harper Colophon Books. Grout, P, Morehouse, M., Nelson, M. & Trabat- Lawler, M., 2004, „Sectarian Catholicism and Mel toni, P., 2004, „The Gospel According to Mel”, Gibson”, in Hack, ed., 2004, pp. 72-86. People Magazine, March 4, pp.82-88. Limbaugh, P., 2004, Persecution: How Liberals Are Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. & Waging War Against Christianity, New York: Sanford, 1950, The Authoritarian Personality, Harper Collins. New York: W. W. Norton. McBrien, R. P., 2003, „The and the Jews”, The Bishop’s Committee for Ecumenical and Interreligious 2003 Swig Lecture, Sept. 11, The Swig Judaic Affairs, 1988, „Criteria for the Evaluation of Studies Program: University of San Francisco. Dramatizations of the Passion”, Office of Pub- Noonan, P., 2004, „Keeping the Faith: interview with lishing and Promotion Services, United States Mel Gibson”, Reader’s Digest, March issue, pp. Catholic Conference, Washington, DC. 88-95. Boys, M., 2000, Has God Only One Blessing?: Juda- Schecter, S., 1961, Aspects of Rabbinic Theology: Ma- ism as a Source of Christian Self Understanding, jor Concepts of the Talmud, New York: New York: Paulist Press. Schocken Books.

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