Small-Holder Farmers' Climate Change Adaptation Practices in the Upper

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321442823 Small-holder farmers’ climate change adaptation practices in the Upper East Region of Ghana Article in Environment Development and Sustainability · December 2017 DOI: 10.1007/s10668-017-0062-2 CITATIONS READS 2 160 3 authors: Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi Philip Antwi-Agyei International Water and Sanitation Centre Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science and Technology 26 PUBLICATIONS 96 CITATIONS 26 PUBLICATIONS 347 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Kwasi Obiri-Danso Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science and Technology 58 PUBLICATIONS 923 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Climate Smart Integrated Flood Management Project View project Sustainable Development Goals and Nationally Determined Contributions: A situational analysis of West Africa States View project All content following this page was uploaded by Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi on 30 December 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Abstract The paper assessed the existing adaptation strategies implemented by farmers in the Upper East region of Ghana to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and variability. The paper used data collected through a series of participatory methods including focus group discussions, questionnaire surveys and key informant interviews in 4 farming communities with different socioeconomic backgrounds in the Bongo and Talensi Nabdam districts of the Upper East region Results showed that farmers’ adaptation to climate change and variability may be categorized under agricultural, water management, communal pooling and livelihood diversification techniques. Specific livelihood diversification adaptation practices identified in the study communities include charcoal or fuel wood sales, temporal and permanent migration to urban areas in search of non-existing jobs. Communal pooling, involving joint ownership and sharing of wealth, labour, or incomes across households, is not widely practiced and should be enhanced. The findings showed that male and female farmers may engage in different set of adaptation practices to cope with climate change. Further, the results showed that farmers, especially female farmers, were constrained by a lack of property rights of farmlands, lack of credit facilities, and lack of access to irrigation facilities, inadequate climate change information, and inadequate seeds for planting. The paper recommends that farmers should be encouraged to form farmer-based associations to network socially, access credit facilities, land, insurance products, extension services and training to empower communities and women. Fostering peer exchange of information between communities will ensure best practices and lessons learnt are shared and scaled-up. This paper contributes to the literature on mechanisms employed by farmers in drylands farming systems to cope with climate change and variability. Keywords: climate change, small-holder farmer, agricultural practices, gender, adaptation strategies, Ghana 1. Introduction Climate change and variability present a major global challenge to sustainable food production. This is especially so for rural households in sub-Saharan Africa whose livelihoods depend on agricultural based livelihoods (IPCC, 2014). Climate change presents particular problems for rural households in sub-Saharan Africa because of its low adaptive capacity, infrastructural development and economies dependent on agriculture (Boko et al. 2007). The agricultural sector is highly susceptible to the adverse impacts of climate change. Agriculture is estimated to contribute about 13.5% of annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Nelson 2009). 1 On the contrary, sustainable agricultural practices can reduce GHGs by sequestrating carbon, and improving soil and land use management practices. The Sustainable Development Goal 13 calls for sustained action against climate change, and this is particularly important for Africa, where livelihoods of millions are threatened through increased occurrences of extreme events like droughts, floods and wind storms (Lobell et al. 2011). In sub-Saharan Africa, the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture are considerable (Boko et al. 2007; Adger et al. 2003). This is because agriculture in many countries across sub-Saharan Africa is rain-fed. The Food and Agriculture Organization (2007) noted that the political and social factors that are important determinants of food security in Africa will be placed under significant stress because of climate change. This will further exacerbate the incidence of food insecurity and rural poverty that could affect the livelihoods of many households (Codjoe and Owusu 2011). This is further compounded by the fact that households in sub-Sahara Africa are often confronted with multiple stressors that act inter-dependently to adversely affect livelihood outcomes (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2016). West Africa experienced considerable dry periods that sometimes resulted in long droughts especially from the 1960s to 1990s (Hulme 2001). However, recent regional models predict slight increase in precipitation, with considerable local variations (Paeth and Hense 2004). Christensen et al. (2007) project increase in temperatures as well as the incidence of extreme events such as droughts and floods in the West Africa sub-region. In Ghana, mean annual temperature rise of 1.0oC since 1960 has been reported (McSweeney et al. 2008). Future projection for temperature show increase of 0.6 oC, 2.0 oC and 3.9 oC by 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively (EPA 2011). Thus, climate change and variability threaten the achievement of major developmental goals and food security in Ghana. High rainfall variability has led to unpredictable periods of droughts or floods with consequences of soil compaction, erosion, windstorms, and forest fires (De Pinto et al. 2012). Although the impacts of climate change and variability in Ghana are considerable, present approaches to agricultural development do not adequately consider policies and planning, and management strategies aimed at adequately resourcing the small-holder famers to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and variability. Within Ghana, the savannah ecological zone, and particularly the Upper East region is highly characterized by climate variability, which considerably threatens food security and related livelihoods (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2012). For instance, Antwi-Agyei et al. (2012) noted that crop production in the Upper East region, Ghana was highly susceptible to climate change and variability. This region is typically associated with extremely challenging conditions for farmers. High temperatures, erratic rainfall and eroded soils characterize this region. The results 2 are that yields of crops are low, livestock production is poor and poverty levels are high. Hence, the need for appropriate climate change adaptation to cushion households against drought-related crop failure cannot be over-emphasized. International efforts aimed at addressing climate change has been through mitigation and adaptation. Whilst mitigation seeks to slow down the rate of climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, adaptation, on the contrary, aims to reduce the impacts through a range of system-specific mechanisms (Smith et al. 2000). Adaptation simply involves adjustments in human-ecological systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects (IPCC, 2007). The IPCC (2014) noted that adaptation helps to reduce harm and exploit beneficial opportunities presented by climate change. Aadaptation is now an urgent policy priority and has received considerable research action (Ford 2007). There is a need for increased research on adaptation to climate change and variability in sub-Saharan Africa, given the different degrees of temporal and spatial variability with regard to rainfall for urgent attention of policy-makers (Mertz et al. 2011). Farmers in sub-Saharan Africa adapt to the adverse impacts of climate through a range of practices including irrigation, crop diversification, mixed farming, water management, cultivation of drought resistant varieties and management of natural resources (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2014; Seo 2009; Paavola 2008; Mortimore and Adams 2001). Ghana’s National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) seeks to ensure a coherent and pragmatic approach in dealing with the impact of climate change on the socio-economic development agenda of the economy. The NCCP acknowledges the risks posed by climate change to natural resources that are critical to the country’s economic well-being and, therefore, prioritizes adaptation as crucial intervention to help the nation address the impacts of climate change. Effective adaptation to climate change has been highlighted as one of the core objectives of the NCCP (MESTI, 2014). Climatic change related shocks and risks affect women more negatively than men in terms of agricultural production, food security, health, water and energy resources, etc . Additionally, it is argued that climate change will affect the livelihoods of men and women differently, given their roles and responsibilities (Palanisami et al. 2015). Further, women are more likely to suffer due to their limited access and control over capital assets needed to manage the adverse imoacts of climate change. It is imperative that scientific factors and an understanding of the socio-economic drivers and pressures

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