A Brief Cultural History of Taste Eating – Physiological Need and Cultural Manifestation (Part 1)

A Brief Cultural History of Taste Eating – Physiological Need and Cultural Manifestation (Part 1):

ving forces behind the significant advan- was not any more sophisticated or finer ces in European cuisine. While the nobi- than that of the peasants and crafts- lity in those days used to eat vast men, it was merely characterized by the amounts of meat – consisting primarily fact that enormous amounts of meat of game or fowl roasted over an open were consumed. And there was a clear fire – the daily diet of the lower classes ranking between the various types of frequently consisted of only simple meat. The most highly prized meats soups or a bland gruel made from grain. were game, peacock or pheasant, as well as other wild birds. Then came Much earlier, though, other cultures had various varieties of poultry. At the bot- Much of the history of mankind is a been familiar with food preparation tom of the scale was pork, which was history of eating and taste. Yet at techniques that were unknown in Euro- usually scorned by the nobility. On the the same time, eating and food pre- pe at the beginning of the Middle Ages. other hand – especially in northern paration have always been a cultu- Much that had already pampered the Europe – pork served as a major staple ral manifestation. In this series of palates of ancient Greek or Roman epi- for the lower classes, such as peasants articles, we want to take a closer cureans had fallen into oblivion. Howe- and craftsmen. look at this cultural history of taste, ver in other cultures, too, the history of the techniques that were developed taste was by no means a continuous, The second staple during this age was over the course of time to improve uninterrupted refinement into increasin- grain – in the form of either bread or taste, the discovery of spices and gly "finer” pleasures. Why? Fine cuisine gruel. While the nobility wanted white herbs, and finally modern food tech- could only develop where there was a bread from well-milled wheat, the bread nology. certain abundance of foodstuffs – at for the lower classes contained a great least among the upper classes. However deal of bran and was made from less Good taste the food supply could fluctuate wildly as "valuable” grains, such as rye or barley, There’s no question about it. Patrons a result of climatic changes, natural and occasionally even oats. Yet even this who leave a gourmet restaurant that disasters, crop failures, wars and epide- simple bread involved added "cost,” as features international cuisine have not mics. Another example of discontinuous the nobility owned the grain mills, and only satisfied their hunger, they have development: The first restaurants were usually the baking ovens as well, and usually just experienced an absolute established in China during the 11th charged dearly for milling and baking. gustatory delight. There’s no question century. At the time, the country had So the typical diet of the poor consisted about it? While mankind has come up been experiencing a sustained period of of grain gruel cooked in milk or even with all kinds of ideas for good eating prosperity, while in recent times it was only in water. and drinking over the course of its histo- not possible to provide a sufficient sup- ry, throughout the ages the peoples of ply of food for the rapidly growing The peasants who could afford it, as the world have never been able to agree population. well as the more well to do craftsmen, on a consistent answer to the question on the other hand, were occasionally of what tastes better. Although all peo- The civilization of taste in Europe able to enjoy meat or bacon – usually as ple are more or less identical in terms of But back to the ancient world. Much a garnish in soups. However since only their physiology, not everyone perceives knowledge was lost again after the fall one hearth was available, the meat or all foods as being equally good tasting. of the Roman Empire. At the same time, bacon had to be cooked in a hanging In dealing with the question of "good trade largely came to a standstill, which pot above the fire. Added to this were taste,” sociologists and anthropologists meant that both the nobility and the coarsely crushed grains, legumes or primarily look at social and cultural other classes could only feed themselves leek, onion, garlic and other regional influences. The nobility in Europe, for on what the respective region had to vegetables. However the selection of example, was driven by a desire to set offer. The chief difference between the vegetables that were available in those themselves apart from the lower classes classes during the early Middle Ages days was extremely limited. All that was through gluttony and extravagance in was that the nobility enjoyed the privile- additionally available were mangold and their diets. This was one of the key dri- ge of hunting. Although their cuisine various varieties of turnip and cabbage.

1 The monasteries, which formed a The democratization of taste second, independent branch of medie- Further developments during the late val cuisine, played an important go-bet- Middle Ages and the transition to the ween role. Because not just the monks modern age were characterized by high- were fed here, but the needy, guests ly differing factors. Beginning around and travelers as well, a repository of the 14th century, there was a dramatic independent knowledge was created – rise in crop failures and famines throug- especially since numerous monks came hout all of Europe. Food supplies dete- from noble houses and did not wish to riorated significantly. Only the higher forego good food. While the courtly nobility was still able to afford major And these "lower” (because they grew nobility spurned domestic herbs and luxuries. At the same time, though, a close to the ground) vegetables, too, preferred to demonstrate its power and more self-assured and prosperous midd- were scorned by the nobility. Fruit that wealth with exotic spices, knowledge le class emerged. Enlightened thinking grew on trees, on the other hand, was about natural herbs for medicinal and began to spread, and the European also included in the diets of the nobility. culinary purposes enjoyed a revival in powers – led first and foremost by Por- The chief beverage for all of the classes the monasteries. And the monks increa- tugal and Spain initially – set out to consisted of beer or wine – depending singly refined their art and passed on conquer colonies for their exploitation. upon the region – which was consumed their knowledge, especially with respect in what would be considered enormous to other ingredients, cooking techni- In the wake of these numerous famines, quantities by today’s standards. ques, winemaking and beer brewing. epidemics – like the plague – spread What also typified the cuisine of both across vast areas of Europe, decimating The further development of the cultural the monasteries and the nobility during the population. At the same time, the history of cuisine through to the late this age were the numerous fasting age of colonization set in – more or less Middle Ages was governed by a number rules that existed, which placed restric- "by chance,” by the way. The driving of new factors. On the one hand, there tions on the foods that were allowed to force: The desire to exploit the riches of was a marked increase in trade and tra- be eaten during a large portion of the India and China – consisting primarily of vel, especially from the 11th century year. However these rules were often spices – and to discover new sea routes. onward (the Hansa in northern Europe, interpreted quite liberally, even by the The discovery of America late in the for example, and the port cities of monks. So while only fish, and no meat, 15th century afforded the subsequent Upper Italy), new cities were being foun- was supposed to be eaten on fast days, colonial powers the opportunity of ded, and an urban middle class gradual- it soon required only a little bit of rheto- breaking the monopoly that the original ly developed. On the other hand, the rical talent to include waterfowl among growing areas had enjoyed in spices, food supply improved significantly for the foods that could be eaten on fast tea, coffee or sugar. The European tra- the lower classes in many regions of days. ding companies established huge plan- Europe, prompting the nobility – which tations in their colonies for the cultiva- had gained in influence and wealth as a In contrast to the many misconceptions tion of these coveted plants. result of the centralization of power – to that exist about hard-to-digest, overly use such luxury goods as precious spices fatty nutrition, late medieval cuisine was This development increased the supply from India to set themselves apart from in fact quite low in fat – at least among of these former luxury articles in Europe. the lower classes. The most common of the upper classes. A great many sweet- They also became affordable for the these spices included ginger, cinnamon, and-sour sauces were employed, which aspiring middle classes, which also pro- nutmeg, mace, saffron and, of course, were made from sour cider, young wine fited handsomely from flourishing trade. pepper. Although no exact figures about or vinegar sweetened with honey, for This enabled the middle classes to fol- quantities are available, individual lists example. The sauces were thickened low in the footsteps of the nobility with of the enormous volumes of spices that with bread crusts, crushed almonds or respect to cooking as well. This develop- were used at banquets allow the con- occasionally eggs. Meat or vegetables ment was fostered by the invention of clusion to be drawn that the courtly were usually roasted or cooked extreme- modern printing in 1450. It was now chefs strongly over-seasoned their ly long at low heat – not in the least possible for cookbooks, too, to be prin- foods. However something akin to a because the hearths in those days were ted and circulated. It was the beginning medieval cuisine did develop, including not capable of producing higher tempe- of a "democratization of taste.” As a handwritten cookbooks that circulated ratures. direct result of this development, the among the chefs. nobility was again forced to find new ways of setting themselves apart from

2 the middle classes. So courtly cuisine no ly, Hamburg engineer Georg Christian nomy as well as in the industrial prepa- longer revolved around huge quantities Giebert secured the rights to the process ration of foods, is attaching increasing and costly spices, but focused on inge- and launched the industrial production importance to wholesome products and niously preparing rare, and therefore of "Liebig’s Meat Extract” in cattle-rich healthy nutrition. So this development valuable, domestic ingredients. The Uruguay. Although the nutritional not only led to an increasing refinement chefs went on to be held in high esteem expectations failed to materialize, this of taste, but also to gentler ways of dea- and frequently gained quite some meat extract went on to enjoy a career ling with the nutritional value of the wealth. Meals were now less opulent, as a base for broths and as a flavor ingredients employed in the foods. The being characterized instead by "exquisi- enhancer for soups and sauces. "nouvelle cuisine” of France and the te taste.” Since the French Revolution, "new German cuisine” represent the at the latest, the middle classes were no In 1883, Swiss grain merchant Julius epitome of this trend thus far in the field longer bound by any restrictions; many Maggi first brought to market his "soup of haute cuisine. And the food industry of the courtly chefs in France went into blocks,” consisting of ground legumes has also adopted much of this culinary business for themselves after their noble seasoned with salt and herbs. In 1887, knowledge in recent times. In contrast masters had gone into exile. the young company succeeded in deve- to the prejudices that exist, much indus- loping Maggi Seasoning, which was trially processed food is therefore more The first signs of modern food tech- produced solely from vegetable ingre- nutritious than many of the dishes pre- nology dients and served the same purpose as pared at home using grandmother’s In addition to the spread of "colonial Liebig’s Meat Extract, only at a much recipes with their long cooking times. goods” and the political upheavals in lower price. Carl Heinrich Knorr, finally, Europe, the "democratization of taste” was the third to enjoy success with simi- was further spurred on by numerous lar products around the same time. technological innovations in the 19th century. This initially began in agricultu- Mention should also be made of the re, where new technologies were pro- technique of pasteurization, for exam- ducing better and better yields. It conti- ple, which stemmed from the work of nued with the emergence of a canning Louis Pasteur of France and kept milk or industry and new industrially prepared fruit juices, for example, from spoiling, products for the modern kitchen. The as well as the first major attempts to canning industry had initially begun on preserve foods with ice. There was no a very small scale in home kitchens. In longer any stopping the march of Germany, for example, vegetable far- modern technologies in food proces- mers around the city of Braunschweig sing. The main objective: To enable were the first to utilize the invention of foods to be kept better and for longer the tin can. periods of time, to preserve or even enhance their nutritional value, and of The beginnings of one part of the course to preserve their taste and appe- modern food industry were marked by tizing appearance. A major role in this both the rise of the natural sciences as connection was played by an increasin- well as by the military necessities of the gly better knowledge of the individual First World War. Since there was a need ingredients and the taste-producing to provide sufficient nutrition for large substances in a food in order to be able armies in the field, there was a desire for to replace any nutritional and flavoring nutrition in concentrated form. The substances which might have been lost result: The invention of pea soup con- during processing. centrate ("pea sausage”). This also ser- ved as the backdrop for the develop- And now the historical development ment of meat extract. Chemist Justus comes full circle: While medieval cuisine, von Liebig’s intention had been to use all in all, was not very balanced and the meat extract to improve the nutrition of nutritional value of the ingredients that the poor and ill. In 1848, his student were employed in it was significantly Max Pettenkofer began producing small reduced as a result of excessive cooking quantities of this extract. In 1863, final- times, modern cuisine, both in gastro-

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