Polar Science in Switzerland

Proposed priorities for the Swiss Polar Institute (SPI) up to 2025 and beyond This paper has been prepared by the Science and Technology Advisory Board of the Swiss Polar Polar Science Institute (SPI) on the basis of two stakeholder consultations carried out during workshops at the Swiss Polar Day 2018 and a Call for Ideas in Switzerland launched by the SPI in 2017-2018. A draft version Proposed priorities for of this document was also issued for consultation the Swiss Polar Institute (SPI) in February 2019. up to 2025 and beyond As a strategy, it serves to identify the key priorities and initiatives for support by the SPI up to 2025 and beyond, in order to best serve the Swiss polar community and to fill gaps in Swiss polar science. While it presents a medium‑term strategy, it is nevertheless SPI’s aim to provide continuity and to embed its activities in a long-term vision.

For the sake of simplicity, this document often groups issues related to the Arctic, to Antarctica and to comparative studies in high-altitude regions under the term “polar”. Failure to mention one of these regions specifically is not a reflection on the priority given to the science in that region. 2 FOREWORD FOREWORD 3

Most importantly, the accelerating human influ- reconstructions through ice and sediment cores, Foreword ence especially affects polar and high-altitude and global biogeochemical cycles in high-latitude regions, where the change in climatic conditions marine and terrestrial environments. Modelling is twice as high as the global average (polar cli- and observations of the cryosphere using field mate amplification). In addition, this human influ- experiments and remote sensing, as well as ence on polar regions affects compartments of research on permafrost and on atmospheric We are living in the Anthropocene, the first era resources has been a cultural tradition (the Arctic). the Earth system (such as sea ice, glacier, ice trace gases, aerosols and clouds are key topics in Earth’s history when processes controlling cli- Its effects are felt from the atmosphere all the way sheets and vulnerable ecosystems) that are most in which Switzerland is very active, both in polar mate and natural biogeochemical cycles are being down to the deep ocean, and by organisms from sensitive to rapid changes in climate and envi- and high-altitude regions. Similarly, Swiss groups significantly altered or, in many cases, dominated the microbial level to the end of the food chain ronmental boundary conditions, and whose are renowned for their work on microbiology, bio- by human activity. This human influence extends (where again humans represent the most ubiq- responses in return act as further amplifiers of diversity and ecosystem functioning in terrestrial into the most remote and inaccessible polar and uitous species), with as yet unknown long-term global climate change. and marine environments in polar regions, and high-altitude regions of our globe, where there impacts on ecosystem services. This influence is comparative studies in high-altitude regions. is very little direct anthropogenic activity (the most clearly reflected in the following changes: In a globalised world, the knowledge Antarctic) or where sustainable use of the limited drawn from the study of polar The diversity of Swiss polar research and the regions and the links shown with heavy logistical demands associated with polar systems regulating the Earth’s and in many cases high-altitude research, require climate are highly relevant for all both national coordination and international col- Melting of sea ice, glaciers, ice Pronounced biodiversity changes societies and policy makers. laboration to maximise the value of the research sheets, thawing of permafrost and in the polar ecosystems and decline investment. Moreover, the highly sensitive role of occurrence of extreme weather of species adapted to extreme Understanding the mechanisms affecting and polar regions and alpine environments in global events, through accelerated conditions. connecting components in the Earth system in climate change have increasingly brought polar anthropogenic warming in recent polar and high-altitude regions, as well as the science onto the political agenda, with Switzerland decades. impact of global change on these regions, is playing a growing role in international science central in research related to our present and and policy bodies related to polar regions, such Environmental pollution (including Environmental changes impacting past climate. In a globalised world, the knowledge as the International Arctic Science Committee trace gases, anthropogenic aerosols on the livelihood of Indigenous drawn from the study of polar regions and the (IASC), the Scientific Committee on Antarctic and microplastics) found in the Peoples, through the erosion of links shown with systems regulating the Earth’s Research (SCAR) and the Arctic Council, where polar environment, even in the traditional food resources. climate are highly relevant for all societies and Switzerland was granted Observer status in 2017. most remote areas, with impacts policy makers. on health and the food web. This document outlines the strengths and exper- Since the high-altitude regions of Switzerland and tise of the Swiss polar and high-altitude research other European mountain regions are affected by community. It also outlines the challenges it faces these changes in a manner similar to the high lat- in order to be able to contribute significantly to itudes, an understanding of these processes and international initiatives and to launch Swiss initia- feedbacks is not only important to better assess tives that build on and integrate these strengths future changes in the global climate system but in a way that is likely to have a strong impact in also timely and essential in order to develop suit- terms of knowledge creation, leadership and inter- able adaptation strategies for Switzerland itself. national visibility. In addition, it recognises that for some fields of science and for the humanities, the Swiss research groups are widely recognised existing groups may be small and would benefit as world leaders in fields such as atmospheric both from new opportunities and from assistance observations, climate modelling, paleoclimate in developing more robust communities. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 5

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Introduction Swiss polar Increasing Collaboration Looking to The Swiss Acknowl- science impact for success the future Polar Institute edgements

Science at An overview of Growing the Swiss Linking up Making a Supporting the Authors the three poles current strengths polar research with global difference for Swiss polar Special thanks in Switzerland community polar agendas the Swiss polar science landscape Impressum Snow, glaciers and ice community PAGE 6 sheets Cryosphere through time PAGE 42 PAGE 46 PAGE 48 – Processes, feedbacks Polar processes and PAGE 44 and responses global systems The carbon, nitrogen, Polar oceans and sea ice water cycle nexus Biodiversity and – Past, present, future ecosystem functioning Biodiversity and under climate change ecosystem functions Critical enablers Technology in extreme Socio-cultural issues and environments socio-ecological systems

PAGE 30 PAGE 8 1 INTRODUCTION – SCIENCE AT THE THREE POLES IN SWITZERLAND 7

Switzerland has a long tradition in polar research, both in the Arctic and Antarctica. Although Switzerland has never had 1 a specific polar programme, the names of de Quervain, Mertz and Forel are landmarks in polar and glaciological research. Swiss expertise in science performed in polar and high-altitude environments is of internationally recognised importance, Introduction both historically and today.

Science at the three poles Over the past few centuries, Swiss scientists Working in polar environments (including remote have developed key scientific expertise and high-altitude regions) presents particular chal- in Switzerland abilities through their work in the Alps. By the lenges in terms of access, logistics, equipment early 20th century, Swiss explorers and scien- and safety. Performing scientific experiments and tists were also active in the Arctic and Antarctic, data collection in these regions therefore involves making the most of their experience in high alti- extremely high costs and international partner- tudes and drawing parallels to the processes they ships or collaborations are practically a necessity. could observe and measure in the Alps – the Third or Vertical Pole. During the last 100 years, By the early 20th century, Swiss Switzerland has become a major international explorers and scientists were also player, both in the field of polar science and in active in the Arctic and Antarctic, comparative studies in high-altitude areas, by a making the most of their experience combination of internationally renowned natural in high altitudes. sciences expertise and outstanding technological and analytical capabilities. This comprises the full The Swiss polar community is well networked spectrum from field observations, in situ process through its membership and active participation studies and remote sensing to modelling of Earth in SCAR and IASC. The quality of its research system components. output is widely recognised and evident in the comparatively high publication records, citation In today’s changing climate, scientific expertise indexes and participation in numerous prestigious related to extreme environments is of the utmost international committees (e.g. Intergovernmental importance. The thawing of permafrost or the Panel on Climate Change; IPCC). thinning of glacier and sea ice can have severe consequences on local economies, energy and However, in spite of the recent launch of the SPI food production, weather extremes, safety and and the increased strategic importance of polar (geo)politics at large. Although the context of regions for the Swiss government, Switzerland such changes varies between high altitudes and still lacks dedicated public funds to enable Swiss high latitudes, understanding the mechanisms scientists to fully engage in the international polar and parallels within these processes is crucial at arena and to optimally benefit from its expertise regional and global scales. and experience. 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 9

Research in polar regions is performed by scientists from a wide range of backgrounds and skills. Given the rich and very 2 competitive research landscape in Switzerland and the proximity to high-altitude regions, Switzerland has a dense network of research teams working on polar-related topics. The map on page 10 outlines the institutional location and fields of study Swiss polar of the researchers that have either participated or expressed interest in activities, calls or events of the SPI since 2016. science SWISS PUBLICATIONS RELATED in terms of publications related to polar science. TO POLAR SCIENCE The graph below takes into account all publica- An overview of current strengths tions related to the following keywords: Arctic, Over the last 20 years, the growth Alaska, Yukon, Southern Ocean, Svalbard, Baffin rate of Swiss polar publications has Bay, Chukchi Sea, Davis Strait, Greenland, Foxe been about twice as high as the Basin, Tundra, Nunavut, Inuit, Inupiat, Yupik, global growth rate of publications Antarctic, Siberia, Iceland, ice caps. in this field. Over the last 20 years, the growth rate of Swiss The Web of Science database shows that the polar publications has been about twice as high as Swiss polar community is increasingly competitive the global growth rate of publications in this field.

EVOLUTION OF POLAR RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS WORLD AND SWITZERLAND

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1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

World keyword list Switzerland keyword list 10 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 11

4 UZH 9 EPFL Polar sciences in Switzerland University of Zurich Swiss Federal Institute of Zurich (ZH) Technology in Lausanne Lausanne (VD) Glaciology, climate, biology, ecosystem functioning, biodiversity, surface-atmosphere Snow and firn, meteorology, limnology, 6 interaction, biogeochemistry, remote sensing, microbiology, remote sensing, space, 5 technology development, historical sciences, technology development, international law Basel 3 4 Villigen 13 1 2 glacier monitoring, environmental history, and governance, biodiversity, ecosystem Zurich permafrost, palaeontology, social science, function and biogeochemistry Birmensdorf natural hazards and risks, water resources 10 UniL 8 5 Neuchâtel 7 PSI University of Lausanne Bern 13 Paul Scherrer Institute Lausanne (VD) 12 Davos Villigen (AG) Fribourg Glaciology, climate, microbiology, geology, Ice coring, glaciology, climate, atmospheric remote sensing, permafrost, rock glaciers 9 10 Lausanne composition, aerosol, snow and firn 11 UniGe 6 UniBas University of Geneva 11 University of Basel Geneva (GE) Geneva Basel (BS) Oceanography, biochemistry, ecosystem Biology, biodiversity, atmospheric composition, functioning, biodiversity, history of science, oceanography, marine mammals, pathology, political sciences environmental pollution, ecotoxicology, fish biology 12 UniFr University of Fribourg 1 3 7 Eawag ETHZ UniBe Fribourg (FR) Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science Swiss Federal Institute University of Bern and Technology of Technology in Zurich Bern (BE) Glaciology, rock glaciers, permafrost, Dübendorf (ZH) Zurich (ZH) surface‑atmosphere interaction, snow and firn, Ice coring, glaciology, climate, permafrost, climate, microbiology Hydrology, limnology, sediment coring, Climate, biogeochemistry, glaciology, biogeochemistry, oceanography, biogeochemistry sea-ice, hydrology, oceanography, atmospheric composition, (marine) geology 13 WSL environmental physics, meteorology, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, 2 EMPA atmospheric dynamics, aerosols, 8 UniNe Snow and Landscape Research Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials remote sensing, technology development, University of Neuchâtel Birmensdorf (ZH), headquarters + Davos Dorf (GR) Science and Technology hydrology, surface‑atmosphere interaction, Neuchâtel (NE) Dübendorf (ZH) ecosystem functioning, biodiversity, Snow and firn, glaciology, permafrost, biology, robotics, marine micronutrients, Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, surface-atmosphere interaction, meteorology, Oceanography, atmospheric composition, permafrost, wireless sensor technologies ethnography biodiversity, ecosystem functioning technology development 12 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 13

STRENGTH 1 A major new advance in this field is expected from the “Beyond EPICA – Oldest Ice Core” Beyond EPICA Snow, glaciers and ice sheets European project with strong Swiss participation. The project will extend the ice core climate record in Antarctica over the Mid Pleistocene Transition, There was a drastic change in climate i.e. the last 1.5 million years. dynamics during the Mid Pleistocene Transition about 1 million years ago. Clear Switzerland has a long-standing tradition of Greenland. Swiss researchers also conduct leading SNOW AND FIRN 40,000-year glacial / interglacial cycles research on snow and ice. Starting with the research on Alpine and high‑altitude glaciers. While gave way to much stronger and longer local Alpine environment and largely focusing these glaciers store much less ice and thus have Research on snow and firn is also a trademark of glaciations, with interglacials occurring on high-altitude glaciers, this research activ- a limited effect on sea level in the long run, their the Swiss research landscape. In this field, Swiss only about every 100,000 years and maximum glacial sea level lowering by up ity rapidly expanded to the large ice sheets cov- response time is much faster and their geograph- competence is extremely high, with a wide range to 130 m. The reason for this change is ering most of the landmasses in polar regions. ical position means any change will be of imme- of techniques and a deep understanding of the still a matter of debate. Only an Antarctic Current Swiss research on polar ice sheets and diate societal relevance with regard to water and physics of snow. Current Swiss research on snow ice core covering the last 1.5 million years glaciers encompasses studies on their stability energy supply for high-altitude regions in the com- in Antarctica and Greenland includes the mech- can provide the direct climate forcing and dynamical behaviour, mechanisms of ice flow ing decades. The World Glacier Monitoring Service anisms of snow deposition, metamorphism and record over this time interval and the and iceberg calving, and mechanical and thermal (WGMS) of the Global Climate Observing System transport, as well as surface sublimation, wind information on Antarctic ice sheet size and conditions within and beneath the ice sheets. is located in Switzerland and is in charge of the erosion and compaction, which all differ strongly temperature needed to address this issue. Swiss researchers extensively use ice cores from compilation of standardised information on glacier from related processes in low latitudes such as The University of Bern is a partner in the glaciers and ice sheets as one of the most impor- changes in length, area, volume and mass. the Swiss Alps. A detailed understanding of snow Horizon 2020 project “Beyond EPICA – tant climate archives. properties and structures is essential in order Oldest Ice”, with the goal to retrieve such POLAR ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS to comprehend mass balance changes of ice an ice core in the coming years. GLACIER AND ICE SHEET DYNAMICS AS CLIMATE ARCHIVES sheets, formation and melting of sea ice, physi- AND MASS BALANCE cal and chemical interactions between snow and The new RADIX miniature drilling technique developed Glaciers and ice sheets also play a role as out- atmosphere, as well as to understand and antic- by the University of Bern makes it possible to drill down to bedrock and log the borehole in 1-2 weeks. In recent decades, a particular emphasis has standing climate archives, covering many hun- ipate natural hazards such as snow avalanches © Barbara Seth been put not only on the mass balance of polar dred thousand years of climate history; a climate and slush flows. Switzerland can claim to have ice sheets but also on high-altitude and polar record that can be tapped through targeted deep leading research groups working in all these fields. glaciers and the ice dynamical response of all ice core drilling. Swiss polar science has consid- three to global warming. Switzerland has acquired erable expertise in all the relevant fields related Finally, snow amount, structural properties and outstanding expertise in this area, which is now to the use of ice as a climate sensor. One of spatio-temporal distribution also have major of high societal relevance. Indeed, the combined the most prominent examples of this has been impacts on biological processes through snow ice masses in high-altitude glaciers and polar ice the reconstruction of greenhouse gas changes reflectance, insulating capacity and mechani- sheets represent the largest freshwater reservoir over many past glacial cycles, analysed in Swiss cal resistance. Swiss expertise is very welcome on Earth. The size of this reservoir is not con- laboratories for large-scale international Antarctic at an international level for improving meas- stant but changes over time in response to climate ice core projects. Related Swiss science projects urement protocols and capacities, and predict- variations and is linked to substantial sea‑level have and will continue to improve our understand- ing snow properties under future conditions. variations. Current and future increases in atmos- ing of the response of glacier mass to climate Measurements and predictions can inform a wide pheric temperature hence induce a sea‑level rise, change by observations, forecasting of future ice range of ecological research related to the energy threatening coastal regions and settlements on loss through modelling, reconstruction of past and carbon budget at the land surface, to soil a global scale. A strong focus of Swiss research climate and atmospheric composition through microbial processes, effects of snow on vegeta- in this field has been put on the glacier mass ice cores, and by quantifying variations of glacier tion development, and impacts of icing events on budget and ice flow dynamics at the west coast of extent in response to past climate variations. wildlife ecology. 14 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 15

STRENGTH 2 thermal state of permafrost soils and their car- bon content. Vegetation / energy flux feedbacks Polar processes and global systems induced by land cover change are expected to Swiss Camp amplify Arctic warming. Current Swiss research in Greenland includes mechanistic modelling of shortwave radiation interaction with vegetation to quantify Researchers from the Swiss Federal albedo and soil shading, experimental studies of Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape THE DYNAMICS OF POLAR high resolution in atmospheric vapour and sur- vegetation type and summer precipitation impact Research WSL, in collaboration with the ATMOSPHERES face precipitation, runoff and snow accumulation on energy partitioning and permafrost thaw, and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in samples, while the entire hydrological cycle can be pan-Arctic energy budget analyses based on in Zurich and the University of Colorado Prominent traditional elements of Swiss polar simulated with global and high-resolution regional situ and satellite data. Moreover, comparative Boulder (USA), have been taking atmospheric research are the long-term observa- models. The Swiss research community has studies on high-altitude permafrost changes are measurements in a long-term programme tional activities mainly addressing atmospheric radi- long-standing, profound expertise in these exper- performed within PERMOS, the Swiss perma- at the “Swiss Camp” station in Greenland ation, boundary layer dynamics, and the radiation imental and modelling techniques. This provides frost monitoring network. Thus, the Swiss science since 1990. They have noted an increase transfer in snow and ice, as well as measurements a unique opportunity to develop comprehensive community is currently well positioned to improve in the melting of ice. The station, located of the atmospheric trace gas and aerosol compo- research on the hydrological cycle in polar regions, our understanding of feedback mechanisms in the western part of the ice sheet, has sition at the three poles. In recent years, research in order to link the timescale of individual weather between climate, vegetation and permafrost recorded a warming of 3°C since the beginning of the measurements and on this theme in the polar regions has involved systems to the longer-term processes that deter- through energy fluxes, by linking existing process an inland shift of the equilibrium line both field measurements and numerical model- mine the variability of ice core signals. understanding of energy fluxes with predictions (the point at which ablation is equal to ling. Particular strengths of Swiss polar research of vegetation dynamics and climate models. accumulation) by 50 km. Swiss Camp is in this area are the high-tech instrumentation and ENERGY FLUXES AS DRIVERS also a reference for 18 automatic weather the capability of performing field measurements OF CHANGE THE ROLES OF CARBON AND NITROGEN stations, which are spread over the entire under extreme conditions on the Jungfraujoch, ice sheet and together form the Greenland as well as the long time series of observations in Ice sheet surface temperatures are controlled The polar oceans represent key regions controlling Climate Network. The network is the basis Greenland and analysis of ice core archives. Finally, by an exchange of energy at the surface, which marine biogeochemical cycles by nutrient turnover, for climate information, weather forecasts, the sophisticated modelling capabilities, ranging includes radiative, turbulent and ground heat deep water formation and subsurface water ven- and the validation of satellite sensors and from high-resolution regional atmosphere-only fluxes. At the summit of the Greenland ice sheet, tilation. In the present-day ocean, the Southern process studies as well as regional climate models to comprehensive coupled Earth system at 3300 m above sea level, Swiss researchers Ocean forms the most important hub of this kind, models. models, are a particular strength of the Swiss have maintained the Baseline Surface Radiation regulating ocean-atmosphere exchange of CO2 polar community. Network experiment since 2000, in order to and also playing a dominant role in the biogeo- The Swiss Camp at the equilibrium line altitude on detect changes in the radiation at the Earth’s chemical cycles of both major nutrients (nitrate, the western slope of the Greenland ice sheet. © Konrad Steffen The hydrological cycle is a key element of the surface that may be coupled to climate changes. phosphate, silicate) and trace metal micronutri- Earth’s climate system in which Switzerland can ents (e.g. iron, zinc, cadmium). As microorganisms claim leading expertise. The cycle involves pro- For vegetated and soil surfaces in polar areas, depend but also significantly alter the pool of car- cesses that occur on both very small scales (e.g. energy fluxes are tightly coupled to the carbon bon and nutrients, this complex feedback needs the formation and growth of snow crystals) and and water cycle. Incoming radiation is strongly to be investigated. Process studies, including the very large planetary scales (e.g. long-range pole- influenced by cloud cover, while the absorption characterisation of biodiversity and functional ward transport of moist air masses). Stable water and partitioning of radiation at the terrestrial sur- maps from genomic analysis, are used to study isotopes can be used as natural tracers of phase face is driven by land cover type and its properties. this complex feedback and help us to understand changes along the pathways of water from evap- Changes in vegetation such as shrubification and ecosystem functioning. oration to precipitation, and they are among the soil moisture induced by increasing precipitation most important parameters archived in ice cores. and permafrost degradation alter net radiation Stable water isotopes can now be measured with and its partitioning, with consequences for the 16 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 17

Regarding the past ocean, the Southern Ocean MONITORING GLOBAL POLLUTION Studies on the deposition history of PCBs in the has been shown on the one hand to provide the Alps have provided a clear understanding of the Tundra in the rain dominant control on long-term changes in carbon Global pollution has been identified as the largest roles of glaciers and snow as repositories, and storage in the abyss via iron fertilisation of car- environmental cause of disease and premature of how the pollutant levels in the polar regions Tundra ecosystems occur under cold and bon fixation and nitrogen usage at the surface, death in the world, accounting for three times constitute a record of global contamination of dry climatic conditions. The long-term and changes in the volume of southern sourced more deaths in 2015 than AIDS, tuberculosis and these and other toxic substances. “International Tundra Experiment”, with waters filling deep ocean basins. On the other malaria combined. While air pollution is often more 46 locations spread across all three poles hand, changes in North Atlantic Deep Water for- easily identified than pollution of soil and water, Swiss scientists have gained extensive expertise in (including the Val Bercla site in the Swiss mation are connected with changes in subsur- pollutants, from microplastics to toxic chemicals, microplastic research by investigating microplas- Alps), has shown increasing vegetation face water ventilation and hence N2O formation affect the whole Earth system. More extensive tic occurrence in Swiss waters and sediments, height and plant compositional changes in oxygen minimum zones via atmospheric and and targeted monitoring is required to understand microplastic sources, and the uptake and effects with elevated temperatures. It is less well ocean teleconnections. In addition, changes in the true extent of the threat both to ecosystems on aquatic organisms. This knowledge is currently known how the permafrost environment terrestrial carbon storage in vegetation, soil, peat and to humans. Polar or high-altitude observato- being applied in polar regions and can answer will develop with increasing precipitation, and permafrost in the north have to be taken into ries remote from direct anthropogenic emissions questions regarding the extent of the microplastic especially increased rainfall. At the north- account when quantifying carbon cycle changes are particularly important for monitoring global pollution, its sources and sinks, and uptake in the eastern Siberian Kytalyk research site, the Spatial Ecology & Remote Sensing both for the past and for the future. pollution levels. polar food web. Group at the University of Zurich test the effects of soil temperature, moisture and Swiss polar scientists are closely involved in There has been a long tradition of monitoring In addition to monitoring strategies, more nutrient availability on plant strategies, investigating the role of polar oceans in the mod- air components in the Alps, especially associ- in-depth process understanding is needed to community composition and energy fluxes. ern marine biogeochemical cycles of major and ated with the Jungfraujoch Sphinx Observatory. better assess pollution pathways and to predict The Kytalyk site is located on extensive trace nutrients through observational and mod- It is the highest observatory in Europe, which is how polar pollution will evolve under climate lowland plains that border the Arctic elling studies. They are also reconstructing and accessible all year round, and the only one largely change. The cycling and human exposure to pol- Ocean. It is a region with major soil carbon modelling past / future changes in biogeochemical in the free troposphere. This has proven to be an lutants such as mercury or PCBs in polar regions stocks locked in the permafrost, where cycles through process studies of marine bioge- ideal situation for measuring trace gases but also may be affected by sea-ice loss, permafrost melt an increase in precipitation by 55% is ochemistry, using marine sediment cores and the movement of anthropogenic pollutants from or changes in food-web structure. predicted by the end of the 21st century. greenhouse gases in polar ice cores, as well as the boundary layer into the troposphere. through climate models, including the full marine The north-eastern Siberian Kytalyk research site and terrestrial carbon and nitrogen cycles. This technology and expertise have also been © Gabriela Schaepman-Strub deployed to the polar regions, for example recent measurements of anaesthetic gases with climate change implications and persistent organic pol- lutants (PCBs), which have been transported up to Svalbard. This combination of accurate trace gas and aerosol measurements and modelling of transport by air masses has proven to be invalua- ble in understanding the origin of many pollutants in the Arctic. 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 19

STRENGTH 3 Polar oceans and sea ice

POLAR OCEANS AS KEY COMPONENTS The science community of Switzerland is well OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM positioned to make significant and substantive scientific contributions towards a better under- The polar oceans are key components of the cli- standing in the following areas: mate system and home to unique ecosystems. As a consequence of these two factors, they also • Observational, data analysis and modelling play an overproportional role in the global-scale studies into the role of the polar oceans in marine biogeochemical cycles of major and trace governing the marine biogeochemical cycles nutrients. Anthropogenic climate change affects of major nutrients and metal micronutrients, polar oceans and their ecosystems in an ampli- since polar ocean processes strongly influ- fied manner due to enhanced warming relative ence the global cycle of these nutrients; to the global mean and a high level of vulnerabil- • Paleoclimatic studies on marine sediment ity. The polar oceans are warming and acidifying cores from the Southern Ocean to comple- very rapidly, with far-reaching consequences for ment the prominent work of Swiss research- the physical and biogeochemical climate system. ers on the global carbon cycle. Paleoclimatic Together with melting permafrost on land, this reconstructions are based on tracer analyses constitutes a perturbation of the polar area that in marine sediment cores and elucidate the is unprecedented over many millennia. The warm- processes of the carbon cycle on time scales ing of the oceans will have global consequences of centuries to many millennia; through the acceleration of the melting around • Simulations using a hierarchy of ocean‑car- the boundaries of the ice sheets in Greenland and bon cycle models to provide a quantitative Antarctica, and as a consequence, their destabili- understanding of past changes and the cur- sation and large contribution to sea level rise. The rent uptake of carbon and heat under anthro- acidification will strongly stress marine calcifying pogenic climate change. Such knowledge is organisms and hence disturb biodiversity, the crucial for climate change projections and, microbial loop, viral shunt and food chains in the more generally, for a better quantification of polar oceans. Physical and biogeochemical feed- climate sensitivity. backs may further impact the global overturn­ ing circulation and fluxes of carbon between the atmosphere and ocean.

Photo on page 18 © François Bernard

The research vessel Akademik Tryoshnikov at the Mertz Glacier in East Antarctica, named after the Swiss explorer Xavier Mertz (1882-1913). 20 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS

SEA ICE REDUCTION AND ITS IMPACT

The Antarctic Anthropogenic climate change has led to sub- Circumnavigation stantial loss of sea ice cover particularly in the Expedition (ACE) Arctic, while in the Southern Ocean, sea ice is as yet comparatively little affected. Sea ice loss has far-reaching effects on polar marine ecology, pro- ACE was the first project carried ductivity, species distribution and biogeochemistry. out by the Swiss Polar Institute. In the Arctic, large reductions of summer sea ice From December 2016 to March 2017, and a persistent loss of multi-year ice are observed. 22 scientific teams from all over the This opening of the Arctic in summer will increase world took part in this ground-breaking expedition aboard the Russian research the pressure through enhanced human activities in vessel “Akademik Tryoshnikov”. From the region, such as commercial shipping, explora- biology to climatology to oceanography, tion, mining and geostrategic activities. In the area the researchers worked in a number of of sea ice research, Swiss scientists have contrib- interrelated fields as they sought to expand uted to internationally well-recognised research, our understanding of the White Continent. primarily on the snow layer and its processes in In November 2016, during the Akademik the Arctic but also in the Southern Ocean around Tryoshnikov’s pre-expedition voyage from Antarctica. The snow layer on the sea ice cover Bremerhaven in Germany to Cape Town determines the energy balance and therefore the in South Africa, ACE’s starting point, dynamics of this component. the ship hosted the ACE Maritime University, under the auspices of the Russian Geographical Society. During this voyage, some 50 up-and-coming scientists attended onboard lectures and engaged in oceanographic work.

© Parafilms / EPFL

Photo on page 21 © Parafilms / EPFL

Work on invasive species on Possession Island in the Crozet Archipelago. 22 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 23

STRENGTH 4 Current strengths of Swiss polar ecology include:

Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning • Experimental research and contributions to international monitoring networks to investi- under climate change gate climatic drivers of biodiversity and eco- system functions in alpine and Arctic tundra and freshwater systems. • Prediction of species distributions and ecosys- tem functions in polar regions, based on statis- Polar terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are expe- feedbacks induced by land cover change are tical and process-based modelling. riencing rapid changes in biodiversity and func- expected to amplify Arctic warming. • The relationship of phytoplankton, microbes tion, primarily as a consequence of amplified cli- and viruses to the biogeochemical cycling of mate warming. The related increased precipitation, The Swiss science community is well positioned to micronutrients, such as iron and zinc, and the sea ice loss, permafrost degradation and natural address the above uncertainties through quantifi- main nutrients, nitrate and phosphate, in the hazards such as river flooding or receding coast- cation of feedbacks between climate, vegetation, Southern Ocean. lines, are expected to change landscapes and the microorganisms and permafrost, by linking existing • Response and adaptation of fish to extreme marine system at a high rate across vast areas. process understanding with predictions of biota polar conditions and to the threat of climate Increasing human activities at the poles, including dynamics and climate models. Assessing impacts change and pollution. tourism, shipping and industrial infrastructure, will of climate change on polar biodiversity and eco- further induce disturbance and disruption to these system functions, and identifying adaptation path- vulnerable ecosystems. Changes in biodiversity ways requires coordinated sustained observations, and ecosystem structure have consequences for experimental approaches and identification of ecosystem functioning, with direct relevance to areas for conservation of the unique polar biodi- local societies, such as through fisheries and sub- versity. These are key goals listed in international sistence species for polar Indigenous communities. research and policy agendas. Swiss polar eco- logical research, with its major historical strength The world beyond the poles will also be affected, in Alpine ecology, has rapidly expanded over the through ecological teleconnections such as related past years and is increasingly supporting interna- to migratory species and through physical ocean- tional polar research agendas. Swiss researchers ographic teleconnections such as changes in low have made significant contributions to observa- trophic level polar planktonic communities, which tion-based assessments of biodiversity change, can have a major impact on the global marine nutri- climate drivers of plant growth, and seasonal to ent cycling. Microbes and viruses play a profound long-term vegetation dynamics in alpine and Arctic role in the fate and biogeochemistry of carbon and tundra. In marine ecology, Swiss scientists inves- nutrients, due to their high abundance and rapid tigate biogeochemical cycles, viral and plankton turnover, yet the extent of their influence remains biodiversity, and contaminant burden in fish in the mostly unknown. The magnitude of the feed- Southern Ocean. backs from polar ecosystems on the Earth system under increasingly snow- and ice-free conditions remains highly uncertain, however studies indi- cate their important role in governing fluxes of carbon, energy, water and nutrients between the atmosphere, geosphere and hydrosphere. Such 24 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 25

STRENGTH 5 the development of novel technologies for polar science, infrastructure developments for high World Glacier Critical enablers latitudes could benefit highly from close col- laborations between academia and the private Monitoring Service sector.

125 years of internationally coordinated DATA MANAGEMENT AND MODELLING glacier monitoring under Swiss leadership: Beyond the thematic fields of excellence outlined laboratory analytical techniques, as pioneered at The World Glacier Monitoring Service above, Swiss polar science can count on the fol- Swiss research institutions, could be the single The strong modelling and time series compe- (WGMS), hosted at the University lowing crucial cross-cutting expertise, acquired most important input to the advancement of polar tence present in the Swiss science landscape of Zurich, compiles and disseminates through the experience of working in high-altitude science in particular fields. In addition, following coupled with a focus on data science benefits standardised data on glacier changes from environments: prototyping and testing in extreme environments, the Swiss polar community and should not be in situ and remotely sensed observations such technologies can have a significant impact underestimated. Investigations of often complex, through a worldwide scientific TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT on innovation, academia-industry collaboration interdisciplinary and multi-dimensional datasets collaborative network. Currently, the and the potential launch of new start-ups. related to scientific activities in the field are WGMS database contains times series of The high-latitude environment is a challenge for any already benefiting from a partnership with the more than 19,000 glaciers. Of these, about measurement system as well as for general infra- Remote sensing observations from satellites, Swiss Data Science Center (SDSC), using data 20% are located above the polar circles. Glaciers distinct from the two ice sheets structure and represents therefore an opportunity aeroplanes and drones provide access to remote from the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition have lost more than 9000 billion tonnes of but also a necessity for technology development. areas and data of continuous spatial coverage as a case study. Furthermore, Swiss activities ice since 1961, raising sea levels by 27 mm. Given the fact that environmental observations in across a variety of scales, and have, for exam- of the WGMS and Copernicus programme are This loss corresponds to an ice cube with polar areas are sparse, improved technology is a ple, revolutionised our understanding of ice sheet both collecting and managing data from polar the area of Switzerland and a thickness key ingredient for scientific progress. Two impor- dynamics in recent years. Such remote sensing regions. In particular, data sciences and tech- of 30 m. The WGMS exemplifies the high tant areas for development are energetically data has been an essential source of informa- niques involving the use of machine learning, international standing of Swiss expertise self-sufficient infrastructure and measurement tion for Swiss science in polar areas, and con- advanced data analytics, artificial intelligence, in glaciology and the ability to coordinate installations, and automated measurement sys- tinues to be the method of choice for research signal processing or high-performance comput- international monitoring efforts. tems that will work in polar winter conditions with on mass change and balance of the ice sheets ing, can provide novel insights by working across no light and extremely low temperatures. In both and glaciers, landscape and vegetation develop- and linking datasets from different fields. Climate Locations of glaciological and geodetic data samples fields, Switzerland has strong expertise, as exem- ment, and related carbon and energy fluxes at observations are realisations of partly stochastic from the WGMS database and glacier areas in the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI). © WGMS plified by successful photovoltaic developments, pan-Arctic scale. processes that have subtle and complex prop- its strong standing in robotics and its experience erties. Careful statistical analysis of these data, with monitoring systems in extreme environments. The development of infrastructure adapted to addressing the underlying stochasticity, is there- Miniaturisation can also play a key role in success- high latitudes is yet another key aspect crucial fore needed for knowledge building. ful missions. not only for a better scientific understanding but also for the economic and social develop- The Swiss science community in collaboration ment and integration of polar regions. Here, too, with industry is well placed to advance the devel- Switzerland can count on key competencies and opment of novel technologies (robotics, auto- strong expertise in various fields, acquired to a mated systems, drones, remote sensing systems, large extent within the context of high moun- environmental analytics, etc.) for access to and tain research. This is particularly true for fields measurements in remote and extreme environ- such as architecture, material sciences, water ments, and to structure and analyse large data supply and management technologies as well Glaciological sample streams from observatories. Technology devel- as sustainable power generation and storage in Geodetic sample opment including field observations and novel extreme environments. In the same way as for RGI glacier area 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS 27

STRENGTH 6 Socio-cultural issues and socio‑ecological systems

The pace of change experienced by Indigenous The recognition of the fact that social and eco- communities throughout the Circumpolar North, logical systems are inextricably linked has fostered unprecedented over the past century, has even new approaches involving natural and social accelerated in recent decades. This can be linked sciences in inter- or trans-disciplinary research, to several combined influences, such as climate often centred on the concept of resilience. This change, rapidly increasing economic exploitation, type of research, which represents a positive changes in governance, and the opening up to the departure from the study of the human dimen- global world. Many communities suffer from an sions of rapid climate and environmental change, array of difficulties and risks, ranging from health figures prominently on the agenda of social sci- issues, food security, economic viability, poverty entific research. In order for it to have proper and unemployment to culture preservation, lan- relevance for communities in the Arctic, it must guage maintenance and gender imbalance. be placed into historical and societal context To tackle such problems in a relevant manner, and perspective, putting people first. Indigenous people, who were previously seen exclusively as objects of study, increasingly play an Non-indigenous residents of the Circumpolar active and often leading role at all stages of the North are also affected by rapid change, and research, starting from the identification of the in some regions are in a state of demographic research questions. flux between the Arctic and more temperate regions. The immigration of transient work- ers needed to develop economic projects (e.g. dam construction) challenges local social equilibria, which should be taken into account in impact studies.

Social sciences and humanities (SSH) disci- plines play an important role in the integration of natural science disciplines and as an interface between stakeholders, among them local com- munities. Outreach to the Arctic communities is essential to ensure that the findings of science are accepted and have an impact on policy. As Photo on page 26 such, the SSH may play an increasingly indis- © Konrad Steffen pensable role in research, even when the main Sled dogs are a traditional form of transport in Greenland. focus is on natural phenomena. 28 2 SWISS POLAR SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STRENGTHS

Social topics must also be approached from communities, Switzerland has generated goodwill broader, global perspectives, ranging from devel- among Indigenous governance bodies, including opments in governance and security, including the Permanent Participants of the Arctic Council. that of the Arctic Ocean (political science, law), to This precious capital should be maintained and studies of the impacts of economic development, developed. in particular the exploitation of non-renewable resources. The model of governance of Antarctica is not immutable either, and its evolution must be monitored and anticipated.

Correlates with contemporary social issues in Alpine regions are relatively few, as settled areas of the European mountains are situated at maximum altitudes that barely compare with the extreme environments of the Far North. Nonetheless, comparisons today may include topics such as dealing with the consequences of melting per- mafrost, above-average rate of warming, and viability of remote communities in the face of outmigration and rising costs of infrastructure maintenance. The mountain research commu- nity can contribute to and benefit from inter- and trans-disciplinary co-design and collaborations on the topic of human adaptation in extreme environmental settings, and further develop this expertise and experience also for Switzerland.

Through archaeological and anthropological stud- ies of long-term human adaptation, a few Swiss researchers have distinguished themselves inter- nationally throughout the 20th and now at the beginning of the 21st century. Switzerland, as a global economic player, as an Observer in the Arctic Council and as a signatory of the Antarctic Treaty, has a strategic interest in better under- standing the developments in the Arctic and in the Southern Ocean and Antarctica from social scientific perspectives. Through the international engagement of researchers in projects involving Indigenous participants and communities, and Photo on page 29 Swiss representation on the International Whaling © François Bernard Commission (IWC), as well as through the con- Mertz Glacier in East Antarctica, visited during the ACE tacts of Swiss museums with Arctic artists and expedition in 2016-2017. 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 31

As the chapters above have highlighted, Swiss research is well placed to contribute significantly to the key challenges 3 identified for the Arctic, the Antarctic, and high-altitude extreme environments. While the immediate emphasis is on polar science questions and their impacts on polar communities, comparative studies in high-altitude areas in support of polar science questions Increasing impact are also an important strand of a Swiss polar science strategy.

Growing the Swiss polar A number of key framework conditions are already In these Flagship Topics, SPI could play a cru- in place, both scientifically and in terms of the cial role by supporting logistics and coordinating research community representation of Swiss scientists in the relevant research initiatives or expeditions, and by funding international bodies and committees related to research programmes in a complementary way to Arctic and Antarctic science that enable Swiss the Swiss National Science Foundation or other polar science to play a leading role in international funders. research efforts. This would help to raise the profile of the Swiss The Swiss polar community polar community internationally, and make a proposes four thematic “Flagship differ­ence in major current and upcoming scien- Topics” in which to launch its own tific questions. scientific initiatives, and strengthen participation in international programmes and networks up to 2025 and beyond.

To increase its impact and contribute decisively to tackling global scientific challenges relating to extreme environments, the Swiss polar com- munity proposes four thematic “Flagship Topics” in which to launch its own scientific initiatives, and strengthen participation in international pro- grammes and networks up to 2025 and beyond. 32 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 33

FLAGSHIP TOPIC 1 Based on the outstanding Swiss expertise in Securing precious ice core material from the field of glaciology, snow and ice research high-altitude glaciers that are highly Cryosphere through time and paleoclimate reconstructions on polar and endangered by global warming and glacier high-altitude ice cores (see also chapter Snow, melt, and using these cores as unique envi- – Processes, feedbacks and responses glaciers and ice sheets on page 12), major pro- ronmental archives of natural and anthro- gress in answering these questions can be pogenic changes in mid and low latitudes. accomplished within the coming 5-10 years. This could notably include the following research All these research activities take place in the most activities by the Swiss community: inaccessible regions of our planet and within a Ice sheets, polar and high mountain glaciers, the Can we improve the estimate of the Earth highly competitive research field. Accordingly, snowpack and permafrost respond sensitively to system sensitivity using novel polar and Providing observation-based process close national, international and interdisciplinary the on-going global warming. Albedo changes high-altitude climate archives that extend understanding of glacier and ice sheet mass collaboration is a prerequisite for successfully related to snow, sea ice and glacier retreat as well as our record towards warmer climate inter- balance changes, including flow dynamics, achieving these goals. This warrants the comple- dynamical responses of ice sheets, ice shelves and vals than today (e.g. with higher CO2) and iceberg calving, interaction with the ocean mentary expertise required for integrated polar glaciers are some of the most important feedback by using improved quantitative climate and ice shelf disintegration, for an improved research and ensures deep field access using processes determining the state and sensitivity of proxy information from these archives? model prediction of total mass balance / sea international polar research infrastructure, through the Earth’s climate system on decadal to millennial level changes in the future. This goal should close collaboration of the SPI with European and time scales. A current Swiss-led study to estimate What is the coupling and interaction of land be achieved by integration of field studies other international logistics providers. Targeted Earth system sensitivity based on paleo observa- ice, ocean circulation and atmospheric CO2 in Greenland and Antarctica with the com- co-financing of international ship, aircraft and sur- tions suggests that on millennial time scales, the on decadal to multi-millennial time scales prehensive Swiss expertise in climate and face infrastructure needed for individual research warming connected to a doubling of CO2 may be a and, in particular, what natural greenhouse glacier modelling and remote sensing. activities in polar regions can be provided by the factor of two larger than customarily constrained gas cycle feedbacks (e.g. from permafrost) SPI on a case-by-case basis, thus avoiding the by IPCC climate model runs until 2100 AD. The are to be expected for a global warming of Better constraining Earth system sensitiv- high costs of SPI becoming an independent polar paleo record also suggests that millennial scale sea at least 1.5°C? ity and the natural climate / greenhouse gas logistics provider. level rise of at least 6 m is already very likely to coupling by extending the paleo record from occur for a global warming of only 2°C, implying polar ice cores up to the last 1.5 million years. a partial loss of at least the Greenland and West This will provide unrivalled greenhouse gas Antarctic Ice Sheet. The current rapid mass loss records over the Mid Pleistocene Transition, from glaciers and ice sheets dominates the con- when ice sheet / climate coupling was sub- tribution to today’s sea level rise but future rates stantially different from the late Quaternary remain uncertain and the related process feed- record of the last 800,000 years. The backs are still poorly understood. Accordingly, the extended records will also provide a larger following overarching, socio-economically relevant suite of natural templates of the polar ampli- questions require an answer: fication signal for warmer climate conditions than today. What are the short- and long-term responses and the controlling processes of glacier, Improving our process understanding of ice sheet and ice shelf changes to warmer snow-firn-ice transformation and firn pro- climate boundary conditions, and is there a cesses that affect climate proxy records threshold for ice sheet disintegration that and influence the mass balance and energy can be avoided by mitigation measures of exchange between glacier and ice sheet anthropogenic global warming? surfaces and the atmosphere. 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 35

FLAGSHIP TOPIC 2 The carbon, nitrogen, water cycle nexus – Past, present, future

The global cycles of carbon, nitrogen and water How relevant is long-range atmospheric constitute central elements of the Earth system transport for Arctic clouds and air pollution? and its long-term evolution, including past glacial cycles, present-day climate conditions, and future Can comprehensive Earth system models anthropogenically influenced climate changes. help assess the relevant processes that These cycles link the Earth system compart- drive the past, present and future evo- ments, i.e. the biosphere, land, ocean, ice and lution of the carbon, nitrogen and water atmosphere. While there are important research cycles? questions related to each of these individual cycles, an additional challenge emerges from their Based on the internationally recognised Swiss intrinsic linkages. Research in this area requires expertise in these research areas, major contribu- a complementary approach, combining polar and tions to answering these questions can be made high-altitude observations from long-term mon- by the Swiss community in the coming decade, itoring and field campaigns with comprehensive in collaboration with international partners. These numerical models. Important overarching ques- include, for example, the following potential tions related to the three cycles include: research activities:

How important are Southern Ocean fresh- A Southern Ocean campaign to study the water fluxes for ocean stratification and role of freshwater fluxes for CO2 uptake circulation, (micro)nutrient budgets and and (micro)nutrient inventories in different uptake of heat and CO2? climates. It has recently been shown that in addition to the difference between evapora- tion and precipitation, the melting of sea ice is also an essential contributor to the total freshwater flux. The processes involved can be studied with a dense network of ARGO Photo on page 34 floats in the Ross or Weddell Seas, combined © WGMS with a ship campaign with supply ships from Melting glaciers in Russia’s Arctic territory. This image, the USA and New Zealand, and mesoscale recorded by the Sentinel-2 satellite on 12 September 2017, ocean-atmosphere-ice modelling. Such an shows the blue glaciers on the reddish-brown Franz Josef Land archipelago north of the 80th parallel in the Arctic Ocean initiative would strongly profit from the (black). The glaciers (blue) are covered with little or no snow development of novel sensor techniques. (white), which is a clear indicator of significant loss of mass. Source: Copernicus Sentinel data 2017. 36 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY

Dedicated field experiments to investi- Very close national, international and interdis- gate the role of long-range atmospheric ciplinary collaboration is an essential prereq- transport for polar air pollution, atmos- uisite to successfully realise these challenging pheric composition and biogeochemistry. research ideas. Swiss researchers could for In most polar areas, anthropogenic emis- instance contribute to major international initi- sions are comparatively low and therefore atives that aim at modelling a complete glacial large-scale atmospheric transport strongly cycle with comprehensive Earth system models affects polar air composition. A dedicated (PALMOD), or at understanding and advancing international field campaign with aircraft our ability to predict the frequency of occur- and ships, strongly supported by the Swiss rence and intensity of environmental extremes polar research community and its expertise in (ExtremeEarth). SPI support will be critical to atmospheric transport, cloud microphysics, facilitate the required long-term dedication of aerosol-cloud interactions, radiative effects the Swiss polar science community working at and biogeochemistry, would be a rewarding the nexus between the carbon, nitrogen and step forward in specifically addressing the water cycles to successfully perform the pro- importance of long-range transport from posed activities. densely populated areas to remote polar regions.

Development of a coupled Earth system model to study the long-term evolution of CO2, N2O, CH4 and of different Earth system components. This model would include polar ice sheets, the biosphere on land, atmospheric chemistry, water, car- bon and nitrogen isotopes, and water mass tracers. Such an initiative would utilise the high-quality numerical modelling expertise in Switzerland in order to develop a state- of-the-art Earth system model with special focus on polar processes. Specific features of this Swiss Earth system modelling activ- ity would include:

• A strong link to the ice core community. • The efficient implementation of high-resolu- tion modelling options in collaboration with the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre. • A focus on studying stable water isotope variability from paleoclimate time scales Photo on page 37 down to mesoscale processes in individual © Parafilms / EPFL precipitation events. Benthic organisms of the Southern Ocean play an important role in carbon cycling processes and hence as climate regulators. 38 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 39

FLAGSHIP TOPIC 3 Identify the main present-day drivers of biodiversity and ecosystem change, and Biodiversity and ecosystem functions quantify effects on fluxes of energy, water, carbon and other biogeochemicals across the terrestrial, freshwater and marine domains.

Triggered by climate warming, alpine, Arctic, The Swiss research community has outstanding Assess consequences of biodiversity change and Antarctic biodiversity has experienced rapid expertise in biodiversity and ecosystem func- across trophic levels through food webs. changes over the past decades. These changes tioning research, from soil microbiomes to plant impact resources used by local communities, communities and freshwater and marine systems Improve ecological modelling (statistical ecosystem functions and feedbacks to climate. (see also chapter Biodiversity and ecosystem and process-based) through the develop- However, high uncertainties remain regarding functioning under climate change on page 22). ment of a biome-wide database of existing the resistance, resilience and fate of polar bio­ biodiversity data and the representation of diversity, and its links to ecosystem functions. In A breakthrough in the prediction of biodiversity biotic and abiotic interactions. order to inform climate predictions, biodiversity and ecosystem functions can be made in the conservation, and the assessment and mitigation coming 5-10 years by integrating this expertise These aspects form a major contribution to the of consequences on society, the following key in the development of a spatial process-based international science and policy agendas of polar questions need to be addressed: ecosystem model. This model will consider regions (IASC and SCAR) but also globally (IPCC, UN the full array of species, including their abiotic Convention on Biological Diversity, Group on Earth What is the legacy of past climatic fluc- and biotic interactions, to predict the future of Observations Biodiversity Observation Network, tuations on current biodiversity and the polar biodiversity and ecosystem functions, and Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on related constraints on future ecosystem inform conservation management and sustainable Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, IWC). responses? development. The above objectives are ambitious and need What are the status, trends and drivers of This objective is intended to be met by the devel- substantial resources for fieldwork, experiments, change in biodiversity across polar eco- opment and integration of the following areas of databases, model development and international systems? Where can we preserve polar research and related outcomes: collaboration. The role of the SPI will be to finan- biodiversity, and how can we sustainably cially match the planned work (e.g. fieldwork, develop infrastructure while limiting impact Increase our understanding of pre-Anthro- databases and expensive measurements, such on biodiversity? pocene dynamics of biodiversity shaping as metagenomics, tracers and drones), facilitate current ecosystem structures; collaboration of researchers at Swiss institutions, What are the consequences of polar biodi- and support the identification of funding sources versity and functional ecosystem change on Assess the status of biodiversity and links for a programme to develop a process-based local and global processes and societies? with ecosystem functions by integrating ecosystem model, representing key interactions novel techniques across scales such as and feedbacks of polar ecosystems within the environmental DNA with remote sensing Earth system. data from drone to satellite level;

Predict connectivity of future populations and effects on genetic diversity, in support of transboundary management and conser- vation of polar biodiversity; 40 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 3 INCREASING IMPACT – GROWING THE SWISS POLAR RESEARCH COMMUNITY 41

FLAGSHIP TOPIC 4 REMOTE SENSING, DRONES AND OTHER Future activities in which the Swiss community UNMANNED VEHICLES could have a high impact include the following Technology in extreme environments developments: Remote sensing observations from satellites and aeroplanes have provided data with continuous • Scalability and limited risks for drones. spatial coverage and this access to remote areas • Efficient and cost-effective observation has in recent years revolutionised our under- methods. Both polar and high-altitude regions still contain Novel technologies for extracting core sam- standing of extreme environments. Satellite and • Drone flight software for repeat surveillance unexplored environments whose scientific and ples (e.g. from ice sheets and glaciers, lake aircraft data are available today in abundance and monitoring in remote regions. practical importance has yet to be determined. sediments, deep permafrost sediments). for these remote areas. They need to be merged • Smart drones for field testing new sensors. The extreme polar and high-altitude environments with the in situ field data for calibration and aug- • Unmanned surface or underwater vehicles are a challenge for any measurement system, as Autonomous measurement platforms for mented with high-resolution drone measure- (such as underwater gliders) for data collec- well as for general infrastructure, and offer there- atmospheric research and small-scale mete- ments to increase the granularity of geographical tion in polar waters. fore an opportunity for technology development orological monitoring networks (e.g. miniatur- coverage. Swiss solar-powered flying platforms (see also chapter Critical enablers on page 24). isation of sensors, low power consumption, have been tested in polar regions by measuring To do this effectively, new links and networks Given the fact that environmental observations efficient power storage during polar winter), glaciers and are becoming a primary application, need to be built between research groups and in polar regions are sparse, improved technology and remote control of experiments. as the midnight sun offers ideal conditions for industry. SPI could play an important role in facil- is key for scientific progress. Two important areas perpetual flights. Miniaturisation of sensors (e.g. itating this. requiring development are firstly, energetically Year-round autonomous observational and gravity meter, lidar, imaging spectrometer) will self-sufficient infrastructure and measurement experimental platforms (e.g. ground-pen- open a wide field of applications. Investigations MODELLING AND DATA SCIENCE installations, and secondly, automated measure- etration robotic radar vehicle, laser-guided of the atmosphere by means of drones can con- ment systems that will work in remote regions with data transfer to satellite). tribute significantly to the study of the causes of Simulations with complex computer models are extreme environments. In both fields, Switzerland Arctic climate change, as they provide an insight now central to obtaining reliable projections of has strong expertise as exemplified by successful into ground-level air layers that are not monitored future climate and for understanding environ- photovoltaic development, its strong standing in by measuring stations. Drone imagery acqui- mental change across a wide range of time and robotics and its experience with monitoring sys- sition following standardised protocols forms spatial scales. These models are also used by sci- tems in extreme environments. Miniaturisation the backbone for upscaling from in situ plot to entists to extrapolate sparse observational data can also play a key role in successful missions. pan-Arctic scale, in order to assess and under- and to explore the importance of interactions and stand vegetation development, biodiversity, feedbacks within the Earth system. Innovative technologies are necessary to explore snow and permafrost dynamics, and the related and record extreme environments. Some key carbon and energy fluxes of the highly hetero- The strong modelling competencies present challenges include: geneous polar terrestrial landscapes and coastal in many parts of the Swiss science landscape, areas. However, satellite technology is improving together with a developing interest in Switzerland Technologies for analysing subglacial envi- fast and can deliver high-resolution products. in handling big data and designing data science ronments without contamination. Automatic process chains are already available or tools, could also benefit the Swiss polar commu- on the way. Switzerland is fully involved in these nity, especially in probing new interdisciplinary New sensor development to shrink labs onto activities (e.g. European Space Agency Climate questions. a chip the size of a small coin. Complementary Change Initiative, Copernicus Sentinel) and con- metal-oxide-semiconductor, electrochem- tinues to be a key player in applying these new ical, field effect transistor, radiofrequency, technologies. mechanical and optical sensors have been integrated with lab-on-a-chip devices for on-chip sensing. 4 COLLABORATION FOR SUCCESS – LINKING UP WITH GLOBAL POLAR AGENDAS 43

When documenting the strengths and challenges faced by the Swiss research community active in polar regions, this science plan 4 highlights the high degree of international collaboration needed in order to pursue Swiss research in these regions. This is due to the very complex logistics needed to support such research, the difficulty of obtaining access to polar regions as well as the need to share the Collaboration for high costs incurred through the technology and logistics involved. success Given the high quality of their research, Swiss scien- In summary, the Swiss priorities outlined above tists are often invited to join international initiatives align almost perfectly with the international both in the Arctic and Antarctic. Additionally, many agenda and key topics identified for both poles Linking up with global polar agendas of their domains of expertise match well with the by IASC and SCAR. Swiss researchers and insti- international agendas for research in polar regions. tutions are present in the governance and the- Switzerland therefore contributes actively to the two matic groups of both organisations, hence guar- international organisations coordinating research in anteeing that Swiss priorities can be fed into the the Arctic and Antarctic, IASC and SCAR, which international agendas but also that the Swiss have each recently published an analysis of the key community is aware of new initiatives and can research questions for their regions. help shape them.

In its “Antarctic and Southern Ocean Science The Swiss priorities outlined above Horizon Scan”, SCAR used a worldwide consulta- align almost perfectly with the tion and an international panel to identify 80 key international agenda and key topics questions covering all aspects of science. IASC identified for both poles. undertook a similar exercise for the Arctic, result- ing in a report entitled “Integrating Arctic Research Switzerland is currently playing a constructive col- – a Roadmap for the Future”, with a much greater laborative role in international initiatives. Support emphasis on linkages of the physical and biological by the SPI notably enables Swiss groups to be systems with society. present in significant international initiatives, for example Multidisciplinary Drifting Observatory for On the one hand, the development of new inter- the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC; 2019-2020) national research programmes by both SCAR and or Ice Memory. IASC, centred on research priorities, offers an impor- tant opportunity to connect Swiss initiatives directly As yet, no attempt has been made to consoli- into global questions with a wide range of partners. date the relevant questions for high-altitude areas On the other hand, the large existing overlap of the globally. With no single international organisation SCAR and IASC science plans with ongoing and taking responsibility for the high-altitude regions, projected Swiss research activities in polar areas Swiss expertise could be harnessed to take a lead underlines the importance and timeliness of Swiss in developing an international document of key research working at the forefront of current polar research questions that complements the existing science questions. SCAR and IASC documents. 5 LOOKING TO THE FUTURE – MAKING A DIFFERENCE FOR THE SWISS POLAR COMMUNITY 45

SPI has an important role to play in supporting the diverse polar research community in Switzerland, in strengthening Swiss polar 5 science and in promoting synergies. To complement the scientific strategies outlined above, the following goals and initiatives have been identified as priorities up to 2025 and beyond.

Looking to Build a strong and cohesive community as Launch and manage medium- to large-scale well as support scientific exchange and research expeditions (notably by fund- outreach on polar-related topics (includ- ing the project management, logistics and the future ing conferences, teaching programmes, coordination) and contribute to large-scale dedicated scientific workshops, support international programmes and initiatives of visiting lecturers at Swiss universities, related to the Flagship Topics and priorities Making a difference for the Swiss exchange with international polar organi- highlighted in this Science Plan. sations and structures supporting young polar community polar researchers, such as the Association In order to be able to expand current activities of Polar Early Career Scientists). to match the needs, high level of competence and strategic relevance of Swiss research about Offer training and logistical support for and in polar regions, the founders of the SPI the organisation of research expeditions are working towards establishing the SPI as an and fieldwork in extreme environments institution co-funded by the Swiss Confederation (including health and safety training and for the period 2021-2024. Such anchoring would support, checklists, coaching and advice). not only enable SPI to offer sustainable support to researchers all over Switzerland but also to Support the development of data man- launch initiatives and expeditions for and by the agement, portals and data science for the Swiss research community. benefit of the polar community in collab- oration with existing structures and with The founders of the SPI are working the SDSC. towards establishing the SPI as an institution co-funded by the Fund fieldwork, logistics, technological Swiss Confederation for the period developments and short-term opportuni- 2021-2024. ties for Swiss polar researchers in all fields of research, with a particular emphasis on This Science Plan will remain a living document to early career researchers, to complement match the evolution of the Swiss polar commu- science funding from sources such as the nity. In the short term however, this document will Swiss National Science Foundation and play a crucial role in underlining the importance the EU Framework Programmes. and variety of the work performed by Swiss polar scientists and create the scientific framework for the near future up to 2025 and beyond. 46 THE SWISS POLAR INSTITUTE – SUPPORTING THE SWISS POLAR SCIENCE LANDSCAPE THE SWISS POLAR INSTITUTE – SUPPORTING THE SWISS POLAR SCIENCE LANDSCAPE 47

polar region. The SPI Exploratory Grants offer Finally, the SPI also has a mission to perform The Swiss Polar Institute – Supporting seed funding to start new collaborations and outreach and communication activities linked to fund logistics related to polar research projects. polar regions and science. To perform such tasks, the Swiss polar science landscape Additionally, students can benefit from SPI fund- the SPI partners with schools, museums and ing to participate in international field / maritime other relevant organisations, and arranges public schools. lectures and conferences.

Organising and implementing scientific expe- The Swiss polar science landscape is very diverse, The SPI was founded in 2016 in order to offer ditions also forms a core part of the SPI mis- with scientific activities spread over more than new opportunities and funding to all research- sion. In 2016-2017, SPI organised the Antarctic 13 academic institutions (see map on page 10) ers based in Switzerland who work in the polar Circumnavigation Expedition (ACE), which and covering areas from climatology, atmos- regions. It works to support the bottom-up nature took 22 international scientific projects on a pheric sciences, glaciology, biology, technology, of polar science performed in Switzerland and the three-month expedition to collect samples and and geology through to human aspects related to multi-institutional approach covering many polar data (oceanographic, terrestrial, atmospheric the polar areas. The Swiss Committee on Polar research areas. and cryospheric) from the Southern Ocean, and High Altitude Research (SKPH) of the Swiss sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic continent. Academies of Sciences was founded several dec- The SPI is currently funded by its founding mem- A similar SPI circumnavigation expedition around ades ago to coordinate, promote and advocate bers: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Greenland is planned for the near future. Other for polar science, and to provide scientific advice Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Federal Institute for expeditions as well as the logistical and financial to Swiss policy makers and the Swiss govern- Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), support of Swiss scientists to lead or contribute ment on matters related to polar issues. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in to major international research expeditions at the Zurich (ETHZ), University of Bern, and the three poles (the Antarctic, the Arctic and high-al- The SPI was founded in 2016 in Editions Paulsen. The SPI Secretariat is in charge titude regions worldwide) are foreseen, depend- order to offer new opportunities of daily work and implementation. The SPI gov- ing on future funding of SPI. and funding to all researchers based ernance comprises a Board of Directors, in charge in Switzerland who work in the of strategic and financial decision-making, and SPI has successfully generated a new dynamic polar regions. a Science and Technology Advisory Board with within the Swiss Polar community. SPI is actively leading Swiss scientists and independent inter- supporting synergies within the Swiss polar SPI works very closely with the SKPH, which national experts, who advise the Secretariat and research community through conferences (nota- is responsible for sending Swiss represent- the Board of Directors on scientific priorities and bly but not only the annual Swiss Polar Day), atives to SCAR and IASC and their scien- initiatives. workshops, information sessions on funding tific working groups. Furthermore, since opportunities and training courses. With such Switzerland received Observer status in the SPI has successfully generated events, the SPI aims to foster the knowledge Arctic Council in 2017, the Swiss research a new dynamic within the Swiss base and create networking opportunities for the community is also encouraged to contribute Polar community. broader Swiss polar community, which ranges and strengthen expert knowledge at the level from Earth sciences through biological and phys- of the Arctic Council’s Working Groups, Task SPI activities and calls are open to the entire ical sciences to social sciences and medicine. SPI Forces and Expert Groups. However, in con- Swiss research community. The SPI has launched also develops training courses and platforms to trast to many other countries, Switzerland dedicated funding calls to complement existing share specialised equipment and instruments for has traditionally had no central polar research opportunities and to fill gaps linked to the spe- the polar community. institute or logistics provider, limiting the activ- cific needs of polar science. The Polar Access ities of excellent Swiss scientists to the remote Fund offers funding for young researchers to and inaccessible polar areas. complement their research with a field trip to a @swissPolar www.swisspolar.ch 48 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document was prepared by the SPI Science and Technology Advisory Board and SPI, with contributions from the Swiss polar community.

Members of the SPI Science and Technology Advisory Board Prof. Karin Lochte – Co-Chair, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Prof. Thomas Stocker – Co-Chair, University of Bern, Switzerland Christian de Marliave, Editions Paulsen, France Prof. Hubertus Fischer, University of Bern, Switzerland Prof. Philippe Gillet, EPFL, Switzerland Prof. Gerald Haug, ETHZ, Switzerland / Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Germany Prof. Gabriela Schaepman, University of Zurich, Switzerland Prof. David Walton, British Antarctic Survey, United Kingdom Prof. Heini Wernli, ETHZ, Switzerland

Scientific Director SPI Prof. Konrad Steffen

Author of chapter “Socio‑cultural issues and socio‑ecological systems” Prof. Yvon Csonka

The SPI would like to warmly thank The Swiss polar science community for its important contribution to this Science Plan. This includes all the participants to the Call for Ideas and the Swiss Polar Day 2018, whose inputs have helped give shape to this paper. Special thanks go to the reviewers of the draft issued for consultation on February 2019, whose comments and inputs have enriched the final document.

The reviewers and contributors were Dr. Carolina Adler, Prof. Tom Battin, Dr. Jan Beutel, Prof. Daniel Farinotti, Prof. Fortunat Joos, Dr. Rita Ghosh, Florian Gredig, Prof. Nicolas Gruber, IMPRESSUM Grégoire Hauser, Prof. Patricia Holm, Prof. Samuel Jaccard, Dr. Martin Jiskra, Dr. Guillaume Jouvet, Dr. Christophe Lambiel, Clara Leistenschneider, English editing Dr. Gwendolyn Leysinger Vieli, Dr. Veruska Muccione, Dr. Frank Paul, Leah Witton Dr. Loïc Pellissier Dr. Julia Schmale, Dr. Martin Schneebeli, Prof. Margit Schwikowski, Dr. Gregory De Souza, Prof. Andreas Vieli, Dr. Michael Zemp, Graphic design Prof. Niklaus Zimmermann. Plates-Bandes communication

SPI Secretariat Number of copies Danièle Rod, Basil Fahrlaender 500 copies