Small-Holder Farmers' Climate Change Adaptation Practices in the Upper

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Small-holder farmers’ climate change adaptation practices in the Upper East Region of Ghana

Article in Environment Development and Sustainability · December 2017 DOI: 10.1007/s10668-017-0062-2

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Tyhra Carolyn Kumasi Philip Antwi-Agyei International Water and Sanitation Centre Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science and Technology

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The paper assessed the existing adaptation strategies implemented by farmers in the Upper East region of Ghana to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and variability. The paper used data collected through a series of participatory methods including focus group discussions, questionnaire surveys and key informant interviews in

4 farming communities with different socioeconomic backgrounds in the Bongo and Talensi Nabdam districts of the Upper East region Results showed that farmers’ adaptation to climate change and variability may be categorized under agricultural, water management, communal pooling and livelihood diversification techniques.

Specific livelihood diversification adaptation practices identified in the study communities include charcoal or fuel wood sales, temporal and permanent migration to urban areas in search of non-existing jobs. Communal pooling, involving joint ownership and sharing of wealth, labour, or incomes across households, is not widely practiced and should be enhanced. The findings showed that male and female farmers may engage in different set of adaptation practices to cope with climate change. Further, the results showed that farmers, especially female farmers, were constrained by a lack of property rights of farmlands, lack of credit facilities, and lack of access to irrigation facilities, inadequate climate change information, and inadequate seeds for planting. The paper recommends that farmers should be encouraged to form farmer-based associations to network socially, access credit facilities, land, insurance products, extension services and training to empower communities and women. Fostering peer exchange of information between communities will ensure best practices and lessons learnt are shared and scaled-up. This paper contributes to the literature on mechanisms employed by farmers in drylands farming systems to cope with climate change and variability.

Keywords: climate change, small-holder farmer, agricultural practices, gender, adaptation strategies, Ghana

1. Introduction

Climate change and variability present a major global challenge to sustainable food production. This is especially so for rural households in sub-Saharan Africa whose livelihoods depend on agricultural based livelihoods (IPCC, 2014). Climate change presents particular problems for rural households in sub-Saharan

Africa because of its low adaptive capacity, infrastructural development and economies dependent on agriculture

(Boko et al. 2007). The agricultural sector is highly susceptible to the adverse impacts of climate change.

Agriculture is estimated to contribute about 13.5% of annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Nelson 2009).

On the contrary, sustainable agricultural practices can reduce GHGs by sequestrating carbon, and improving soil and land use management practices. The Sustainable Development Goal 13 calls for sustained action against climate change, and this is particularly important for Africa, where livelihoods of millions are threatened through increased occurrences of extreme events like droughts, floods and wind storms (Lobell et al. 2011).

In sub-Saharan Africa, the negative impacts of climate change and variability on agriculture are considerable (Boko et al. 2007; Adger et al. 2003). This is because agriculture in many countries across sub-Saharan Africa is rain-fed. The Food and Agriculture Organization (2007) noted that the political and social factors that are important determinants of food security in Africa will be placed under significant stress because of climate change. This will further exacerbate the incidence of food insecurity and rural poverty that could affect the livelihoods of many households (Codjoe and Owusu 2011). This is further compounded by the fact that households in sub-Sahara Africa are often confronted with multiple stressors that act inter-dependently to adversely affect livelihood outcomes (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2016). West Africa experienced considerable dry periods that sometimes resulted in long droughts especially from the 1960s to 1990s (Hulme 2001). However, recent regional models predict slight increase in precipitation, with considerable local variations (Paeth and

Hense 2004). Christensen et al. (2007) project increase in temperatures as well as the incidence of extreme events such as droughts and floods in the West Africa sub-region.

In Ghana, mean annual temperature rise of 1.0oC since 1960 has been reported (McSweeney et al. 2008).

Future projection for temperature show increase of 0.6 oC, 2.0 oC and 3.9 oC by 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively (EPA 2011). Thus, climate change and variability threaten the achievement of major developmental goals and food security in Ghana. High rainfall variability has led to unpredictable periods of droughts or floods with consequences of soil compaction, erosion, windstorms, and forest fires (De Pinto et al. 2012). Although the impacts of climate change and variability in Ghana are considerable, present approaches to agricultural development do not adequately consider policies and planning, and management strategies aimed at adequately resourcing the small-holder famers to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and variability. Within

Ghana, the savannah ecological zone, and particularly the Upper East region is highly characterized by climate variability, which considerably threatens food security and related livelihoods (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2012). For instance, Antwi-Agyei et al. (2012) noted that crop production in the Upper East region, Ghana was highly susceptible to climate change and variability. This region is typically associated with extremely challenging conditions for farmers. High temperatures, erratic rainfall and eroded soils characterize this region. The results

2 are that yields of crops are low, livestock production is poor and poverty levels are high. Hence, the need for appropriate climate change adaptation to cushion households against drought-related crop failure cannot be over-emphasized.

International efforts aimed at addressing climate change has been through mitigation and adaptation. Whilst mitigation seeks to slow down the rate of climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, adaptation, on the contrary, aims to reduce the impacts through a range of system-specific mechanisms (Smith et al. 2000).

Adaptation simply involves adjustments in human-ecological systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects (IPCC, 2007). The IPCC (2014) noted that adaptation helps to reduce harm and exploit beneficial opportunities presented by climate change. Aadaptation is now an urgent policy priority and has received considerable research action (Ford 2007). There is a need for increased research on adaptation to climate change and variability in sub-Saharan Africa, given the different degrees of temporal and spatial variability with regard to rainfall for urgent attention of policy-makers (Mertz et al. 2011). Farmers in sub-Saharan Africa adapt to the adverse impacts of climate through a range of practices including irrigation, crop diversification, mixed farming, water management, cultivation of drought resistant varieties and management of natural resources (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2014; Seo 2009; Paavola 2008; Mortimore and Adams 2001).

Ghana’s National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) seeks to ensure a coherent and pragmatic approach in dealing with the impact of climate change on the socio-economic development agenda of the economy. The

NCCP acknowledges the risks posed by climate change to natural resources that are critical to the country’s economic well-being and, therefore, prioritizes adaptation as crucial intervention to help the nation address the impacts of climate change. Effective adaptation to climate change has been highlighted as one of the core objectives of the NCCP (MESTI, 2014).

Climatic change related shocks and risks affect women more negatively than men in terms of agricultural production, food security, health, water and energy resources, etc . Additionally, it is argued that climate change will affect the livelihoods of men and women differently, given their roles and responsibilities (Palanisami et al.

2015). Further, women are more likely to suffer due to their limited access and control over capital assets needed to manage the adverse imoacts of climate change. It is imperative that scientific factors and an understanding of the socio-economic drivers and pressures of vulnerability (including gender imbalances) inform adaptation approaches (Habtezion et al., 2013). Similarly, adaptation initiatives that are not gender cognizant may

3 themselves unintentionally exacerbate gender inequalities.

Various studies have explored the possible impacts of climate change on food production in northern Ghana

(see Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama 2012; Antwi-Agyei 2012; Armah 2010). Other studies have examined the key adaptation practices employed by small-holder farming households to address the threats associated with climate change on food production and related livelihood activities (see Yaro et al. 2014; Bawakyillenuo et al.

2014; Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2013; Antwi-Agyei et al. 2014). Laube et al. (2012) explored the key dynamics and limits to climate change adaptations by small-holder farmers in northern Ghana.

Despite the importance of these studies in enhancing an understanding of the adaptation practices in the northern

Ghana, there is a dearth of research on agricultural adaptation strategies commonly used by farmers with different socioeconomic characteristics and how gender can influence climate change adaptation practices in the

UER, Ghana. This is particularly important, taken into consideration the varied adaptation needs of women and men small-holder farmers. This provides a research gap for localized research that considers farmers’ various needs in the context of climate change and variability. Whilst contributing to understanding of the adaptation practices of small-holder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, the overall objective of this paper was to identify existing adaptation strategies practised by small-holder farmers in the UER. This paper sought answers to the following research questions: (i) what are small-holders farmers’ perception to changes in the climate in the study area?; (ii) what adaptation strategies are employed by small-holder farmers in the study communities to moderate the impacts of climate variability; (iii) what are the key constraints and opportunities to climate change adaptations of female and male small-holder farmers in the UER, Ghana? (iv) are there different adaptation strategies preferred by female and male small-holder farmers in the study area?

2. Study area and research methods

2.1 Study site description

The Upper East Region is located in the savannah ecological zone and divided into Guinea savannah to the south and Sudan savannah to the north. It is located in the extreme northeast of Ghana; shares a common frontier with the Republic of Burkina Faso to the north, the Republic of Togo to the east; Upper West and Northern Regions to the west and south respectively (Blench2006). The region lies between longitude 0o and 1o West, and latitudes

10o 30’N and 11oN and is predominantly rural (79 percent) (GSS 2012), scattered in dispersed settlements and consists of thirteen administrative municipalities and districts. The vast majority of people in the region depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, the region is characterized by uni-modal rainfall pattern relatively low and erratic, which starts in May and ends in September (Schiffer et al. 2008). A long dry spell begins in November and ends in May, characterized harmattan winds from November to mid-February. Thus, during six to seven months of the year, crops cannot be grown without irrigation. Severe drought occurs at irregular intervals and on the average once in every five years (Dickson and Benneh 1988).

The hottest month is usually March and temperatures may exceed 42oC. The mean annual rainfall is between 950 and 1,100mm. Regional rainfall figures between 2001 and 2010 ranges from 613-1,117 mm with an average of 937 mm (Ghana Meteorological Agency 2010). Erosion is a major problem in the region (Benneh,

2009; GSS, 2005). Within the UER, the Bongo and Talensi-Nabdam districts were purposively selected for this study. The topography of the districts are extremely rugged, dominated by relatively undulating lowlands, gentle slopes ranging from one to five percent gradient with some isolated rock outcrops and some upland slopes

(TNDADU 2015; Bongo District 2015). A total of four communities (two in each district) were randomly selected from the study districts. In Bongo district, Bongo Central and Dua Nyaire were selected, whilst Tongo and Nangodi were chosen from the Talensi-Nabdam district for data collection (Figure 1). These communities were selected based on local expert guidance and offer opportunity to explore adaptation options across different types of communities.

Figure 1: Map of Study Communities from Bongo and Talensi-Nabdam Districts in the UER

2.2 Data collection

Primary data were collected from October to December 2011. Data collection started with reconnaissance survey in order to understand the social and geographical features of the region. The main survey consisted a household structured questionnaire and focus group discussions (FGDs) with selected farmers. In all, between 57 and 143 household surveys were conducted in each community (Table 1). The total surveys per community varied depending on the community population size. Stratified random sampling approach based on socioeconomic characteristics such as gender and social standings was employed to select the number of households in each town for questionnaire administration.

Household questionnaire solicited information on knowledge, perceptions, attitude and practices on climate change, adaptation strategies and natural resources management. The questionnaire consisted of closed and open-ended questions. Questionnaire developed was pre-tested and modified in order to avoid ambiguous

questions. The final questionnaire was administered to 400 households in the four selected communities. The

surveys were administered with the help of the Agricultural Extension staff in the local language (Frafra/grunne,

Nabdam and Talensi). On the average each survey took between 45 minutes to 1 hour to complete. The

responses of the interviewee were recorded on the survey form.

To complement the data obtained from the survey and help contextualize the results from the structured

interviews, one FGD was conducted in each community. FGD participants included opinion leaders in the

community such as heads of local associations, religious leaders, chief farmers, unit committee members and

other key informants. The FGDs was conducted by a facilitator, a translator and a rapporteur taking notes of the

discussions. The FGDs generated information on farmers’ experiences of climate change, their indigenous

knowledge about the ecology, changes observed over the years and the diverse adaptation measures they adopted.

The FGDs was used to elucidate and triangulate the survey findings. A total of four FGDs were conducted in

Bongo, Dua Nayire, Tongo and Nangodi (Figure 1). Key informant interviews with slected farmers based on

their ecological knowledge of these farming communities were also conducted. Additionally, direct field

observations of the extent of climate change impacts were undertaken.

Table 1: Number of Respondents interviewed in each District and Town/Village from the Upper East Region Town/village Females Males Total interviewed Bongo District: 118 105 223 Bogoro 76 67 143 Dua Nayire 42 38 80 Talensi-Nabdam District: 89 88 177 Tongo Waki 61 59 120 Nangode Kalini 29 28 57 Source: Household Survey 2011

2.3 Data analysis

Quantitative data were coded and analysed using SPSS. Pearson’s Chi-square χ2 tests (non- parametric) was also

used to compare categorical variables. Responses on climate change and variability impacts, challenges

confronting small-holder farmers to agricultural and natural resources management, adaptation strategies

adopted by male and female farmers, knowledge management of climate change and adaptation were tested

2 2 2 using the Chi-square (χ ) model: χ = Σ[(Qi―Ei) ÷ Ei], where Qi= observed frequencies and Ei = expected

7 frequencies. Descriptive statistics were run to give frequencies and then cross-tabulation was undertaken.

Questionnaires were analyzed at 95 confidence interval (α=0.05). Qualitative data analysis involved identification and interpretation of themes in the textual data from the FGDs and determined how these themes responded to the guiding questions using content analysis.

3. Results

The results of the household surveys and FGDs are presented in this section. First, we explore perceived changes on climatic variables, particularly temperature and rainfall by study households. Second, we explore the core adaptation strategies employed by farmers in the study communities to moderate the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. .Finally,we highlight the key constraints and challenges confronting farmers in the study villages.

3.1 Perceived changes in the climate

Respondents admitted observing changes in climate; rising temperatures (64 percent), decreased rainfall (70 percent) and increased incidence of drought (67 percent) in their lifetime. Most of the respondents (75 percent) acknowledged a change in the timing of the rains (Table 2). During focus group discussions, many of the participants confessed good vegetative cover, stable ecology coupled with cold temperatures and all year round availability of water during their childhoods. A farmer asserted:

“I have lived in Bongo Nayiri all my life, at the moment I am 70 years old. When I was a child this community was covered with vegetation. There were forests with rivers and lakes providing water all year-round andlarge vast of fertile lands. However, in the course of time I have witnessed a decrease and a subsequent disappearance of the natural resources. The rains are unpredictable and come and go when you least expect it” [Male farmer, FGD, Bongo Central, October, 2011].

Additionally, their lands were fertile and they did not depend on chemical fertilizers to maintain the fertility of the soil. However, respondents claimed that over the years, the rains declined, became erratic and drought intensified. They conceded that over time the community’s indiscriminate cutting of trees contributed to the depletion of forests and disappearance of water bodies.

Despite the perceived drought in the study communities, 21 percent of the respondents were of the view the

amount of rainfall increased during the rainy season, although focus group participants intimated the increase in

rainfall was a recent occurrence (during the last five years, i.e. 2005-2010). Secondly, 26 percent observed a

decrease in temperatures in the last twenty years (35 percent agreed it was colder lately and 23 percent disagreed

it was hotter recently) (Table 2). These observations were attributed to recent afforestation programmes. We

observed no differences in the perceptions of male and female farmers. Table 2: Respondents perceived changes in the climate Temperature Frequency Rainfall Frequency Drought Frequency (Percent) (Percent) (Percent) Increased 257(64.2) Increased 85(21.2) Increased 266(66.5) No change 41(41.0) No change 34(8.5) No change 48(12.0) Decreased 102(25.5) Decreased 281(70.2) Decreased 86(21.5) STD .866 STD .823 STD .824

Colder these days Timing of rains Hotter these days Strongly agree 32(8.0) Strongly agree 88(22.0) Strongly agree 183(45.8) Agree 140(35.0) Agree 299(74.8) Agree 124(31.0) Disagree 181(45.2) Disagree 1(.2) Disagree 92(23.0) Strongly disagree 47(11.8) Strongly disagree 12(3.0) Strongly disagree 1(.2) STD .797 STD .564 STD .806 Source: Household survey 2011. Note: STD = standard deviation. Figures in parenthesis are in percent and those without parentheses are frequencies

Table 3 shows that majority of the farmers (78 percent) observed a decline over the years in soil fertility. The

burning of crop debris on farms and sometimes divine causes such as the evil nature of human beings were cited

for increased rate of soil erosion, severe land degradation and unavailability of water for food crops and

livestock in the last twenty years and beyond. Farmers also attributed the decline in soil fertility to decreased

rainfall which hindered the decomposition of mulch and compost. However, focus group participants

associated bushfires as one of the causes of declined soil fertility (Table 3).

Table 3: Perceived changes in soil fertility and reasons attributed to the change

Soil fertility of farmland

If, less fertile it is due to More fertile No change Less fertile Total

Wind erosion 1(.2) 0(.0) 0(.0) 1(.2) Drought 0(.0) 0(.0) 75(18.8) 75(18.8) Soil erosion 11(2.8) 0(.0) 27(6.8) 38(9.5) Decreased rains 0(.0) 0(.0) 112(28.0) 112(28.0) Lack of fertilizer 0(.0) 0(.0) 97(24.2) 97(24.2) Expensive fertilizers 0(.0) 0(.0) 2(.5) 2(.5) Don't know 3(.8) 0(.0) 0(.0) 3(.8) Not applicable 49(12.2) 23(5.8) 0(.0) 72(18.0) Total 64(16.0) 23(5.8) 313(78.2) 400(100.0) χ2 =3.711 df =14 P value =.000 Source: Household survey 2011. Notes: X2 = Pearson chi-square value. Figures in parenthesis are in percents and those without parentheses are frequencies. About 82 percent of respondents reported having experienced reduced crop yields due to worsening

climatic conditions and attributed it to drought (32 percent) (Table 4).

Table 4: Perceived changes in crop yields and reasons attributed to the change Reasons for the change Crop yields Total Increased No change Reduced Drought 0(.0) 0(.0) 126(31.5) 126(31.5) Less rains 0(.0) 0(.0) 93(23.2) 93(23.2) Lack of fertilizer 0(.0) 0(.0) 108(27.0) 108(27.0) Don't know 8(2.0) 0(.0) 1(.2) 9(2.2) Not applicable 53(13.2) 11(2.8) 0(.0) 64(16.0) Total 61(15.2) 11(2.8) 328(82.0) 400(100.0) χ2 =4.021 df =8 P value =.000 Source: Household survey 2011. Note: χ2 = Pearson chi-square value. Figures in parenthesis are in percent and those without parentheses are frequencies

3.2 Adaptation strategies adopted by female and male small-holder farmers in the study communities

Adaptation strategies adopted by farmers to mitigate the effects of changing climate in the study communities could be broadly categorized into four: agricultural, water management, communal pooling and livelihood diversification techniques (Tables 5 and 6). Agricultural techniques refer to the various on-farm adaptation strategies including crop selection and changing herd composition that are employed by households to moderate the impacts of climate change. Water management techniques deals with the various strategies that can help conserve water and moisture in the soil so as to enhance crop growth. These include the use of irrigation and water harvesting techniques. Communal pooling involves joint ownership and sharing of labour and incomes across households, or mobilization of resources to respond to climate change related challenges. Livelihood diversification mainly refers to the ability of the farmer to engage in non-farm livelihood strategies (see Table 6).

One of the key results emerging from the analysis is that Tables 5 and 6 reveal that whilst the majority of the adaptation strategies (such as crop selection, using irrigation water and improving watering sites in pastoral areas) were practised by both male and female farmers, certain adaptation strategies were employed by either male or female only. For instance, changing the herd composition and adapting fertilizer/pesticide application were mainly used by male farmers. Most of the communal pooling techniques such as restoring and preserving homestead or mountain forests for soil erosion control programmes (Table 5) were mostly used by male compared to female farmers in the study communities. On the contrary, there were certain adaptation strategies that were mostly used by female farmers. It is important to highlight the different adaptation strategies that are employed by male and female farmers so as to enable the development of gender specific policies in these study communities.

Table 5: Agricultural, water management and communal pooling adaptation strategies adopted by female and male small-holder farmers in UER Strategy type Strategy adopted Gender adoption of strategy Yes No Men Women Men and Not women applicable 1. Agricultural Techniques: Crop selection 379(94.8) 21(5.2) 12(3.0) 2 (0.5) 365(91.2) 21(5.2) Adapt planting dates & densities 370(92.5) 30(7.5) 14(3.5) 1(0.2) 355(88.8) 30(7.5) Adapt fertilizer/ pesticide application 167(41.8) 233(58.2) 20(5.0) 0(.0) 147 (36.8) 233(58.2) Adapt tillage practices 319(79.7) 81(20.2) 27(6.8) 2(0.5) 290(72.5) 81(20.2) Change the pastoral system 201(50.2) 199(49.8) 38(9.5) 1(0.2) 162(40.5) 199(49.8) Change the herd composition 144(36.0) 256(64.0) 25(6.2) 0(.0) 119(29.8) 256(64.0) Apply different feed techniques 118(29.5) 282(70.5) 57(14.2) 1(0.2) 60(15.0) 282(70.5) 2. Water Management Techniques: Use water harvesting techniques 400(100) 0(.0) 17(4.2) 85(21.2) 298(74.5) 0(.0) Improve, construct or rehabilitate terraces 131(32.8) 269(67.2) 5(1.2) 1(0.2) 126(31.5) 268(67.0) Use irrigation 189(47.2) 211(52.8) 7(1.8) 1(0.2) 181(45.2) 211(52.8) Improve watering sites in pastoral areas 203(50.8) 197(49.2) 33(8.2) 15(3.8) 155(38.8) 197(49.2) 3. Communal Pooling: Restore and preserve homestead or 174(43.5) 226(56.5) 30(7.5) 0 (.0) 144(36.0) 226(56.5) mountain forests to reduce erosion Rangeland preservation and grazing 189(47.2) 211(52.8) 6(1.5) 0 (.0) 183(45.7) 211(52.8) restrictions Soil erosion prevention programmes 254(63.4) 146(36.5) 36(9.0) 2(0.5) 216(54.0) 146(36.5) Communal water harvesting 43(10.8) 357(89.2) 5(1.2) 1(0.2) 37(9.4) 357(89.2) Communal irrigation 125(31.2) 275(68.8) 16(4.0) 19(4.8) 90(22.5) 275(68.8) Source: Household survey 2011, Figures in parentheses are in percent and those without parentheses are frequencies.

Farmers adapted differently when it came to livelihood diversification. Majority of females migrated

temporarily to urban areas and other rural areas compared to 3 percent males who migrated permanently to other

urban and rural areas. Some female coping strategies include increasing market sales, handicrafts, charcoal and

fuel wood sales and a reduction in expenses by changing consumption of the family in relation to the type and

number of meals per day (Table 6). The following characteristic quotes were provided by female farmers:

“We have adapted to the climatic changes by rearing pigs instead of goats, sheep and cattle because pigs were prolific breeders, economically lucrative and resistant to most diseases except swine flu.” [Female FGD, Tongo , October 2011]

“In our attempt to enhance our infertile soils we plant leguminous crops such as soya bean in addition to our traditional food crops to restore the fertility and improve our crop yield”. [Female FGD, Nangode Kalini, October 2011] These quotes suggest that farmers are engaging in different strategies to cope with the adverse impacts presented

by climate change on the livelihoods of the farming households in the study communities. Table 6: Livelihood diversification adaptation strategies adopted by female and male small-holder farmers in UER Strategy type Strategy adopted Gender adoption of strategy 1. Diversification: Yes No Men Women Men and Not women applicable Temporal migration to urban areas 310(77.5) 90(22.5) 4(1.0) 42(10.5) 264(66.0) 90(22.5) Temporal migration to other rural 319(79.8) 81(20.2) 5(1.2) 47(11.8) 267(66.8) 81(20.2) areas Permanent migration (to rural areas, 142(35.5) 258(64.5) 11(2.8) 3(.8) 128(32.0) 258(64.5) urban) Home-garden agriculture 104(26) 296(74.0) 16(4.0) 0(.0) 88(22.0) 296(74.0) Increase market sales 166(41.5) 234(58.5) 17(4.2) 41(10.2) 108(27.0) 234(58.5) Handicrafts 185(46.2) 215(53.8) 16(4.0) 42(10.5) 127(31.7) 215(53.8) Charcoal or timber sales 133(33.2) 267(66.8) 12(3.0) 26(6.5) 95(23.8) 267(66.8) Start fisheries 198(49.5) 202(50.5) 138(34.5) 11(2.8) 49(12.2) 202(50.5) Reduce expenses by changing 330(82.5) 70(17.5) 32(8.0) 43(10.8) 255(63.7) 70(17.5) consumption (type and # of meals) Draw down on livestock, surpluses 344(86.0) 56(14.0) 49(12.2) 18(4.5) 277(69.2) 56(14.0) or savings Source: Household survey 2011. Figures in parenthesis are in percent and those without parentheses are frequencies

3.3 Challenges confronting small-holder farmers in the study communities

Small-holder farmers in study communities, and the Upper East in general, are confronted with numerous

challenges in adapting to changes in the climate in their quest to become food secure. Notably among these are

lack of credit facilities, inadequate climate change information and adaptation knowledge, access to water for

farming and livestock and inadequate government support for small-holder farmers (Table 7). Lack of property

rights of female small-holders did not permit them to have full control of farmlands to adequately implement

appropriate strategies to adapt to the changes in climate. This was further compounded by the lack of access to

markets which also made them more vulnerable to climate change and variability, with regards to being

financially resourced to adapt. FGD participants acknowledged lack of early warning systems, animal feeds, and

water for livestock in the dry season, veterinary drugs and unavailability of tools for afforestation and

composting as some of the challenges bedeviling them. A focus group discussion participant asserted:

“In the midst of challenging climate which makes us food insecured and vulnerable, we are also confronted with numerous barriers that retard our successful adaptation to changes in climate. We are unable to exactly predict when the rains will come and go as we use to do in the past, we also do not have adequate irrigation dams to cultivate crops in the dry season and for watering the livestock” [Female FGD, Tongo Wakii, October 2011]

Table 7: Challenges confronted by male and female small-holder farmers in adapting to the changes in climate in study communities Farming communities/Gender of respondents Challenge to Bogoro Dua Nayire Tongo Waki Nangode Kalini climate adaptation Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females

Lack of credit 12(8.4) 15(10.5) 6(7.5) 8(10.0) 8(6.7) 12(10.0) 8(14.0) 2(3.5) No property rites 0(0) 19(13.3) 0(0) 8(10.0) 0(0) 11(9.2) 0(0) 7(12.3) Lack of climate 16(11.2) 14(9.8) 6(7.5) 4(5.0) 8(6.7) 3(2.5) 3(5.3) 4(7.0) change information Lack of access to 5(3.5) 10(7.0) 8(10.0) 4(5.0) 5(4.2) 7(5.8) 3(5.3) 5(8.8) water Lack of market 5(3.5) 4(2.8) 2(2.5) 3(3.8) 5(4.2) 2(1.7) 2(3.5) 0(0) access Lack of weather 5(3.5) 3(2.1) 1(1.2) 4(5.0) 6(5.0) 4(3.3) 2(3.5) 3(5.3) insurance Lack of 11(7.7) 5(3.5) 4(5.0) 4(5.0) 9(7.5) 4(3.3) 3(5.3) 1(1.8) government support Erratic rains and 5(3.5) 1(.7) 6(7.5) 2(2.5) 9(7.5) 10(8.3) 3(5.3) 1(1.8) drought Lack of 6(4.2) 5(3.5) 4(5.0) 2(2.5) 3(2.5) 4(3.3) 2(3.5) 4(7.0) appropriate seed Lack of machinery 2(1.4) 0(0) 1(1.2) 3(3.8) 6(5.0) 4(3.3) 2(3.5) 2(3.5) Total 67(46.9) 76(53.1) 38(47.5) 42(52.5) 59(49.2) 61(50.8) 28 29 (49.1) (50.9)

Source: Household survey 2011. Figures in parenthesis are in percent and those without parentheses are frequencies

4 Discussion

Results show that farmers acknowledge a change in climate during their lifetime, including rising temperature, declined rainfall and recurring drought. Respondents attributed changing climatic trends mainly to declined rainfall. Low, variable rainfall and a short rainy season in the UER have been reported in the literature

(Benneh 2009; Gyasi et al. 2006; Assan et al. 2006; Dietz et al. 2004; Millar et al. 2004). Small-holder households in UER are highly reliant on agriculture and other natural resources for their livelihoods.

Consequently, the timing and quantity of rainfall are very critical for household livelihood sustainability. Rainfall variability in the study communities has often led to severe water shortages (including drought) and/or flooding, which sometimes lead to livelihood and food insecurity. A better understanding of the perception of farming households to climate change and variability is quite crucial as it may influence their decision to implement appropriate strategies to adapt to the rising temperature and rainfall variability in the study communities. It has been reported that hosueholds that perceive changes in the climate are more likely to initiate adaptation strategies to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on their livelihoods (Bryan et al. 2013). This is especially critical if the adoption of a particular adaptation strategy is likely to increase perceived net benefits (Di

Faclco et al.,2011). Rising temperatures coupled with reduced rainfall in the UER could potentially reduce the length of the crop growing seasons and this can adversely affect food security in dryland farming systems.

Increased food insecurity linked to reduced growing farming season have been reported widely across sub-Saharan Africa (De Pinto et al. 2012; IPCC 2007; Boko et al. 2007;Thornton et al. 2011). This could also derail efforts aimed at reducing poverty in the region. Thus, achieving the Sustainable Development Goals 1

(eradicating poverty) and 2 (ensuring food security) could be problematic.

Majority of the respondents (78 percent) were of the view that soil fertility was declining and attributed the decline mainly to decreased rains, lack of chemical fertilizer, drought, bush fires and divine causes. In general, soils in the UER have low inherent fertility status, rapid decomposition, low nitrogen content, intense leaching of nutrients out of the top soils and the frequent burning of the lands have resulted in low accumulation of organic matter and low fertility. Additionally, rapid population growth in the region has contributed to the widespread forest clearing for fuel wood, fodder, and construction materials, resulting in substantial environmental degradation, resulting in reduced soil fertility. The unfavourable moisture regime, which is closely linked to, unreliable rainfall, makes soils in this region less productive, affecting overall crop productivity (Gyasi et al.

2006). This decline in soil fertility explains the decreased crop yields observed in the region.

The results presented indicate that farming households in the study communities employ a host of adaptation strategies including crop selection, changing planting dates and densities, adapting fertilizer/ pesticides application, tillage practices, changing pastoral system and herd composition, and applying different feeding techniques. Others employ adaptation strategies related to using irrigation and water harvesting techniques, as well as constructing or rehabilitating terraces. These results compare favourably with studies that suggest that farming households in Ghana and more widely across sub-Saharan Africa implement a range of adaptation strategies to cope with and adapt to adverse impacts of climate change and variability ( Kumasi 2017;

Antwi-Agyei et al. 2014; Codjoe and Owusu. 2011; Kumasi and Asenso-Okyere 2011; Paavola 2008;). Adverse impacts of climate change require that farming households adopt annovative farm management practices to reduce the possible impacts of climate change and variability on farmers’ livelihoods. Communal pooling relating to restoring and preserving homestead or mountain forests to reduce erosion, rangeland preservation and grazing restrictions, soil erosion prevention programmes, communal water harvesting and communal irrigation are not widely practised by female and male farmers (Table 6). The lack of communal pooling as an adaptation strategy could be attributed to the lack of organized social networks which can serve as insuarance menchanism for household during climate-related crisis. The UER is among one of the most vulnerable regions in Ghana with communities highly exposed to perilous climatic change effects and have limited adaptive capacity

(Antwi-Agyei et al. 2012; De Pinto et al. 2012; Millar et al. 2004). Local communities in this region with limited economic resources, low levels of technology, poor information and skills, unstable or weak institutions, and inequitable empowerment and access to resources are likely to have little capacity to adapt (Dasguota and

Baschieri 2012; Assan et al. 2006).

Livelihood diversification includes both on- and off-farm activities undertaken to generate additional income. Some of these activities include the production of non-agricultural goods and services as well as the sale of waged labour, or any other strategies undertaken to spread risk (Davies 1996). Sale of waged labour through seasaonal migration is a common adaptation practice within the study communities especially between

November and April, when there are no farming activities because of the lack of irrigation facilities. The Upper

West, Northern and East regions have only one rainy season, which determines the farming season. Therefore, any variability in the rainfall patterns presents serious challenges to farming households in this region. Such findings are in line with other studies such as Van der Geest (2011) and Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama (2012), which suggested that wage labour provided opportunity for farmers to cope with climate change and variability.

Diversification of livelihood activities by farming households in dryland farming systems has assumed greater importance because of the threat posed by climate change and variability.

The engagement of households in non-farming livelihood activities provide multiple income streams to households and this serves as insurance mecahnsism against total crop failure as a result of climate change and variability.. For instance, Antwi-Agyei et al. (2014) noted that engagement by small-holder farmers in Ghana in non-arable farming activities constituted a major source of income to increase the resilience of farming households to drought. This also comapres favourably with previous studies which suggested that livelihood diversification is critical for household sustainability in drylnad farming systems (Ellis 2000).

An important finding from this study is whilst the majority of farmers may prefer similar adaptation strategies, irrespective of the gender; some of the key adaptations strategies were found to be either implemented solely by female or male farmers. For instance, the results revealed that whilst female farmers prefer temporary migration, male farmers were more interested in permanent forms of migration. The findings of differences in the coping and adaptation strategies between male and female is important as it helps policy makers to devise gender specific policy interventions in addressing the adverse impacts of climate change. These fimdings are also in line with studies by (McKinley et al., 2016; Lambrou and Nelson, 2013, Onta and Resurreccion, 2011). In previous studies, Antwi-Agyei et al (2013) reported that female farmers were more likely to enage in coping and adaptation strategies that require less intial capital outlay. With the changing climate, the full adoption of climate change adaptation practices will rely on providing women with equitable access to resources and building their capacity in areas such as alternative income generating initiatives, financial literacy, and use of innovative low-cost communication technologies (Mittal 2016).

Ghanaian women constitute an estimated 52 percent of the agricultural labour force and contribute about 70 percent of total crop output (Glazenbrook 2011). Despite their importance in agricultural activities, only about 26 percent of women are farm owners and they face institutional discrimination in their attempts to gain access to land and credit (Whitehead and Tsikata 2003). The lack of equal opportunities for women in relation to land tenure in the study communities has been attributed to family land tenure practices closely linked to patrilineal inheritance practised in the farming communities (Prah 1995). A lack of tenure security has been found to limit the adaptation opportunities available to female farmers in the UER, Ghana (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2015). Women in the UER have no title to land and therefore rely on the goodwill of their husbands to release barren lands to

17 them to make a living (Yaro 2010). Yet, access to natural capital is central to the sustenance of livelihood strategies of rural households across sub-Saharan Africa. Until women are given the right to own land and the right to inheritance their role in agricultural production and climate change adaptation will remain undermined.

5. Conclusions and the way forward

In contributing to the understanding of how farming households are adapting to the adverse impact of climate change and variability, this paper has identified the key adaptation strategies used by small-holder farmers in the UER. Results indicate that farmers have perceived changes in the climate during their lifetime.

Farmers’ adaptation to climate change and variability could be grouped under agricultural, water management, communal pooling and livelihood diversification techniques. In terms of agricultural techniques, farmers reported the use of crop selection, planting dates and density and changing pastoral systems. With regards to water management techniques, respondents indicated the use of irrigation facilities and water harvesting techniques. Further, results reveal that communal pooling involving joint ownership and sharing of wealth, labour, or incomes across households, is not widely practised and should be enhanced. The paper also identified some of the key challenges confronting farmers in implementing various adaptation measures. The paper shows that farmers in the study communities, especially female farmers, were challenged with lack of property rights of farmlands, lack of credit facilities, and lack of access to irrigation facilities, inadequate climate change information, and inadequate seeds for planting. The lack of access to credit and property rights including weak tenure systems by female farmers in the study communities could potentially reduce household food security.

In light of erratic, diminished rainfall and drought in UER, the national flagship one village one dam policy which aims at ensuring all year-round agriculture in the three regions of the north, through the construction of irrigation dams in every village if implemented can address the water challenges. Encouraging households to harvest water and store for backyard and keyhole gardens are efficient in conserving water and growing high value crops In addition, better land use management practices through erosion control and soil conservation measures (such as composting and mulching), agroforestry and forestry techniques, bush fire management and exploring alternative energy sources to fuel wood and charcoal should be promoted. Farmers should be encouraged to undertake voluntary communal ecological restoration of degraded lands in their communities.

Although farmers in the region are not passive victims to the menace of climate change and are already

18 adapting, it is imperative to further enhance their adaptive capacity to access information and technological skills.

The strengths of the institutions of government and the private sector are also important in attaining this. It will require government of Ghana through its ministries and agencies including the Ministry of Food and Agriculture

(MOFA) to improve on the agricultural extension services delivery system and develop messages that aim at promoting the adoption of localized adaptation strategies, in partnership with the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, which has oversight responsibility over the Metropolitan, Municipal and District

Assemblies in the country. In addition, fostering peer exchange of information among small-holder farmers through the formation of farmer-based association to share information on best practices and lessons learned is vital in climate change adaptation and natural resources management.

To ensure workable and effective adaptation measures, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture should champion the integration of appropriate preferred localized adaptation strategies in agricultural planning at all levels of decision making to influence the lives of small-holder farmers. Forecasting and early warning system aimed at providing seasonal forecasts to support agricultural production decisions and disaster management strategy for food security to vulnerable communities in case of extreme events in the UER should be vigorously pursued. This calls for closer collaboration between MOFA and the Meteorological Agency to provide readily available early warning information to farmers.

In the short-term, encouraging the acquisition of land for women’s groups might be a useful approach in addressing discrimination against women on land tenure issues. A long-term strategy would be to educate people to change their negative attitudes, and an enforcement of the laws already in place that guarantees women’s access to land.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the support and collaboration of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the

District Assemblies and Traditional rulers in the communities from the Upper East Region. The contributions of field enumerators and focal persons, who were involved in data collection, are gratefully acknowledged. We are also grateful to the Center for International Governance Innovation

African Initiative Grant Research for providing funding for this research

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