IHS Automotive Sectoral Report Supplierbusiness the Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report

IHS Automotive Sectoral Report SupplierBusiness The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report

2013 edition supplierbusiness.com IHS Automotive SupplierBusiness | The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report

Contents Introduction...... 7 Market drivers...... 9 Emissions regulations...... 9 The United States...... 9 The European Union...... 11 Japan...... 11 China...... 11 Other countries...... 12 Fuel costs...... 13 Criterion emissions...... 14 The United States...... 14 Japan...... 15 Europe...... 15 China...... 17 Other countries...... 17 Powertrain design...... 18 Powertrain technology...... 22 Engine downsizing and down-speeding...... 22 Combustion cycles...... 26 Altered combustion modes...... 27 Variable valve actuation...... 29 Variable valve timing and lift...... 30 Camless valve actuation...... 35 Electro-hydraulic valve actuation...... 35 Electromagnetic valve actuation...... 35 Cylinder deactivation...... 37 Direct injection technology...... 40 Spray-guided injection...... 42 Diesel injection technology...... 43 Advanced ignition systems...... 45 Laser ignition systems...... 47 Compression-ignition engine technologies...... 50 Combustion cycles...... 51 Downsizing...... 51 Material development...... 52 Forced induction...... 57 Compressors...... 57 Screw compressors...... 58 Centrifugal compressors...... 58 Bearing systems...... 59 Micro turbocharging...... 60 Waste-gated turbochargers...... 61 Twin-scroll turbochargers...... 61

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Variable geometry turbochargers...... 63 Multi-stage turbocharging...... 66 Sequential twin turbocharging...... 66 Regulated twin turbocharging...... 67 Three-stage turbocharging...... 68 Twin vortices supercharger...... 68 Multi-speed superchargers...... 68 Electric superchargers...... 69 The Future of Turbocharging ...... 70 Charge air coolers (intercoolers)...... 73 Exhaust and emissions control...... 75 Gasoline engine emissions control...... 76 Three-Way Catalytic converter (TWC)...... 77 Exhaust Gas Re-circulation (EGR)...... 79 Diesel engine emissions control...... 81 Diesel oxidation catalyst...... 81 Selective catalytic reduction...... 83 Lean NOx trap or NOx adsorber catalyst...... 86 CRT Process...... 87 Diesel particulate filter...... 87 Catalyst Poisoning ...... 90 The SCR versus EGR debate...... 90 SCR plus EGR for Euro 6...... 92 Thermal management...... 93 Alternative compression-ignition technologies...... 94 Homogenous charge compression ignition...... 94 Reactivity controlled compression ignition...... 94 Gasoline direct-injection compression ignition...... 95 Alternative engine technologies...... 97 Achates Power opposed-piston engine...... 97 EcoMotors OPOC...... 97 RadMax Rotary Turbine Engine...... 98 Tour Engines ...... 99 Axial Vector...... 101 Variable compression ratio engines...... 101 FEV...... 101 MCE-5...... 101 Gomecsys GoEngine...... 101 Lotus Engineering...... 101 Ilmore five-stroke...... 102 Ricardo 2/4SIGHT engine...... 102 Scuderi...... 103 Transonic Combustion...... 103 Pinnacle Engine...... 103 Wave Disk Generator...... 104 Cyclone Power Technologies...... 105 Alternative fuels...... 106 Alcohols...... 107 Algal biofuels...... 109 Bacterial biofuels...... 110 Biogasoline...... 110 Dimethyl ether...... 110 Hydrogen...... 110 Hythane...... 111

Liquefied petroleum gas...... 111 Natural gas...... 111 Coal to liquid fuels...... 112 Biodiesel...... 113 Dimethyl ether...... 114 Natural gas...... 114 Powertrain market outlook...... 116 North America...... 116 Europe...... 117 China...... 118 Figures

Figure 1: Global CO2 (g/km) progress normalised to NEDC test cycle...... 8

Figure 2: CO2 (g/km) performance and standards in the EU new cars 1994 - 2011...... 9

Figure 3: Global CO2 (g/km) progress normalised to NEDC test cycle...... 10 Figure 4: US Regular Gasoline prices $/gallon, January 2011 to June 2013...... 11 Figure 5: WTI crude oil prices (US$ per barrel, monthly average 2010 dollars), 2001 – March 2012...... 12 Figure 6: NOx limits in the EU, Japan and the US, 1995 – 2010 (g/kWh)...... 14 Figure 7: PM limits in the EU, Japan and the US, 1995 – 2010 (g/kWh)...... 15 Figure 8: Aluminium/ magnesium lightweight design 6 cylinder engine ...... 16 Figure 9: Engine weight and performance for aluminium and cast iron blocks...... 17 Figure 10: Active engine mount technology...... 17 Figure 11: Cumulative sales of Ford’s EcoBoost engine family...... 18 Figure 12: 1.0L EcoBoost cylinder head with integrated exhaust manifold...... 18 Figure 13: Progress through powertrain technologies...... 20 Figure 14: The effects of downsizing on fuel consumption...... 21 Figure 15: Comparison between downsized turbocharged diesel and non-turbocharges gasoline (Volvo) and turbocharged gasoline and non-turbocharged gasoline (Opel) performance...... 21 Figure 16: Performance evolution through downsizing and turbocharging for the Volkswagen Golf ...... 22 Figure 17: Low-end torque versus mid-high speed brake specific fuel consumption for gasoline engines from MY2005 to MY2012...... 23 Figure 18: Low-end torque versus mid-high speed brake specific fuel consumption for gasoline engines from MY2005 to MY2012...... 23 Figure 19: Atkinson versus Otto cycle operation...... 24 Figure 20: A schematic of homogenous and stratified charge modes...... 26 Figure 21: General classification of variable valve actuation technology...... 28 Figure 22: Honda i-VTEC system...... 29 Figure 23: BMW Valvetronic system...... 30 Figure 24: Comparison of airflow with VVT on a diesel engine...... 31 Figure 25: Variable valve actuation on 6.7-litre Cummins diesel...... 32 Figure 26: Valeo electromagnetic valve actuation...... 34 Figure 27: LaunchPoint’s electromechanical valve actuator system...... 35 Figure 28: Variable cylinder management ...... 36 Figure 29: Pattern of variable cylinder management operation...... 37 Figure 30: A6 cylinder on demand system ...... 37 Figure 31: Direct injection operation...... 39 Figure 32: Measures to improve fuel economy...... 40 Figure 33: A comparison of wall-guided and spray-guided direct injection...... 41 Figure 34: Comparison of piezo-actuated and servo-hydraulic-actuated injector spray patterns ...... 42 Figure 35: BorgWarner’s Dual Coil ignition system...... 43 Figure 36: Federal Mogul’s Corona Ignition System...... 44 Figure 37: Schematics of ignition using conventional spark and laser technology...... 44

Figure 38: Schlieren photographs for early stage of ignition in a constant-volume chamber ignited by spark plug and micro-laser in a stoichiometric mixture...... 45 Figure 39: New diesel car registrations, EU15 + EFTA, 1991 - 2010...... 48 Figure 40: Total cost of ownership, diesel versus gasoline US over 3 years/ 45,000 miles...... 49 Figure 41: Case study for downsizing versus de-rating for a 1460kg curb weight passenger car...... 50 Figure 42: A polyamide air intake manifold...... 51 Figure 43: Ultra-thin steel coated cylinder bores in aluminium crankcases (LH image) compared with conventional grey cast iron (RH image)...... 52 Figure 44: Federal Mogul’s DuraBowl technology for piston crown strengthening...... 53

Figure 45: Material properties comparing CGI 400, Gray Iron 250 and AlSi9Cu alloy...... 54 Figure 46: Global supercharger/ turbocharger fitment by type, 2011 – 2017...... 55 Figure 47: An Eaton roots-type supercharger with integrated bypass...... 56 Figure 48: Compressor map of a turbocharger for passenger car applications...... 57 Figure 49: Fiat two-cylinder MultiAir engine...... 58 Figure 50: Volvo D12D 500hp Euro 3 engine turbo-compound set up...... 59 Figure 51: Multi-scroll turbine housing design...... 60 Figure 52: A schematic of a twin scroll turbocharger...... 60 Figure 53: Deflection through a dual-volute-turbine housing with VTG guide vanes...... 61 Figure 54: Twin volute VTG with optimised exhaust manifold design...... 62 Figure 55: Holset VGT™ Turbocharging Technology...... 64 Figure 56: BMW bi-turbo...... 65 Figure 57: Exploded view of a Rotrak variable-speed supercharger...... 66 Figure 58: Antonov dual-speed supercharger...... 67 Figure 59: Valeo’s electric supercharger...... 68 Figure 60: Turbocharging technologies for high-pressure charging ...... 69 Figure 61: GM’s LF3 twin turbocharged V6 engine with integral manifold mounted intercooler...... 71 Figure 62: A comparison of exhaust systems 1975 and 2009...... 73 Figure 63: Tenneco’s technology road map for exhaust systems...... 74

Figure 64: A 2012 exhaust system including emissions control, CO2 reduction and acoustic design...... 75 Figure 65: Three-way catalytic converter...... 76 Figure 66: The effect of temperature on catalytic converter operation...... 76 Figure 67: The effect of fuel-air mixture on catalytic converter operation...... 77 Figure 68: Exhaust gas recirculation with cooler...... 77 Figure 69: The construction of an electrically heated TWC...... 78 Figure 70: Denso’s compact EGR cooler for gasoline engines...... 79 Figure 71: The construction of a diesel oxidation catalytic converter...... 80 Figure 72: Selective catalytic reduction...... 80 Figure 73: Selective catalytic reduction schematic...... 81 Figure 74: Delphi’s on-board reformer...... 82 Figure 75: Faurecia ASDS unit...... 82 Figure 76: A schematic of Faurecia’s ASDS system...... 84 Figure 77: NOx trap system with ECU control...... 84 Figure 78: Mercedes Benz E Class DPF...... 86 Figure 79: A schematic of a wall-flow DPF...... 87 Figure 80: Acicular Mulite process effects in DPF substrate...... 87 Figure 81: A comparison between EGR and SCR technology...... 89 Figure 82: Schaeffler’s Thermal Management module...... 91 Figure 83: Criterion emissions from RCCI engine by % gasoline...... 93 Figure 84: GDICI emissions results for single, double and triple injection...... 94 Figure 85: Achates opposed piston engine...... 95 Figure 86: EcoMotors OPOC engine...... 96 Figure 87: RadMax RTE engine driving a pump...... 96 Figure 88: The Tour engine...... 97 Figure 89: The Tour engine cutaway...... 97

Figure 90: Axial Vector engine...... 98 Figure 91: 2/4SIGHT engine concept...... 100 Figure 92: Wave Disk Generator...... 102 Figure 93: Wave Disk Generator principles...... 102 Figure 94: SunEco algal fuel production ponds...... 107 Figure 95: GDICI emissions compared to a conventional diesel...... 111 Tables Table 1: US emissions standards for light-duty vehicles, to five years/50,000 miles (g/mile)...... 15 Table 2: Japan emissions limits for light gasoline & LPG vehicles (g/km)...... 15 Table 3: Japan emissions limits for light diesel vehicles (g/km)...... 15 Table 4: Euro 5 emissions limits for light gasoline vehicles (g/km)...... 15 Table 5: Euro 5 emissions limits for light diesel vehicles (g/km)...... 16 Table 6: Emissions standards timetable in selected countries, 2012 - 2021...... 17 Table 7: Fuel economy improvement and costs for powertrain...... 18 Table 8: Emissions control strategies...... 76 Table 9: Reactions in a three- way catalytic converter...... 78 Table 10: Cost comparison EGR vs SCR in Europe...... 92 Table 11: Energy input versus output for alternative fuels...... 106 Table 12: Global powertrain technology penetration: 2012/2019...... 116 Table 13: North American technology penetration: 2012/2019...... 117 Table 14: European technology penetration: 2012/2019...... 117 Table 15: Chinese technology penetration: 2012/2019...... 118