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Climate Change and Coastal Cities: the Case of Mombasa, Kenya

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Climate Change and Coastal Cities: the Case of Mombasa, Kenya CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL CITIES Climate change and coastal cities: the case of Mombasa, Kenya CYNTHIA BRENDA AWUOR, VICTOR AYO ORINDI AND ANDREW OCHIENG ADWERA Cynthia Brenda Awuor ABSTRACT This paper discusses the risks that the city of Mombasa faces from works as a Research the direct and indirect impacts of climate change. Mombasa is Kenya’s second Fellow on Climate Change in the Energy and Water largest city and has more than 700,000 inhabitants. It is the largest seaport in East Security Programme Africa, serving not only Kenya but also many landlocked countries and the north at the African Centre of Tanzania. The city has a history of disasters related to climate extremes including for Technology Studies fl oods, which cause serious damage nearly every year and, often, loss of life. The (ACTS), Nairobi. Her work fl oods in October 2006 were particularly serious, affecting some 60,000 people in focuses on climate change impacts, vulnerability the city and the wider province. In addition, around 17 per cent of Mombasa’s area and community-based could be submerged by a sea-level rise of 0.3 metres, with a larger area rendered adaptation in Africa. uninhabitable or unusable for agriculture because of water logging and salt stress. Tourism is an important part of the city’s economy. Thus, sandy beaches, historic Address: African Centre for Technology Studies and cultural monuments and several hotels, industries and port facilities would be (ACTS), ICRAF Campus, negatively affected. This paper also discusses the measures needed to reduce the PO Box 45917–00100, vulnerability of Mombasa’s population and economic base to climate change. Nairobi, Kenya; e-mail: [email protected] KEYWORDS adaptation / agriculture / development / drought / fl oods / health / Victor Ayo Orindi works as settlements / vulnerability a Research Offi cer in the Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA) Programme at the International I. INTRODUCTION Development Research Centre, Nairobi. His work Climate change has been singled out as a major challenge currently facing focuses on participatory action research on climate the world. It is caused by emissions of greenhouse gases, largely from change adaptation. energy production and consumption, agriculture and other ecological processes. The activities causing most emissions are key drivers of global Address: International Development Research socioeconomic development. High-income countries are responsible for Centre – Eastern and a large percentage of these emissions, with the USA and Europe emitting Southern Africa Regional 51 per cent of total greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, compared to Offi ce, Liaison House, (1) State House Avenue, PO Africa’s 2.5 per cent. Box 62084–00200, Nairobi, Low- and middle-income countries are considered more vulnerable to Kenya; e-mail: vorindi@idrc. the effects of climate change than high-income nations because of high or.ke dependence on natural resources and low capacity to adapt. For Africa, low Andrew Ochieng Adwera adaptive capacity results largely from the limited fi nancial, technological formerly worked as a and institutional capacity, relatively low levels of economic development Researcher in the ACTS Science and Technology and high levels of poverty widely experienced in the continent. Increased Institute. He is currently climate change threatens to undo decades of development and poverty pursuing a Masters Degree reduction efforts so far achieved in most countries. in Science, Society and Development at the It is therefore important to strengthen the link between climate University of Sussex. change adaptation and development, increase public awareness and Environment & Urbanization Copyright © 2008 International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). 231 Vol 20(1): 231–242. DOI: 10.1177/0956247808089158 www.sagepublications.com ENVIRONMENT & URBANIZATION Vol 20 No 1 April 2008 understanding of the issues, and pragmatically tackle the challenges Address: Institute of posed by the phenomenon. Development Studies, University of Sussex, Many world cities, including those in Africa, are centres of economic, Brighton, BN1 9RE, UK; political, cultural, social and commercial activities. Human populations e-mail: [email protected] in cities tend to be highly concentrated compared to those in rural areas because of the availability of more employment and business opportunities as well as the better quality of social services. Due to the high population 1. Dow, K and T Downing (2006), densities, cities are also associated with high levels of energy, water and The Atlas of Climate Change, food consumption. Earthscan, London. The impacts of climate change on cities threaten to cause very serious damage and loss of resources. The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identifi es various climate change-related health impacts, including altered distribution of some infectious diseases and disease vectors. According to the report, projected trends in climate change-related exposures will increase malnutrition and consequent disorders; increase the number of people suffering from death, disease and injury from heat waves, fl oods, storms, fi res and droughts; and will continue to change the range of some infectious disease vectors. The burden of diarrhoeal diseases will increase and the geographical range of malaria will expand in some nations and contract in others, and transmis- sion seasons will alter.(2) This could negatively affect the productivity of 2. Confalonieri, U, B Menne, R large human populations concentrated in cities. Akhtar, K L Ebi, M Hauengue, R S Kovats, B Revich and A Woodward (2007), Human Health. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and II. VULNERABILITY OF MOMBASA TO CLIMATE CHANGE Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth In this paper, the city of Mombasa is considered to be Mombasa district Assessment Report of the and consists of four divisions, namely, Mombasa Island, Kisauni, Likoni Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge and Changamwe. Situated within Kenya’s coast province in the south- University Press, Cambridge, east of the country, Mombasa is Kenya’s second largest city. It is situated UK, pages 391–431. about 4.10 south of the equator and 39.70 east of Greenwich meantime. According to Kenya’s National Bureau of Statistics, Mombasa district had a population of 665,081 persons in 1999, and is projected to increase to approximately 870,197 in 2008.(3) Mombasa residents derive their liveli- 3. Government of Kenya hoods from a variety of economic activities, ranging from small-scale (2006), Population and Housing Statistics: Population agriculture, livestock production and fi shing, especially in the peri-urban Projections, Kenya National space, to formal employment in different sectors, including industry. Some Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of the major industries in Mombasa include cement manufacturing from of Planning and National Development, accessible at the abundant limestone, salt processing from seawater, and businesses www.cbs.go.ke. associated with import and export at the city’s port. Food security and general economic performance is however very low; the latest available fi gures (from 1997) show that 38.2 per cent of the population face absolute poverty and 38.6 per cent face food poverty.(4) 4. IEA (2002), “Socioeconomic Mombasa is the largest seaport in East Africa and has two harbours – and political profi les of Kenya’s districts”, in M Danda (2006), Kilindini and Old Port. It plays an important role in both the country’s Vulnerability and Capacity and the region’s economy because the commercial imports and exports of Assessment in Mombasa land-locked countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, Southern District, Survey Report for the Kenya Red Cross Society, Sudan and even parts of Tanzania transit through Mombasa. Anything Mombasa Branch, unpublished. affecting the port, and by extension the city’s operations, is therefore likely to be felt beyond the coastal and national boundaries. The city is also a popular tourist destination due to the presence of various terrestrial and marine-based ecological attractions, including warm weather, sandy beaches, 232 CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL CITIES and historical and cultural monuments. Tourism remains an important foreign exchange earner for Kenya and contributed more than 12 per cent 5. Government of Kenya (2006), of the Gross Domestic Product in 2004 and continues to grow.(5) Statistical Analysis of Tourism Three factors contribute to Mombasa’s high level of vulnerability to Trends Globally and Locally, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, climate change: low altitude, and high temperatures and humidity levels. November, accessible at http:// Regarding the fi rst of these, Mombasa is on the coastal plain, which is www.tourism.go.ke/ministry. nsf/doc/Tourism_Trends_ 4–6 kilometres wide and lies between sea level and about 45 metres above OCT2006_Revised.pdf/$fi le/ sea level. Parts of the city and its surroundings are likely to be submerged Tourism_Trends_OCT2006_ with a rise in sea level, and this would consequently disrupt ecosystem Revised.pdf. functions and balance, disrupt agricultural and industrial activities, cause the destruction of human settlements and interfere with the water 6. Government of Kenya supply.(6) This will impact negatively on the city’s economy and, by exten- (2002b), Kenya’s First National sion, on the national economy due to the many activities and investments Communication
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