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Operationalizing Jane Jacobs's Urban Design Theory: Empirical Verification from the Great City of Seoul, Korea

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Operationalizing Jane Jacobs's Urban Design Theory: Empirical Verification from the Great City of Seoul, Korea JPEXXX10.1177/0739456X14568021Journal of Planning Education and ResearchSung et al. 568021research-article2015 Research-Based Article Journal of Planning Education and Research 1 –14 Operationalizing Jane Jacobs’s Urban © The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Design Theory: Empirical Verification DOI: 10.1177/0739456X14568021 from the Great City of Seoul, Korea jpe.sagepub.com Hyungun Sung1, Sugie Lee2, and SangHyun Cheon3 Abstract Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) had an enormous influence on urban design theories and practices. This study aims to operationalize Jacobs’s conditions for a vital urban life. These are (1) mixed use, (2) small blocks, (3) aged buildings, and (4) a sufficient concentration of buildings. Jacobs suggested that a vital urban life could be sustained by an urban realm that promotes pedestrian activity for various purposes at various times. Employing multilevel binomial models, we empirically verified that Jacobs’s conditions for urban diversity play a significant role with regard to pedestrian activity. Keywords built environment, Jane Jacobs, urban design, urban diversity Introduction instance, three of the seven TOD planning elements (e.g., density, diversity, and design) stem directly from Jacobs’s Jane Jacobs’s The Death and Life of Great American Cities necessary conditions for diversity (Cervero and Kockelman (1961) was one of the first books to criticize the dominant 1997; Ewing and Cervero 2010; Ha, Joo, and Jun 2011). planning paradigm of the latter half of the twentieth century, Mixed land use is a critical component of urban diversity which primarily consisted of large-scale redevelopment and because spatial proximity between different land uses highway construction. She argued that these forms of devel- increases the potential for social interactions at the street and opment were the primary culprits in the loss of a vital urban district levels (Calthorpe 1993; Jacobs 1961; Krier 1992; life that many cities had experienced (Grant 2002; Sternberg Kunstler 1994; Duany, Speck, and Lydon 2010). Jacobs’s 2000). Jacobs noted that if planners wanted to maintain a observations and theories of urban vibrancy remain popular vital urban life, they should pursue gradual, small-scale, vol- and have provided the basis for various books published after untary civil efforts instead of large-scale, capital-supported her death in 2006 (Alexiou 2006; Flint 2009; Page and redevelopment projects (Laurence 2006). In particular, Mennel 2011; Soderstrom 2010). Jacobs insisted that in order to restore, maintain, or promote Jacobs (1961) also pointed out that pedestrian activity a vital urban life in large cities, the physical environment should not be constrained to certain times of the day, such should be characterized by diversity at both the district and as rush hour. Rather, vibrant urban areas required a “side- street levels. Diversity in this sense required four essential walk ballet” that occurred throughout the day. In addition, conditions: mixed land uses, small blocks, buildings from many studies (Forsyth et al. 2008; Frank et al. 2007; many different eras, and sufficient building densities (Jacobs Khattak and Rodriguez 2005; Lee and Moudon 2006; 1961). Many scholars have agreed with Jacobs, emphasizing that a vital urban life relies on the active street life that results from high levels of pedestrian traffic. They argued that Initial submission, December 2012; revised submissions, March and vibrant, pedestrian-friendly city streets were crucial to the November 2014; final acceptance, November 2014 social, functional, and leisure activities of many city resi- 1Chungbuk University, Cheongju, Korea dents (Gehl 1987; Hass-Klau et al. 1999; Jacobs 1961; Kim, 2Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea Choi, and Kim 2013; Mehta 2007; Moudon 1991; Park et al. 3HongIk University, Seoul, Korea 2013; Southworth and Ben-Joseph 1996). Corresponding Author: Jacobs’s urban diversity conditions are important ele- Sugie Lee, Department of Urban Planning and Engineering, Hanyang ments in the concepts of traditional neighborhood develop- University, 222 Wangshimni-ro Sungdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, Korea. ment (TND) and transit-oriented development (TOD). For Email: [email protected] Downloaded from jpe.sagepub.com by guest on March 18, 2015 2 Journal of Planning Education and Research Moudon et al. 1997) have focused on the relationship pedestrian activity is restrained to a single purpose during a between the built environment and pedestrian activity in certain time of day. Rather, streets should experience a newer low- or medium-density suburban communities. But “cross-use” of activity related to a range of different pur- Jacobs’s four built environment conditions for maintaining poses, which allow pedestrian activity at all hours of the day. a vital urban life in a large urban area have not been empir- This generates the possibility of diverse face-to-face interac- ically tested or verified (Hill 1988; Grant 2010; Sung, Go, tions and a preponderance of “eyes on streets,” which and Choi 2013). increases public safety. To achieve these goals, Jacobs pre- This study operationalized Jacobs’s observations regard- sented four essential diversity requirements for the built ing urban diversity and a vital urban life. In addition, this environment. First, a district should have two or more pri- study addresses the importance of pedestrian activity that mary uses. This means that a mix of land uses is necessary. occurs at different times of the day. Seoul has a very dense Districts with more than one primary use will feature pedes- built environment and a well-established public transporta- trian activity related to different purposes at different times tion system that is similar to New York, the city where Jacobs of the day. Jacobs argued that this mix of uses should be lived and observed as she developed her theories. While New maintained across an entire city and across all city streets. York and Seoul differ in some of their physical environment The former allows small business establishments to operate characteristics, as well as in their physical and socioeco- in all areas of the city. The latter can increase urban diversity nomic characteristics, both represent the types of large, dense if city streets house a number of diverse shops. Jacobs also urban areas that Jacobs addressed when she developed her emphasized that a land use mix depends on the presence of design theories for a vital urban life. As such, this study con- three population groups: company employees, residents, and tributes to a greater understanding of how Jacobs’s theories visitors. of a vital urban life contribute to active levels of pedestrian Second, Jacobs argued that most city blocks should be activity. short in order to create more alternate travel routes and more streets. She argued that superblocks and rectangular blocks Jacobs’s Urban Diversity and Vital produce an urban form that increases travel distances and Urban Life provides fewer opportunities for cross-use. Jacobs noted that short and close-knit blocks complemented mixed land uses, Jane Jacobs states in The Death and Life of Great American thereby enhancing urban diversity. Small blocks produce Cities (1961) that “death” in urban areas is caused by the more intersections, and thus slow down vehicles and shorten elimination of pedestrian activity from urban streets due to pedestrians’ travel distance. This viewpoint was reflected in new highway construction and large-scale urban develop- the U.S. TOD guidelines (Calthorpe 1993) and in UK com- ment projects. Since these were the dominant forms of urban pact city development guidelines such as the Urban Design development at the time of her writing, her book triggered Compendium (LDP 2000). Jacobs did not exclusively empha- controversy and a massive reappraisal of the urban planning size that square-shaped grid blocks were ideal, but existing practice. Her main point, that the physical environment streets in many large cities have already developed along a required diversity, was heavily criticized. In particular, Lewis square grid pattern. As such, this pattern has been the one Mumford (1962) described her theories merely amateur primarily favored by U.S. TOD and by the United Kingdom solutions in a book review titled “Mother Jacobs’ Home for compact city design. Remedies for Urban Cancer” (Klemek 2007). Despite these Third, Jacobs argued that the buildings in a district should criticisms, Jacobs’s “amateur solution” significantly influ- be mixed with regard to age and form in order to ensure enced the advocacy planning movement and formed much of diverse economic activity. A diversity of building types will the theoretical basis for New Urbanism (Laurence 2006). allow for a diverse range of jobs, including high-, medium-, Jacobs’s theories not only influenced urban planning and and moderate-income jobs. Her emphasis on old buildings design practices in the United States but also in Europe and was a critique of the large-scale buildings and large-scale especially in Canada, where they contributed significantly to redevelopments that were popular in Jacobs’s New York and mixed-use land development practices (Grant 2002; Klemek elsewhere in the United States in the post–World War II era. 2007). An emphasis on diversity within the built environ- These large-scale projects often developed an entire city ment and on small blocks was listed as crucial to the forma- block at a time and were typically single-use. Jacobs noted tion of twenty-four-hour cities in The Smart Growth Manual that these developments would have difficulty adapting to recently drafted by Duany, Speck, and Lydon (2010). Jacobs change over time. As a result, they were at risk of deteriorat- was careful to note that her theories of urban diversity were ing into slums. Jacobs argued that districts with buildings intended to apply to large cities such as New York and from a range of historical eras and with a range of forms Chicago. Her observations are not applicable for guiding could creatively accept new, small-scale construction and development in small towns or suburban areas.
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