Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ʼatángi

Our Language Saved Us A Guidebook for Learning the Tlingit Language

X̲ʼunei Lance Twitchell

Goldbelt Heritage Foundation Alaska Native Language Center

Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ʼatángi

Our Language Saved Us A Guidebook for Learning the Tlingit Language

X̱ʼunei (Lance A. Twitchell) Lukaax̱.ádi • Yéil Hít • Lḵóot Ḵwáan Kaagwaantaan Yádi • Daḵlʼaweidí Dachx̱án Deikeenaa • Yupik • Saami

November 23, 2015

Goldbelt Heritage Foundation Alaska Native Language Center Juneau • Fairbanks

i Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface

Haa Wsineix̱ Haa Yoo X̱ʼatángi: Our Language Saved Us

Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Twitchell, Lance A. Haa Wsineix̱ Haa Yoo X̱ʼatángi = Our Language Saved Us : A Guidebook for Learning the Tlingit Language / X̱ʼunei (Lance A. Twitchell). pages cm A grammar of the Tlingit language of Southeast Alaska, Southwestern Yukon, and Northwestern British Columbia. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-692-55340-4 (alk. paper) 1. Tlingit language--Grammar. 2. Tlingit language--Study and teaching. I. Alaska Native Language Center. II. Goldbelt Heritage Foundation. III. Title. IV. Title: Our language saved us. PM2455.T858 2015 497.27--dc23

First Printing 2015

Address correspondence to:

Goldbelt Heritage Foundation X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell 3200 Hospital Dr #203 University of Alaska Southeast Juneau, AK 99801 11120 Glacier Highway (907) 790-1424 Juneau, AK 99801 [email protected]

The University of Alaska is an AA/EO employer and educational institution.

ii iii Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface

Acknowledgments

Tlax̱ wáa sá sh tóog̱aa haa ditee. How very grateful we are.

This project simply could not exist without the hard work, brilliance, and dedication of those who have worked in the Tlingit language. Much of the information presented here builds upon the work of Shaachookwá Constance Naish, Naats Tláa Gillian Story, Ḵeixwnéi Nora Dauenhauer, Xwaay- eenáḵ Richard Dauenhauer, Weihá Jeff Leer, X̱ʼaagi Sháawu Keri Eggleston, Dzéiwsh James Crippen, and L Tudaxʼaan Seth Cable. In addition to those fine colleagues, we could do nothing without our incredible and tireless collection of Tlingit language speakers, especially those who give us their time and kindness. The Tlingit language is an unbelievable ocean of complexity, spirit power, intelligence, emotion, and connection. This collection of lessons attempts to clarify the functions and role of the Tlingit verb for second language learners. It builds upon what has already been done, and is humbly offered as a tool to keep our language going strong for the infinite succession of generations. To learn more, please see the published and unpublished works of those mentioned above. Nearly all of the material presented here comes from what they have gifted us already. This project pulls a great deal from the unpublished manuscript of Intermediate Tlingit, which began with Ḵeixwnéi and Xwaayeenáḵ, who then brought X̱ʼaagi Sháawu on board. I taught a year of Intermediate Tlingit at the University of Alaska Southeast from 2012-2013, and the students of that class helped tremendously in the development of the con-

iv v Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface tent and appearance of much of the information presented in this volume. Their dedication and creativity helped them Elders, Speakers, & Allies claim the language as their own, and they are great examples of what we need in order to execute language revitalization. Crippenʼs “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” and “Tlingi- My capabilities in both Tlingit and English fall short of the tology Seminar Notes: Background and Morphology” were amount of gratitude I feel towards our fluent speakers. This invaluable in helping understand grammatical functions in text attempts to build on the incredible and tireless work of Tlingit, and many of the tables and concepts are pulled di- Nora & Richard Dauenhauer, and they worked with count- rectly from those works with the intention of creating text less fluent birth speakers. There were many fluent speakers to help students use those guides. His grasp of Tlingit and involved in giving feedback, ideas, information, and inspi- the level of detail his research is achieving is astonishing and ration to this project. In particular, the following speakers will help us understand many of the rich complexities of our made this project possible: Seidayaa Mary Anderson, Dagé ancestors and our language. Winnie Atlin, Yax̱duláḵt Lillian Austin, Shaawát G̱uwukaan Egglestonʼs 575+ Tlingit Verbs, with many variations in George Bennett, Jig̱eit Tláa Irene Cadiente, La.óos Tláa Ida person, theme, and mode, served as a vital resource to this Calmegane, Keiyishí Bessie Cooley, Ḵaanáḵ Ruth Demmert, project, and so did her Dictionary of Tlingit. In addition, she Ḵeixwnéi Nora Marks Dauenhauer, Ḵínkaduneek Paul Marks, allowed free use of the materials she developed for several Kaaxwaan Éesh George Davis, Lʼéiwtu Éesh Herman Davis semesters of teaching Tlingit Linguistics at the Universi- Shakʼsháani Marge Dutson, Kaséix̱ Selina Everson, Achkwei ty of Alaska Southeast. Her work with fluent speakers and Lena Farkas, Kooshdaa Kʼwéesh Bill Fawcett, Ḵaalḵáawu Cyr- the generosity she shows with her work are immeasurable il George, Kaax̱kwéi Evelyn Hotch, G̱uneiwtí Marsha Hotch, in terms of how they will move us forward in our ability to G̱ooch Shaayí Harold Jacobs, Ḵaaklig̱é Norman James, Shgaté teach Tlingit grammar. Jessie Johnnie, Kingeistí David Katzeek, Tánkʼ Smitty Kat- Shaachookwá and Naats Tláa can never be forgotten for zeek, Daasdiyaa Ethel Makinen, Keiheenákʼw John Martin, their work in collecting Tlingit verbs for their Tlingit Verb Ḵʼaltseen Carolyn Martin, Woosh Jix̱oo Éesh George Ramos, Dictionary, and we can all spend the rest of our lives work- Ḵaachkoo.aaḵw Helen Sarabia, Ḵaakal.aat Florence Sheak- ing with The Schetic Categories of the Tlingit Verb by Weihá. ley, Lugóon Sophie Smarch, Shuwuteen Martha VanHeel, Those masterpieces and the collected and amazing works of and G̱unaak’w Fred White. Ḵeixwnéi and Xwaayeenáḵ is what all of this work is current- They are the actual authors of this text; they are my life ly built upon. and language teachers. Wonderful conversations with Dzéi- This project was funded by the Goldbelt Heritage Founda- wsh James Crippen, L Tudaxʼaan Seth Cable, X̱ʼaagi Sháawu tion, in part by the Lingít Tundatanée grant through the Of- Keri Eggleston, and Ḵaagwáaskʼ Ishmael Hope also made fice of English Language Acquisition (OELA). Without their this book. G̱unaak’w Fred White and G̱uneiwtí Marsha constant hard work, positive attitude, commitment to uni- Hotch provided invaluable feedback, and Keri & Seth gave ty, and support for our teachers, students, and elders, there the English and Tlingit close readings, catching many errors would be much less in the world for those who are in need. and ensuring understanding of key concepts. Rough drafts of Kadánjaa Matt Goff, Chalyee Will Geiger, Éedaa Heather this book were called Understanding the Tlingit Verb, but the Burge, and Kaasteen Jill Meserve proofread early drafts, as title changed. Kaséix̱ Selina Everson said Haa Wsineix̱ Haa have the students of the 2012–2014 Intermediate Tlingit and Yoo X̱ʼatángi while fighting alongside a group of advocates Tlingit Linguistics classes at the University of Alaska South- sought to pass a bill recognizing all Alaska Native Languag- east. Aatlein gunalchéesh! es as co-official languages of the state. Kasoot Dionne Cadi- ente-Laiti supported this project tremendously, and made

vi vii Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface sure there was time, energy, and resources to keep it going. H. Caroline Hassler from the UAS Egan Library was amazing Contents with her knowledge of cataloging and publication informa- Acknowledgments ...... v tion, and Larry Kaplan at the Alaska Native Language Center supported the publication of this book through ANLC. Elders, Speakers, & Allies...... vii To everyone who had their hands on this project, I am grateful. Woosh tin yéi jitudané, we are working together for The Tlingit Language ...... 1 haa dachx̱ánxʼi sáani, our little grandchildren, so that they The Tlingit Language Family ...... 4 too will know the wisdom of haa tlagu ḵwáanxʼi yán, our an- The Tlingit Dialects ...... 6 cient ones. Yéi áwé, gunalchéesh. Gunalchéesh. Words of Encouragement ...... 7 When this project started several of the speakers who pro- Tlingit Grammatical Terms ...... 9 vided inspiration and content were still alive, and so was my Parts of Speech in This Volume ...... 10 favorite teacher Xwaayeenáḵ Richard Dauenhauer and my father Skandu.oo Timothy “Sonny” Twitchell. To this day, I Learning Tlingit ...... 17 hear their voices, and Shgaté, and Ḵaalḵáawu. There were Second Language Learning ...... 18 times when Shgaté would call me and say, “long time ago Tlingit Culture ...... 20 our people used to soak in the icy waters for strength. That Tlingit Worldview ...... 21 is what you are doing now with our language, you are im- Language Learning in a Cultural Context ...... 22 mersed in it for the future of our people.” While I miss those who are gone tremendously, when I Nouns ...... 23 think of our collective work in Tlingit, I think about my ba- Common Nouns ...... 24 bies, who are being raised with the language. I could not do Alienable ...... 25 the work I do without the loving support of my wife Ḵáalaa Inalienable ...... 26 Miriah Twitchell, and our children Ḵaalḵéisʼ Kiana Twitchell, Alienated ...... 44 Shaawatkʼé Ava Twitchell, and Ḵájaa Darian Twitchell. We Names ...... 45 made a commitment that I would not speak English to our Pronouns ...... 45 children, and we have done that with a high level of success. Tricky Nouns ...... 61 Sometimes I worry about their language production, but Similar Pairs & Groups ...... 62 then things like this happen: Ḵaalḵéisʼ saw a x̱ʼéishxʼw in the Tlingit Drip Analysis ...... 70 yard and said, “hey, there’s a blue in the yard” and later came up with the name x̱ʼéishxʼw sʼeenáa for peacock. Modifying Nouns ...... 71 It’s not just these children, but children and language war- Adjectives ...... 71 riors all over that are turning the tide for our language. Just Noun Suffixes ...... 73 as some thought the tide had gone out, we see it returning Plural: -xʼ ...... 78 in a flood of change that our elders had been hoping for, and Diminutive: -kʼ ...... 78 we are all part of this. I am so grateful to have an opportunity Plural Diminutive: -xʼi~ sáani ...... 79 to teach and document our Tlingit language. Last summer, Possessive: -i~, -yi~, -u~, -wu~ ...... 80 sitting down with Richard & Nora Dauenhauer, I was able to Locative & Postpositional ...... 81 tell them this: you changed my life. I saw you and thought, Compound Nouns ...... 82

“that is what I want to become. You made me. Gunalchéesh.

viii ix Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface

Directional & Relational Terms ...... 87 Yéil ḵa Yáay ...... 169 Determiners ...... 88 Introduction ...... 169 Suffixes ...... 91 Spot the Verbs and the √Roots ...... 170 Base-Suffix Combinations ...... 95 Yéil ḵa Yáay – Yakwx̱waan Tláa x̱ʼéidáx̱ ...... 171 Negative Forms & Suffixes ...... 98 Raven & Whale told by Katherine Mills ...... 174 Independent Bases ...... 98 Sentence Glossing in Tlingit ...... 179 Relational Bases I ...... 99 Relational Nouns ...... 100 Tlingit Grammatical Structure ...... 179 The Empty Base ...... 101 Segmenting in Tlingit...... 180 Relational Bases II ...... 104 Sentence Glossing in Tlingit ...... 184 Relational Nouns II ...... 105 Tlingit Glossing Decoder Key ...... 186 Raven & Whale Segment & Gloss ...... 193 Particles, Interjections, Phrases ...... 111 Raven & Whale Glossary ...... 201 Particles ...... 111 Interjections ...... 115 Introduction ...... 201 Conversational Phrases ...... 116 Glossary ...... 202 Introducing the Tlingit Verb ...... 121 Verb Practice, Practice, Practice ...... 215 How to Spot a Verb ...... 124 Sample Sentences & Analysis ...... 216 Sample Sentences ...... 125 Preparing for the Next Steps ...... 217 Basic Parts of a Sentence ...... 125 Internalizing Verbs ...... 217 Identifying the Verb ...... 126 Object & Subject Combinations in Perfective, Sample Sentences with Verbs Identified ...... 127 Imperfective, & Future ...... 219 Sample Sentences: Grammar Breakdown ...... 128 Introduction ...... 219 The Classifier & Root ...... 131 Transitivity ...... 220 Basic Tlingit Verbal Structure ...... 131 Object Pronoun Writing Standards ...... 221 Sample Sentences with Verbal Analysis ...... 133 3rd Person Combinations ...... 222 Identifying the Verb Phrase ...... 135 Nominal Objects ...... 224 Identifying the Prefix, Stem, and Suffix ...... 137 Pronoun Review ...... 226 Identifying the Root and Classifier ...... 140 Object Combinations ...... 227 Stem Variation ...... 148 Classifier Contraction ...... 227 Verb Prefixes ...... 152 Subject Combinations ...... 231 Object-Subject Combinations ...... 239 Using Tlingit Language Resources ...... 159 Dictionary of Tlingit ...... 160 Motion Verbs ...... 253 575+ Tlingit Verbs ...... 163 Introduction ...... 253 Tlingit Verb Dictionary ...... 164 ∅- Conjugation Prefix Preverbs ...... 254 Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary ...... 167 Preverbs & na- Conjugation Prefix ...... 260 Tlingit Oral Literature Collection ...... 168 Preverbs & ga- Conjugation Prefix ...... 264 Preverbs & ga- Conjugation Prefix ...... 267 ̲

x xi Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Preface

Verb Modes ...... 271 Introduction ...... 271 Imperfective (+) ...... 274 Imperfective (–) ...... 276 Perfective (+) ...... 278 Perfective (–) ...... 282 Future (+) ...... 284 Xwaayeenáḵ ḵa Ḵeixwnéi jiyís. Future (–) ...... 287 Progressive Imperfective (+) ...... 289 tlax̱ wáa sá haa toowú yakʼéi Imperative ...... 290 Prohibitive ...... 292 haa éet yeeydasheeyí. Repetitive Imperfective ...... 294 Perfective Habitual (+) ...... 296 haa yeeyliyéx̱. Perfective Habitual (–)...... 298 haa wsineix̱. Hortative ...... 300 Potential (+) * often used with relative clause ...... 302 Potential (–) * often used with relative clause ...... 304 Potential Attributive ...... 306 aaa. Potential Decessive* usually used as depdendent clause ...... 308 ḵusax̱án. Conditional* ofted used in relative clause ...... 310 Stem Variation ...... 312 ḵusax̱án een yéi jigax̱toonéi. Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa ...... 313 Introduction ...... 313 Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex – Tlákw.aan, 1972 ...... 314 Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa – Kingeistí x̱ʼéidáx̱ ...... 317 Sea Lion & Ptarmigan by David Katzeek ...... 331 Bibliography ...... 347

xii xiii

1 The Tlingit Language

Chʼa yéi gugéinkʼ áwé a kaax̱ shukaylisʼúx̱ haa tlagoo ḵwáanxʼi aadéi s ḵunoogu yé. — Kichnáalx̱

We have only uncovered a tny porton of the way our ancient people used to do things. — George Davis, Deisheetaan1

The Tlingit language is medicinal in its importance to Tlingit people. During Tlingit ceremonies, we see that the language literally brings the deceased into the room, involving them in ceremony and connecting them to sacred clan property (at.óow). Some of these concepts are important to understand when placing yourself on the path to becoming a speaker of this language. You should know that there is an incredible challenge in learning Tlingit, but also that there is nothing more meaningful in the world than giving yourself to this culture and language. Those of us who choose to speak, to put ourselves at risk of error, frustration, and end- less attempts to understand concepts that do not translate well into English, will be the ones who will attempt to hear our ancient ones and to imitate them. After spending half my life with this wonderful language and the courageous people who teach, learn, and understand the language, I have come to the conclusion that anyone can and should learn it. You have to work at it every single day, though, and make it a vital part of your life. With that, I offer the following tips for your consideration.

1 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. “Because We Cherish You ...” Sealaska Elders Speak to the Future (Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Foundation Press, 1981), 53-53a.

1 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Tlingit Language

⸙ Spend time with language speakers of different levels ize that level of commitment and adjust your time and and backgrounds. commitments accordingly. ⋆ There are many ways to speak Tlingit, but the best ways come from those who grew up speaking. We might ⸙ Have fun and realize how important you are. often feel most comfortable among our peers, but we ⋆ You will likely find yourself with more questions than need to seek out our elders and see how the language answers, so find ways to stay positive and see how lives in those who were born with it. far you are pushing yourself rather than trying to see ⋆ Remember that there are multiple interpretations of where you think you need to go. words, phrases, speeches, stories, and more. Just be- ⋆ Remember that endangered languages have baggage, cause someone says it is one way, or a book has it writ- and some people might take their anger out on you ten as one way, does not make it the only way it could during your language journey. That energy is not what be. you need to succeed, so find ways to keep it from affect- ing you too strongly. ⸙ Fill your life with language. ⋆ Balance the sacred activities with the fun ones. Our lan- ⋆ Tlingit is becoming more and more rare in the world guage is endangered, but that does not mean every use we live in, so you need to be an active member of the of it requires a ceremony or that you cannot have fun. language community and help put the language every- The humor that our ancestors had is still with us today, where. The language always lives on the land on which and the more you can play with the language the more it was born, but we still must fight to keep it here: seen, you will discover things on your own within the deeper heard, felt, for everyone. grammatical and structural patterns of the language. ⋆ If you are not near speakers, then seek out recordings. ⋆ Our language is endangered, yes, but you will not break Especially valuable are recordings that have transcrip- it. The only way to kill it off is to not speak it, and the tions and translations that you can study on your own. only way to keep it alive is to speak it. As a speaker Listen carefully and read along, then read out loud and of this language, you are the most sacred thing to the try to mimic the pacing, tone, and emotions of the Tlingit thought-world. You are the link between every- speaker you have listened to. thing we have ever been and everything we are about ⋆ Speak it everywhere you go. It does not matter if any- to become. You are a gift. You are sacred. You will re- one else can understand you. It does not matter if you build a house for our grandchildren, and teach them are making mistakes. What matters is you are trying the stories that exist in the gáasʼ (houseposts), the x̱ʼéen and you are creating the language in your life. (house screen). No matter what has ever happened or been said to or about you, you are just what we need. ⸙ Study whenever you can. ⋆ In order to become a speaker in the language, you must ⸙ Mockingbirds do not know grammar, but Eagles and carve out a huge portion of your life and give it to the Ravens do. language. This means adjustments. The world around ⋆ You can go a long way in the language without inter- you is flooded with content that is English-only, and nalizing the grammar, but if you do that you can only your duty becomes finding or creating a world that has really memorize and repeat things. The beauty of lan- space for Tlingit. guage is in grammar. You can memorize all the nouns ⋆ A colleague of mine, Ḵaashax̱íshdi (Roy Mitchell), has and phrases you need, and should keep doing so, but said that in order to learn a language it must become you need the verbs in order to communicate and really one of the top three things in your life. You should real- understand how our ancestors used the language. Fa-

2 3 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Tlingit Language

miliarity with grammar and metaphorical concepts is Studies have shown it to be closer to Eyak than other languag- what made someone a great speaker of the language. es in the tree, but even that shows only distant grammatical ⋆ At this point, nearly everyone who studies ends up similarities. If you learn one of the Na-Dene languages, then harboring the canoe well before achieving fluency, and you have similar sounds and grammatical patterns, but the that comes from an avoidance of verbs and grammar. ease of learning another depends upon the closeness of the So keep going, keep asking questions, and know that languages and the dedication of the learner. Knowledge of you will get it if you keep going. one only gives a sense of patterns and second language acquisition skills. Tlingit and the other languages on this tree ⸙ Take it easy and enjoy the view along the way. are mutually unintelligible. ⋆ Sometimes we get caught up in dying language syn- drome. This can result in feeling overwhelmed because there is so much to do in seemingly so little time. Or perhaps we might feel like we have to learn it all right now, that the weight of all of this is on us as an individual to make or break it. We might end up doing more crying in English than speaking in Tlingit, so we have to be wary of the trap that endangered languages face. ⋆ With that, keep in mind that language acquisition is a bit of a strange process. You might feel like you are going nowhere at all, but then suddenly understand a lot of what is being said. You probably know more than you think.

⸙ Do not quit. Do not walk away. The Tlingit Language Family Tlingit is a language indigenous to Southeast Alaska, Northwestern British Columbia, and Southwestern Yukon. It is one branch of the massive Na-Dene language family, the other being Eyak-Athabascan. Recent studies estimate there are approximately 200 speakers of the language today, which includes all second language learners of all levels, and this text is part of a larger movement dedicated to increasing that number. The following chart, created by Dzéiwsh2, shows how Tlingit is related to other languages. Tlingit is on its own branch in the Na-Dene language tree because it separated from the others long ago, and developed into a language that shares many patterns but is quite different than its relatives.

2 Crippen, James. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University fig 1: Tlingit Family Tree of British Columbia, 2013), .3.

4 5 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Tlingit Language

lect differences. Instead, let it pique your curiosity and try to keep track of these differences and what they might mean in the history and development of our language. Go with what speakers in your region give you in terms of instruction, and respect the differences within each dialect. For more information about dialects and differences, see the works of Crip- pen and Leer, who have studied these differences extensive- ly. For examples of the extinct dialect of Tongass, see the Leer fig 2: Tlingit Dialect Structure recordings of Frank & Emma Williams, which can be found

3 online at the Alaska Native Language Center at the Universi- The Tlingit Dialects ty of Alaska Fairbanks (www.uaf.edu/anlc). Within the language there are four main dialects: Tongass, Southern, Transitional, and Northern. Tongass was spoken Words of Encouragement mainly in the Ketchikan area, but no longer has any speak- Our elders want, more than anything, for us to succeed. ers. Southern has a small number of speakers, perhaps ten, Whenever you are struggling, just remember that there are and consists of two branches: Sanya (Wrangell) and Henya people out there who believe in you, who are confident that (Prince of Wales). Transitional (Wrangell, Petersburg, and you are going to continue going down the path of becom- Kake) also seems to influence Gulf Coast, Teslin and some ing a speaker of Tlingit. If you are not sure whether you are speakers in Carcross and Angoon. The branches of North- a speaker or not, remember this: a speaker is someone who ern are Inland (Carcross, Teslin, Atlin), Gulf Coast (Yaku- speaks the language, regardless of level. You know you have tat), and Central (Dry Bay, Hoonah, Sitka, Juneau, Klukwan, to continue improving, but you should always remember Haines, Skagway). that you are a speaker of this language if you commit to using The largest difference in dialects is between Tongass and it regularly. The way to internalize Tlingit language sounds, the others, although there are significant differences be- concepts, and knowledge is to listen and speak, pray about tween Southern and Northern. These differences primarily it, take it with you everywhere. If you make it a regular part occur in tone, vowel length, verb prefix contraction, and a of daily life, then the pieces will connect your mind, spirit, variation between ei~ee vowels in some words, esepcially body, and the language itself. verb roots. In many communities there are different words We are recovering the Tlingit language, and through that for the same things, or different interpretations of uses of the are rediscovering methods of teaching, learning, listening, same phrases, and these are more along the lines of regional and speaking. There have not been birth speakers of Tlingit variation than dialect. You should always respect these dif- in half a century, and if we are going to survive as a language ferences, and if you encounter conflicts, go with the native and culture, then we are going to have to figure out how to speaker of the area you are from and note the differences. change that dangerous trend. Our ancestors enjoyed these differences; it is a non-Tlingit Part of that comes from speaking Tlingit to our young and way of looking at things to believe that different dialects newborn children, at times exclusively. And a bigger part (or writing systems, for that matter) could ever divide us as comes from those who have grown up speaking only En- Tlingit people. Most language materials are developed in the glish—even those who understand Tlingit but do not speak. Central dialect, but can be adjusted to fit others. Those ones, the Tlingit Second Language (TSL) speakers, will When you are learning Tlingit, do not be frustrated by dia- have to make the giant conversion over to thinking in the

3 Crippen, James. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University language of our grandparents. of British Columbia, 2013), 2. These things can happen. These things will happen. We

6 7 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi must make them happen ourselves by giving language learning and teaching all that we have got, and holding on to a language that has grown in our land for tens of thousands of years. It is something too sacred to let go of, and something too close to dying to ignore any longer. I asked one of my dearest teachers to give a message to students of the language, and this is part of what she said:

Yee gu.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. Yee léelkʼu hás x̱á yee x̱ʼéit has wusi.áx̱ yeedát. Yee gu.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. G̱unéi áx̱ too.aadí tsú. Yee gu.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. Uháan áyá, haa léelkʼu hás, has du ítx̱ yaa ntoo.át Yee gu.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. Ldakát yeewháan. — Shgaté

Have strength and courage, all of you. Your grandparents are really listening to you now. Have strength and courage, all of you. We are beginning to walk along it, too. Have strength and courage, all of you. It is us, our grandparents, we are the ones following them. Have strength and courage, all of you. Every one of you. — Jessie Johnnie, Chookansháa4

4 Johnnie, Jessie. Personal Communication. Twitchell, Lance, trans. (Sitka, 2011).

8 2 Tlingit Grammatical Terms

Chʼáagu yáx̱ wooch kaanáx̱ kei du.átji noojéen. Yan at wudux̱aayídáx̱ aag̱áa áyú has du ée sh kadulnik nooch. — Ḵaajaakwtí

Like long ago when people gathered together. Afer everyone got through eatng, thatʼs when stories were told to them. — Walter Sobolef, Lʼeeneidí1

As you study the Tlingit language, you are inevitably going to encounter terms about grammar and language. You should not be scared of this; internalizing the grammar of another language often requires you to look at language differently than you have before. This is not anything strange or unique about Tlingit. Anyone who learns a second language will end up thinking about the ways that languages function. If you do not examine this, then you often end up memorizing and repeating a lot of phrases instead of understanding how the language puts those together. As you move towards the overall goal of understanding the thought world of ancient Tlingit people, then you will need some understanding of a third language: Tlingit grammar and linguistics. The goal of this text is to give the learner a base understanding of some of the terms as they are introduced. For a more detailed and linguistic-based description of these terms, see Naish-Story, Dauenhauer-Dauenhauer, Leer, Eggleston (Ed- wards), Crippen, and Cable. There is literally no end to what you can explore with

1 Soboleff, Walter. “Walter Soboleff and George Ramos.” Documenting Tlingit Conversations in Video and Time-aligned Text by Alice Taff. (Juneau: University of Alaska Southeast).

9 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tlingit Grammatical Terms

Tlingit grammar, but here we will cover them briefly so your and is thus not obligatorily expressed as possessed in a mind is prepared for the discussions that follow. We start language that also has inalienable nouns with the basic building blocks and go up from there. Most Inalienable noun of the terms covered will be things you already know how A noun that must have another noun or pronoun to to do in English, but you might not have thought about how show an existing relationship; refers to something they specifically function. If you ever had to explain gram- viewed as permanently and necessarily possessed, and mar to an English Second Language learner, then you prob- is thus obligatorily expressed as possessed. ably know it is easier to know correct from incorrect than to explain all of the reasons why. Alienated noun Before we begin examining this, we should cover a couple An inalienable noun that has lost its relationship to of points about why we are doing this at all. Many learners something and shows it grammatically by gaining a and teachers have suggested that we can learn language with- possessive suffix. out examining the grammar behind it. First, I would point Pronoun out that Tlingit has produced a very small number of fluent A word that can function by itself as a noun phrase and speakers over the last fifty years—fewer than ten. Second, that refers either to the participants in the discourse (ex: people who learn a second language become stuck if they I, you) or to someone or something mentioned elsewhere do not at some point examine grammar on their own and in the discourse (ex: she, it, this) with speakers. Third, Tlingit contains some amazing things that are worth the time and energy of examination and in- Independent Pronoun ternalization, and we cannot readily do this without accept- These are not specifically tied to a grammatical func- ing the terminology needed to talk about them. English has tion. They may be used to specify or locate a person, colonized our minds, but Tlingit grammar is the path to the animal, or group. thought-world of our ancestors. Fourth and finally, if we do Possessive Pronouns not put Tlingit grammar into our hearts and minds, then we These are used to show ownership of things, including will not speak in Tlingit and thirty years from now we will who the kinship term originates from have only a simplified version of what our ancestors once did Object Pronoun with beauty, grace, and brilliance. In a verb phrase, the object is impacted by the verb, and Parts of Speech in This Volume 2 is not the subject. Subject Pronoun Noun In a verb phrase, the subject is the agent in the verb. It Words which refer to people, places, things, ideas, or con- is the one who performs the action. cepts, whose members may act as any of the following: Postpositional Pronoun subjects of the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of There are certain verbs where something is going to- the verb, or object of a postposition. wards the object, and Tlingit handles this with a special Alienable noun type of pronoun that combines three things: possessive A noun that can exist on its own; refers to something pronoun, empty base, and directional & locational viewed as not permanently or necessarily possessed, suffix.

2 Loos, Eugene E. et al, eds. “Glossary of linguistic terms.” SIL International. Retrieved from http://www- 01.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOflinguisticTerms/ Oxford University. New Oxford American Dictionary. 2nd ed. NY: Oxford U. Press, 2005.

10 11 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tlingit Grammatical Terms

Diminutive A word or phrase naming an attribute, added to or gram- A smaller or shorter thing matically related to a noun to modify or describe it. Plural diminutive Vowel More than one smaller or shorter thing A speech sound that is produced by comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract, with vibration of the Compound nouns vocal cords but without audible friction and is a unit of Made up of two or more existing words or elements the sound system of a language that forms the nucleus of Suffix a syllable. A morpheme added at the end of a word to form a deriva- tive (ex: -ation, -fy, -ing, -itis). Consonant A basic speech sound in which the breath is at least partly Directional & relational base obstructed and which can be combined with a vowel to A word that shows the way in which two or more people form a syllable. or things are connected in terms of space and/or location, which may include motion or the conclusion of actions. Sonorant A sound produced with the vocal cords so positioned Directional & relational suffixes that spontaneous voicing is possible; a vowel, a glide, or a A suffix that attaches to nouns or directional & relation- liquid or nasal consonant. al bases to show the way in which two or more people or things are connected in terms of space and/or location, Open A word, suffix, or prefix that ends in a vowel which may include motion or the conclusion of actions.

Closed Empty base A word, suffix, or prefix that ends with a consonant A meaningless placeholder that allows directional & relational suffixes to be placed upon a pronoun. Unrounded A word, suffix, or prefix that does not end with a «-w» or Verb any of the following: -ug, -oog, -uk, -ook, -ukʼ, -ookʼ, -uḵ, A word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, -ooḵ, -uḵʼ, -ooḵʼ, -ux, -oox, -uxʼ, -ooxʼ, -ux̱, -oox̱, -ux̱ʼ, -oox̱ʼ and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, happen. Rounded Verb phrase A word, suffix, or prefix that ends with a «-w» or any of The part of a sentence containing the verb and any the following: -ug, -oog, -uk, -ook, -ukʼ, -ookʼ, -uḵ, -ooḵ, prepositional and postpositional words that affect the -uḵʼ, -ooḵʼ, -ux, -oox, -uxʼ, -ooxʼ, -ux̱, -oox̱, -ux̱ʼ, -oox̱ʼ meaning of the verb. Possessive Preverb Relating to or denoting the case of nouns and pronouns The part of the verb phrase that is not connected to the expressing possession. verb itself, but affects the meaning of the verb and how the verb functions. Plural Prefix (Of a word or form) denoting more than one The part of the verb that comes before the root, and is

12 13 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tlingit Grammatical Terms

attached to the verb itself, which includes some object Classifier pronouns, and all thematic prefixes, conjugation –i +i –i +i prefixes, subject pronouns, the classifier, and other components used for verb conjugation. ∅ ∅- ÿa- s sa- si- Thematic prefixes d+∅ da- di- d+s s- dzi- Components in the prefix that affect the meaning of the verb and the way it functions, and most of them de- –i +i –i +i rive from words and incorporate the meaning of those words into the verb itself. l la- li- sh sha- shi- Conjugation prefix d+l l- dli- d+sh sh- ji- A component of the verb that appears only in certain modes, but affects the stem variation. There are four Stem conjugation prefixes, and their meaning likely comes The core part of the verb in Tlingit, which is composed from motion verbs, as listed below: of a root and stem variation, and is found at or towards type general description the end of the verb and is the main component of ∅ moton that comes to an end meaning. unbounded moton na Root ga upward moton The heart of the verb, from which meaning is derived, g̱a downward moton which is most often one syllable, although there are multi-syllable exceptions. The root is what you look up Classifier in Tlingit dictionaries when translating to English. The A component of the verb that appears immediately to root is often denoted with the √ symbol. the left of the root, and serves the following functions: Stem variation 1) creation of new verbs by noting causation (some- The vowel length and tone of the verb root, which one doing it as opposed to it happening), classifica- changes based on stem type, conjugation prefix, and tion (types of objects or actions); 2) conjugation for verb mode, except in the case of invariable stems. the completion of the verb, which is referred to as –i There are six stem types, and the possibilities of their (incomplete) and +i (complete); 3) noting middle voice appearance are listed below. (subject is also an object or verb is reflexive) or the type name type name removal of an object or subject from the verb theme. The groups and their general description are below, and CVV open CVVC closed the complete list is on the following page. CV́Vʰ fading CV́VC glotalized invariable ejectve type general description ˟ CV́VCʼ ∅ default type general description s causaton or classifcaton CVVC long and low l causaton or classifcaton CV́VC long and high sh perjoratve (usually) CV́C short and high

14 15 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

Verb type A category of a Tlingit verb that determines how the verb functions conceptually and grammatically, and in Tlingit includes the following types and characteristics:

type description special characteristics for someone to do act something no primary imperfectve event for something to happen (use progressive imperfectve) ofen uses object for something to be a pronouns; rarely uses state certain way subject pronouns no primary imperfectve (use progressive motion for something to move imperfectve); conjugaton prefx changes based on type of moton for something to be only occurs in imperfectve positional positoned

Verb mode Verb conjugation according to the arguments presented by the verb, or basically what the verb does. In English these are often called “past tense” or “present tense” but in Tlingit the focus is often whether the verb has been occurred or not, instead of when it may have happened. The verb mode has certain components that appear in order to activate that mode, and affect contraction and the qualities of other components. Verb theme A skeletal representation of the verb that shows the necessary components for using that verb. Some are represented by a symbol, which means you can select items from a list and insert them in that location, although they may contract with surrounding elements. Transitivity The presence (or absence) or objects and subjects in a verb, and in Tlingit includes the following possibilities: transtive (object & subject), subject intransitive (subject only), object intransitive (object only), and impersonal (neither subject nor object).

16 3 Learning Tlingit

Ax̱ x̱ʼagáaxʼi áwé yéi kg̱watée: chʼu tleix̱ ḵug̱aag̱astee, Lingít. — Ḵaalḵáawu

My prayer will be this: forever, let it exist, Tlingit. — Cyril George, Ḵakʼweidí1

There is no single right way to learn a language, and there is also no easy way. Regardless of the collection of resources, techniques, methods, technologies, and philosophies, the main ingredients to success are humility, patience, time, and labor. This text introduces a set of concepts that can lead to a high level of understanding of Tlingit language and culture. In an ideal situation, the student would have access to speakers and would take what the speakers are willing to teach instead of trying to fit this or any other curriculum onto the consciousness of our elders. There are no specific lessons presented in this text, but instead there are lists of grammatical items with explanations and examples of how they function in the language. It is recommended that techniques of language acquisition and use accompany this text, and that the information presented here be used in existing or developing lessons to help convey some of the concepts and word lists.

1 George, Cyril. “Ḵaalḵáawu X̱ʼéidáx̱ Lingít Yoo X̱ʼatángi Daat (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DP2EVBtUrc.

17 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Learning Tlingit

This text assumes you have studied some Tlingit, especial- our case Tlingit-focused. ly the concepts presented in Beginning Tlingit by Richard In thinking about learning and teaching Tlingit, the fol- and Nora Dauenhauer. If you have not, then you should ex- lowing list is presented as a path to fluency: amine that text and the accompanying audio. In addition, you should study the phrase book Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá: Say It ⋆ pronunciation In Tlingit, also by the Dauenhauers, and the audio version, ⋆ nouns Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Áx̱: Hear It In Tlingit, by Johnny Marks and Keri ⋆ kinship & clans Eggleston (Edwards). The texts that you should always have ⋆ essential phrases with you in print or digital form are the Tlingit Verb Dictio- ⋆ modifying nouns nary by Gillian Story and Constance Naish and Dictionary ⋆ directional & relational terms of Tlingit by Keri Edwards (Eggleston). Each of these are in- ⋆ particles & interjections valuable to learning Tlingit, and you should work with them ⋆ introduction to the Tlingit verb enough to become very familiar with their structure so you ⋆ verbs & grammatical structure can look things up easily and fairly fast. The second-language learner must spend time memorizing lists of words and thinking about how they function in Second Language Learning the language. In addition, relationships between people, The second-language student of Tlingit must balance ener- places, the natural world, and the supernatural world must gy and time between listening, speaking, and studying. Your always be considered from the Tlingit perspective. In order time with other students is invaluable because you share to think in Tlingit, a student must always be questioning a bond that no one else in the world shares, and your time whether communication is originating from the English with fluent elders is even more valuable than that. One of speaking world or the Tlingit speaking world. While there is the hardest parts of learning an endangered language is com- fun to be had with translations of English concepts like song mitting to staying in the language, which means those who lyrics, movie titles, and other pop-culture items, that must be have not made the choice with you are left out of the loop at balanced with what our ancestors have left for us. times. It is not rude to stay in the language. It is choosing to Also, grammatical rules must be considered and under- allow the language to live. stood over time. A second language cannot be learned with- When you have speakers and learners of the language to- out internalizing the grammar, and that function works dif- gether, then you must push yourself to make Tlingit the lan- ferently for second-language speakers than it does for birth guage of choice. Keeping the group in English does two dan- speakers. Some people believe it is harder to learn when you gerous things: 1) it wastes time—which is even more deadly are older, but in reality it is just different. A human childʼs when precious elders are present, and 2) it makes English the mind is wired to language acquisition, but I think that the more important language. Tlingit must be the language of mind is always ready for language acquisition. We live in a choice for learners and speakers if language shift is going to society that tried to kill off Native languages for a handful reverse, and that is a decision that you alone have the power of colonizing languages. Because of this we must make sure to make. that indigenous value systems and ways of thinking are priv- Language must be in constant use in order to become part ileged over colonial methods if our languages are going to of a personʼs life, and that use includes listening, speaking, revitalize and our people are going to believe in themselves. and being surrounded by language. The living and working People were told that their languages were too simplistic, space of the second-language learner should have the target or were the work of the devil. Now we are told that the global language all over as the physical space becomes a reflection market needs to focus on a small number of languages and of the desired internal space, which is multilingual and in

18 19 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Learning Tlingit there is no place in modern economies for Native languages. ⋆ clan property & clan law These are the same pieces of rhetoric that mask a concept of ⋆ clan relationships racial superiority that we have the power to reject when we ⋆ balance live with our languages. We have been told over and over to ⋆ responsibility speak our languages, so that is what we are going to do. ⋆ taboo ⋆ stories Tlingit Culture ⋆ oratory Tlingit culture flows through the language. While you are ⋆ ceremony learning the language, you should always be pressing for a stronger understanding of how Tlingit culture is thought Tlingit Worldview about from the perspective of the fluent speaker. One such speaker is Keiheenákʼw John Martin, who once said: You are going to see that language reveals another thought world, and will give you a glimpse into the way that Tlingit 2 Haa ḵusteeyí, haa jeet has aawatée, yá Aas Ḵwáani. people viewed and thought about the world long ago. This Our culture & life, was given to us from them, the Tree People. concept is captured marvelously by scholar and language ad- Our challenge is to think of these things from a Tlingit per- vocate Oscar Kawagley in his speech at the Nurturing Indige- spective. There will be times when you try to translate some- nous Language Conference in 2003: thing, whether it is a joke or a concept, and it seems to not Nature contains the creatures, plants, and elements work in English. There will also be times when you look at of Nature that have named and defined themselves something translated much differently once you have inter- to my ancestors and are naming and defining them- nalized more language. selves to me. My ancestors made my language from As a learner, keep in mind that the path to fluency involves Nature. When I speak Yupiaq, I am thrust into the a fluency in the culture as well, and the English speaking part thought world of my ancestors.3 of your mind likes to challenge what you are trying to think To think of the world in these terms takes a lot of time and about in Tlingit. When you work with Tlingit, especially en- focus. The journey to language revitalization is absolutely a gaging with fluent speakers, cultural leaders, and listening to spiritual one on the personal and the group level. Because of recordings from a time when language and cultural fluency that, we have been told to have strength and courage. One of was much higher, you will enrich your life in immeasurable my teachers, Shgaté Jessie Johnnie used to call me and say, ways. “you are soaking in the icy waters for your people,” and that Below is a short list of cultural values that you should fo- is how it is. cus on while learning Tlingit. There will be many more that The list below are items to keep in mind while learning emerge in your own journey, but you should keep the Tlingit Tlingit. As you become a speaker, your view of how these cultural context in mind while learning, and always try to see things function will likely shift as you allow another con- the way your elders are thinking about things. sciousness to form in your mind, body and spirit.

⋆ respect ⋆ spirituality ⋆ love ⋆ philosophy ⋆ humility ⋆ time & space ⋆ honor ⋆ natural world ⋆ humor 2 Martin, John. “Kingeistí ḵa Keiheenákʼw Aas Ḵwáani Daat Yoo Has X̱ʼawli.át (Tlingit Language).” trans. 3 Kawagley, Oscar. “Nurturing Native Languages,” in Nurturing Native Languages. ed. Jon Reyhner et al Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ip2iwSSSoQE. (Flagstaff: Northern Arizona University, 2003), vii.

20 21 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

⋆ supernatural world ⋆ grammar ⋆ group identity ⋆ individual identity Language Learning in a Cultural Context No matter what this or any other text provides, keep in mind that the greatest asset we have is our birth speakers. Languages change, and you should be taking measures to have fun in the language and make it your own, but keep in mind that there are occasions for the language to move into a sacred space and as a learner you should develop intuitions as to how the language should be used in certain situations and places. Remember to speak it all the time, even if no one is there to hear it, and to engage with other speakers as much as possible. One of the risks we take in learning and documenting our language is that we only learn how to talk about it in English, and not to engage in the language as listeners and speakers. Push yourself in low-pressure situations like speaking to yourself, to fellow learners, and to animals and children. Speak out on the land and address everything on Lingít Aaní because those things have spirits inside them and understand our language. More than anything, remember that you are everything you need to be right now. Instead of analyzing where you are or are not, focus on what the next steps might be and what methods will help you continue to grow and flourish. Remind yourself that you are one of the speakers of this language, and that your actions and dedication are creating the pathway to future generations of speakers. Our language was made for us, and was intended to last forever. You are a part of that process, and the language will heal you and enable you to better function in this world. We have unity of love for each other, and that is what we were destined to have. Enjoy your studies & gunalchéesh.

22 4 Nouns

Sagú yáx̱ ḵaa yayík du.ax̱ji nuch héendei yaa ana.ádi. — Taakw Kʼwátʼi

Their voices would sound happy when they went down to the sea. — Frank G. Johnson, Taakw.aanedí1

One of the things you can do to prepare yourself for studying Tlingit verbs is to understand how nouns work in the language. This is actually fairly straightforward, and is a good place to start learning the language. One thing you should be doing by now is learning as many words for things as you can. You already know what many of these things are, so you can start learning the Tlingit words for them and replacing them in English speaking. For example, the Tlingit word for spoon is shál. You can just start using the Tlingit word instead, and you will find yourself committing the association of word and object. You can continue doing this with flashcards, pictures, and other objects in daily life. If you want to learn the Tlingit names for things, then stop using the English names as you learn them in Tlingit. You should be able to learn new nouns at a regular pace, and should be preparing your mind to store thousands of words for things. If you do not find ways to use these new words, then you will find them much more difficult to commit to memory. But if you say them, think of the object, hear them, think of the object, and think less about the English translation, then you will be well on your way. To understand how nouns function, we will start with

1 Johnson, Frank. “Duktʼootlʼ / Strong Man.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 138–139.

23 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns looking at them in Tlingit so you can think about new words Other words are borrowed into the language, which is as you learn them. another thing that has always been happening and always will. Often the word becomes a Tlingit word by adapting Common Nouns the sound system of Tlingit. This does not degrade the lan- As you learn words for things, you will begin to see the guage at all, but instead shows an adaptability and cultural Tlingit worldview that is evident in the language. One of the interchange that occurs from a Tlingit perspective. Some ex- things to think about when learning nouns is where words amples of this are wásh (from English “mush”), wínk (milk), potentially came from and what that means in terms of the cháach (church), and shgóon (school). history of people and place. Many of the oldest words in Many borrowed words in Tlingit come from neighboring Tlingit have one or two syllables, and you will find that near- languages, the Chinook jargon, Russian, French, and English. ly all words that have more than two syllables are manufac- Dzéiwsh has many of these listed in papers, and a more com- tured words for things. This creates an interesting study of plete list is forthcoming in his dissertation. When it comes what may have been here when the Tlingit people migrated to nouns, we see that the language is incredibly adaptable here, and what they encountered as the time passed. Within and it should always be that way. The introduction of new the language, we have well over ten thousand years of history objects and ideas is nothing new to any language around the that we can think deeply about. world, and should be seen as a sign of life instead of any sort When Tlingit makes a word for something, which it has of trouble. always done and will always do, there are a number of ways There are two types of nouns in Tlingit, and this is a concept that takes a bit of time to understand. The terms used that it can happen. The word can be descriptive, meaning that the name for the noun is a compound word that de- to differentiate these types are alienable and inalienable. scribes the basic appearance, or function of the object. A While these may sound difficult, the concept itself is quite good example of this is gandaadagóogu – woodpecker. This simple. Alienable means that noun can exist on its own, comes from gán (wood, firewood) + daa (around) + dagóok and inalienable means it cannot separate from its possessor (pecking) + -u (nominalizing suffix, which makes a verb without shifting to an alienated form. This is a key concept into a noun). The word in Tlingit means, “pecking around to understanding the function of some Tlingit nouns, and the wood” which is descriptive and combines many parts of explains why some of them are listed in dictionaries with Tlingit grammar that we will be looking at soon. We see this placeholder nouns to relate to, such as du (her/his) and a or in other examples, like hintaak xóodzi – polar bear (brown at (its). Some examples of these are du tláa ( mother), du shá bear in the water), yaa ḵudzigéiyi tsʼatsʼée – pigeon (wise ( head), a kaayí (pattern, model, template for it; measure of songbird), and gusʼkʼiḵwáan lʼoowú – oak (European’s piece it; measurement for it), and at katé (bullet). of wood). The last one contains a descriptive word for Euro- peans which means, “people at the base of the clouds,” which Alienable is the first name given to European visitors. An alienable noun is the most common form. It is a noun Another way that words are built for nouns is by adding that can exist without a possessor. These are the same in -aa to the end of a verb, creating a word that means, “the one Tlingit as they are in English: a person, place, or thing. In that (verbs).” You will find examples of this all over in Tlingit, Tlingit, we can call these a saayí (the name of something). and will learn how to look the verb up when you see it. Some You should learn as many nouns as possible, focusing on of these are lítaa – knife (the one that glides), g̱wéinaa – tow- ones that you would use on a daily basis so you increase your el (the one that wipes), and kooxéedaa – pen, pencil (the one chance of remembering them. that writes).

24 25 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

Inalienable The following is a list of kinship terms2 based on the clan system. Those who are the same moiety (Crow/Raven or An inalienable noun cannot exist without a possessor un- Wolf/Eagle) are —x̱oonxʼi yán ( clan relatives) and those who less it shifts to an alienated form. These must be possessed are opposite are —kaani yán ( clan in-laws). Your relation- by something, but they do not gain a possessive suffix, which ship to them is very important, especially during ceremonies. will be talked about in the next chapter. Inalienable nouns Sibling kinship terms are specific to the gender of the speak- are most commonly kinship terms and body parts, but also er, and these are not the same as Euroamerican families. A include relational nouns. sibling in Tlingit is anyone of the same clan and generation, Inalienable nouns are listed with an en dash (–) in front of and anyone from the same moiety that you feel very close to. them to signal that a possessor is needed. A list of pronouns is included in this chapter so you can learn the possessive –yinaanáx̱ matrilineal line pronouns to replace them. Nouns can also function as a pos- –x̱ooní tribesman sessor, as in the following examples: –tláa mother –shá –ʼs head –tláakʼw maternal aunt ax̱ shá my head –káak maternal uncle keitl shá dogʼs head –shátx̱ femaleʼs older sister –tláa –ʼs mother –kéekʼ femaleʼs younger sister du tláa her/his mother –éekʼ femaleʼs brother g̱ooch tláa wolf mother –húnx̱w maleʼs older brother –kéekʼ maleʼs younger brother –dlaakʼ maleʼs sister Kinship Terms –kikyádi twin Tlingit kinship terms are rooted in the matrilineal clan –kéilkʼ maternal niece/nephew system. Because of this, it is important to understand the –xwáayi clan brother traditional Tlingit way of looking at family, friends, and in- –sháawu clan sister laws. Often we see the word friends translated in Tlingit as ax̱ x̱oonxʼi yán (my clan relatives, friends). This term would –g̱unéitkanaayí clan opposite not include those from the opposite clan, who generally are –káani clan in-law ax̱ kaani yán (my in-laws) and can also have specific relationships which are dictated by clan genealogy. These terms are –éesh father fluid, and are not determined only by lineage. If two people –aat paternal aunt grow closer to one another through friendship or marriage, –sáni paternal uncle they may choose to use a kinship term for one another in- –káalkʼw paternal niece/nephew stead of calling each other by name. Tlingit kinship terms are listed with the placeholder pro- –shát wife noun —(her/his), as in —tláa ( mother). The pronoun can –x̱úx̱ husband be replaced by another pronoun or noun. For example: ax̱ –wóo father-in-law tláa (my mother), i tláa (your mother), g̱ooch tláa (wolf mother), and naa tláa (clan mother). 2 Edwards (Eggleston), Keri. Dictionary of Tlingit (Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2009), 533-535. Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard Dauenhauer. Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá – Say It in Tlingit: A Tlingit Phrasebook. (Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2002), 36-39.

26 27 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–chaan mother-in-law yee all of your/yʼallʼs –yitshát daughter-in-law has du their –seix̱úx̱ son-in-law ḵaa someoneʼs; a personʼs

–ḵáawu man, boyfriend There is also a set of terms that have special meaning and –shaawádi woman, girlfriend use the first person plural possessive pronoun haa (our). –een aa mate These are locked meanings, and the definitions given here –x̱án aa mate are simplified. Consult elders for a more thorough definition and how they relate to Tlingit spirituality. –yádi child haa shagéinyaa the creator –yátxʼi children haa shagóon our ancestors –sée daughter haa shuká those who came before us –yéet son haa tlagooḵwaanxʼi yán our ancient ones –dachx̱án grandchild haa nanaayí our deceased –léelkʼw grandparent –áali grandparent The following pronouns are used when speaking directly –daakanóoxʼu motherʼs paternal grandparent to the relative: –saayí namesake aatléi/aatlée! mother! –yaḵáawu partner éesh! father! síkʼ! daughter! –tʼaag̱í clan brother or sister –woosh kíkʼi yán sisters / brothers yítkʼ! son! kélkʼ! maternal niece/nephew! These are pluralized with an additional term that comes kálkʼw! paternal niece/nephew! after the kinship term: léelkʼw! grandparent!

comes afer most kinship terms to chx̱ánkʼ! grandchild! –hás pluralize them a few kinship terms use this The illustrations on the following pages are designed to dimunitve plural, such as «–káani –yán yán» (–ʼs in-laws), «–dachxánxʼi̱ yán» help you visualize the Tlingit kinship system. Remember (–ʼs grandchildren) that Tlingit uses a clan-based system, which overrides blood relationships. Your clan opposites are often treated with a The kinship terms above use possessive pronouns to show higher level of respect in order to maintain strong clan re- to the relationship, such as the following: lationships, and a Tlingit clan name comes with the kinship relations of those who previously held the name. ax̱ my Kinship terms can change as relationships do, meaning i your that people may use close kinship terms to signify a strong du her/his personal relationship. For example, someone who is Kaag- haa our waantaan Yádi may refer to Kaagwaantan males they feel close to as ax̱ éesh regardless of the blood relationship. Also,

28 29 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

30 31 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns if a child receives a Tlingit name from an elder, that elder –daa.it limbs might then refer to the childʼs father as ax̱ éesh as a gesture of coordinaton; carriage of body –daa.ittú –daa.ittú tlél ulcheen: “wobbly all over”, clan and familial closeness. Your understanding the kinship daa.ittunéekw: “arthrits” structure is invaluable when it comes to functioning well in general area of joints and/or bones; traditional ceremonies. This is who we are and how we relate –daa.itx̱oo frame, skeletal structure of body to each other, our clans, our at.óow, and haa shuká. –dook skin, complexion Body Parts –dukká surface of skin; outer layer of skin –duktú under skin; in the Iower Iayer of skin In Tlingit, a body part does not exist without belonging to –naa upper body something. A removed body part would still need a noun or pronoun to attach to, because if your hand was removed you –s’aḵx̱ʼáak joint(s); between bones joints; between bones would still consider it your hand. If the disconnected body –daa.itx̱ʼáak specifcally between the bones part is permanently removed, then this is shown by making –sʼaḵtu.eix̱í, –sʼaḵtu.eex̱í bone marrow it an alienated body part, which is described after this sec- –daaleilí wrinkled, baggy skin tion. You should familiarize yourself with human body parts in –daadleeyí fesh Tlingit, which are listed below.3 Many of these listings are –x̱aawú body hair, fuzz compound words themselves, which you can study to see –xáak skeleton, bare bones how the Tlingit thought process sees the body. Sometimes g̱éex̱ʼ chapped, leathery skin body parts can have body parts, forming compounds like ax̱ téisʼ fab tlʼiḵshá (“head of my finger” / fingertip). These compound téet’ vein; tendon (inside body) body parts reveal interesting connections between the world sʼaaḵ bone and the body. nóoxʼ shell; carapace As you review the list below, which is most of the known body parts in Tlingit, think about the relationships you see –túḵlʼi cartlage, gristle between some of the words, and also the way that they pat- –sʼaḵshutúḵlʼi cartlage, gristle at the end of bones tern themselves when creating compound and possessed –sʼaḵx̱ʼáak túḵlʼi cartlage, gristle between bones forms. As you study Tlingit nouns more, the patterns will lé membrane become clearer to you, and you will be able to create your –daaleiyí membrane around (as a bone) own complex nouns to describe things that you see as you –sʼaaḵ daaleiyí gristle around bones interact with the language. The following lists start with general terms and then move down through major body areas –shá head (head, neck, torso, etc.). For a complete list, consult Leerʼs –shadaa around head Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary, where these entries were –shantú inside of head copied from. –shakée (on) top of head –daa body; around body –shayee under head; supportng head –daashagóon body parts –shax̱aawú hair –daasheeyí limbs –kakʼx̱aawú bangs –shakakóochʼi curly hair 3 Leer, Jeff. Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary: the Dialects Spoken by Tlingit Elders of Carcross, and Teslin, Yukon, and Atlin, British Columbia (Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre, 2001), 106-127.

32 33 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–shashaaní gray hair –waḵltáak, –waḵlitáak inside of eye –shakwtú in hair; all through hair –waḵdaatúḵlʼi gristle around eyeball –xʼéesʼi lock of hair; mated hair optcal fuid –waḵshantulʼóox̱ʼu gelatnous fuid inside eye ponytail; hair over back of neck ted –ludíx̱ʼ chʼéeni, into a bow –waḵshantú back of eye or eye socket – lekʼíchʼ chʼéeni (C) traditonally ted into a bow with feathers stcking out –waḵkadáalʼi epicanthic fold of eye –shax̱aawú kagoowú roots of hair –waḵshú corner of eye –shakʼi.eet follicle of hair –waḵchʼóokʼ outside corner of eye fontanel –waḵkadoogú eyelid –gaan sof spot on a babyʼs head –wax̱ʼé, –waḵx̱ʼé rim of eyelid(s); opening of eye(s) place skull knit together afer –shakeewaag̱í fontanel closed –waḵx̱ʼatá inside of eyelid(s) scalp –wax̱ʼax̱éix̱ʼu, –shadaadoogú eyelash –waḵx̱ʼax̱éix̱ʼu –gúk ear –waḵtayeex̱éix̱ʼu botom eyelash –gukyaxʼaan top edge of ear –waḵdaadoogú skin around eye –gukdaa outer ear wrinkles in skin of eyelids above the –waḵgandaa eyelashes –gukshú earlobe area around eyes tragus –waḵdandaa –guklʼóotʼi small projecton of skin-covered cartlage on the area below eye cheek side of the ear –waḵtayee –gukyík inside ear; ear canal –waḵhéeni, –wax̱ʼahéeni tears –gukyikx̱aawú hair in ears –waḵhéeni eetí streaks lef by tears –gukyikk’óox̱ʼu earwax –wax̱ʼaḵéetʼi mucus, pus, discharge from eyes –waaḵ dlóoḵ, sleep in eyes; dried mucus gumming face –yá –wax̱ʼadlóog̱u, up eyelashes –yadook facial skin, complexion of face –waḵx̱ʼadlóog̱u –káakʼ forehead –wásh cheek –yatʼákw temple; upper side of face from cheekbones to top of head –washkasʼaag̱í cheekbone –sʼee eyebrow –washká outside of cheek –waḵkináa area over eye; underside of brow –washleiyí sof part of cheek –waḵg̱údli big round eyes lines along cheeks from nose to –washkadeiyí corners of mouth –waḵkadleidí white of eye –washtú inside of cheek –waḵlitaaktʼoochʼí iris of eye –washkadleeyí cheek fesh –waḵlitaakdleidí white ring around iris –waḵkayádi, pupil –lú nose –waḵlataakyádi –luká, –lugóon bridge of nose opening in his/her eye –waḵlitaak.woolí from pupil to back of eye –luyaxʼaan tp of nose –waḵyík in eye –lux̱ʼé openings of nostrils

34 35 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–lugóochʼ lobe of nostril –ux̱kʼidleeyí gums –lutú inside of nose, nostril –x̱ʼasʼgukáadzi, salivary glands –lutux̱aawú hair in nose –x̱ʼasʼguwéisʼi –lʼóotʼ tongue –lug̱éitlʼ snot, mucus from nose –lʼóotʼ yaxʼaan, –lutudlóog̱u, tp of tongue –lukasʼeexí, –lʼóotʼ xʼaan dried snot, mucus in nose, booger –lutukasʼeexí, –lʼóotʼ wán side of tongue –lutukanóodzi –lʼóotʼ kʼí root, back of his/her tongue –luḵéetʼi mucus, pus, discharge from nose –lʼóotʼ tayee area below tongue –lutʼaaḵ side of nose frenum –lʼóotʼ tayeetláag̱i vee-shaped ridge connecting base of tongue to –lutayee, –ḵʼaluyee area under nose bottom of mouth –lututúḵlʼi nose cartlage saliva glands at front of frenum –lʼóotʼ tayeesítʼi below the tongue –lutuxʼúxʼu nasal membrane –nóotʼani, –nóotʼayi, uvula –ludaa around nose –nóotʼee philtrum –luyeesʼíxʼi trough running from middle of nose to upper –x̱ʼahéeni saliva lip –lakax̱éelʼ thick saliva; drool from inside the –ḵʼalú top of philtrum mouth –ḵʼaluchʼéeni botom of philtrum –x̱ʼax̱éelʼ thick saliva; drool from the mouth

–x̱ʼé mouth –shakanóoxʼu skull –x̱ʼatá corner of mouth –shakaxaagú empty skull –laká inside of mouth –shakeesʼaag̱í top of skull –lakadoogú skin inside mouth –shaláx̱ʼ inside of skull –kʼiḵlʼán palate –tlag̱eiyí brain big mouth water in head –x̱ʼaḵágu literally: basket-mouth –shuntuhéeni supposed to make a person smart –x̱ʼadaa lips; area around mouth –tlag̱eiyí yadaatéetʼi blood vessels on the surface of brain –x̱ʼadaadoogú lips; skin of lips –tlag̱eiyí yadaadoogú membrane around brain –x̱ʼaxʼaa raised edge around lips –x̱ʼásʼ lowerjaw, mandible –x̱ʼadaadzaayí his mustache, whiskers –x̱ʼasʼtusʼaag̱í jawbone; jaws –kʼáatsʼ gap in teeth –x̱ʼasʼtu.eex̱í marrow of jawbone –oox̱ tooth –x̱ʼag̱ákwshayi lower jaw hanging wide open –ux̱taag̱áni canine tooth –téey chin –ux̱kʼí base of teeth part of teeth below gum line –téey yax̱ʼáak clef of chin in teeth his beard, whiskers –ux̱x̱oo among the teeth and gums –yadaadzaayí base of neck; lower neck tooth marks; mark or scar lef where –ux̱.eetí –sé, –sá where one wears a necklace; also means she/he bit “voice”

36 37 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–sagú collar; base of neck –wóow chest –leitóox̱ throat –woowká, –yuwká on chest –leiyoowú esophagus –wuwtú, –yuwtú inside of chest, breast –leikachóox̱ʼu windpipe; pharynx –xeitká thorax; fat upper surface of chest –leikachóox̱ʼu gúnlʼi, –lʼaa breast –leitux̱gúnlʼi, voicebox; adamʼs apple –lʼaa tayee area below breast –leikachóox̱ʼu sʼaag̱í –woowkasʼaag̱í, big throat sternum, breastbone –leitux̱ḵágu lit. basket throat –yuwkasʼaag̱í –leitux̱ḵágu ligaaw booming voice –woowkasʼaag̱í goodlí bump on sternum –sʼáaxu ya.áawu, –xéit, –yuwshú solar plexus jugular vein –shayiktéetʼi –woowshuyisʼaag̱í, caudiform appendage –yuwshuyisʼaag̱í, small curved projection of cartilage below the ribcage in the area ofthe solar plexus –lakʼéechʼ occiput; nape of neck; back of head –yuwshutúḵlʼi, –lakʼéechʼ gúnlʼi occipital bone –sʼóoḵ rib(s) bone at the base of skull on the back –sʼuḵkulayáachʼi lowest rib(s), short rib(s) –lakʼéechʼ sʼaag̱í of head abdomen; surface of belly; front of –lakʼéechʼ kóog̱u pit at base of skull –yuwá body –saká on neck, collar –yuwadaa abdominal area; around belly –layatʼakwsʼaag̱í, –yukaayí fesh covering belly –letóox̱ kasʼaagí, collarbone ̱ –kasantú below belt –wóow sʼaag̱í –yuwadaadoogú, depression along the sides of belly skin; skin over abdominal area –layatʼákw esophagus extending down bebind –yuwdaadoogú the collarbone –yuwadaadleeyí, fesh over abdominal area back of neck; (upper) neck –yuwdaadleeyí –ludíx̱ʼ can refer to whole upper neck, but specifically means back of neck –yuwkax̱aawú hair on belly bone at base of skull that looks like a –kool navel, bellybuton –ludíx̱ʼ shudzískʼu larger owl (tsiskʼw) –taanú, –taaní umbilical cord bone at base of skull that looks like a –ludíx̱ʼ shukʼágu small owl (kʼákw) –yik.ádi internal organs, viscera –díx̱ʼ back –tʼéix̱ʼ heart –dix̱ʼká surface of back; on back –keigú lungs –dix̱ʼtusʼaag̱í backbone –dix̱ʼgei.ádi gament connectng the heart to back –dix̱ʼkagoodlí hump on back ̱ kidney –óoxʼu shoulderblade; scapula –kaháagu in addition to meaning “its eggs, roe (of a fish)” –óoxʼu x̱ʼáak area between shoulderblades –kaháagu daataayí, kidney fat –óoxʼu kadleeyí shoulderblade muscles –kaháakw daataayí sinew connectng kidney to hipbone –dix̱ʼgana.áayi, largest vertebra (between the –kʼix̱ʼaaktási –dix̱ʼkana.áayi shoulder blades) –tlʼóoḵ, –tlʼóog̱u liver

38 39 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

belly, paunch –jig̱ei crook of arm; in embrace –x̱ʼóolʼ including all intemal organs in the abdominal cavity –jig̱eitéix̱ʼi biceps –ḵux̱shusxéexi ascending colon –tʼeey elbow –noox̱ú colon tp of elbow locally called “bumguts” in reference to moose –tʼiyshú virtuaIly interchangeable with t’iy –naasí intestnes, guts –tsʼéendli forearm a naasixʼeidí small intestne forearm; bones in forearm; radius –sʼúdi and ulna –kaleiyí, –yuwkaleiyí intestnal membrane wrist greater omentum, layer of tssue and –jigúnlʼi –yígi fat covering its stomach knob on outer side of hislher wrist locally called “kerchief” –jitʼáḵlʼi the knob of the largest wrist bone, on the outer side ofthe wrist a yígi taayí omental fat fat around «–yigi», its omentum –jín ká, –jiká back of wrist –yoowú gudláawu botomless pit of a stomach –jín hand –kulóoxʼshani, on hislher hand bladder –jinká –kalóoxʼshani –jiwán outer edge of hand –kulóoxʼshani téetʼi, urinary tract –jintáak palm of hand –kalóoxʼshani téetʼi –jintakyádi, –jintaakyádi center of palm –yikkaxaasí, diaphragm –yikkaxaadzí locally called “curtain”, in reference to moose –jintáak dáalʼi, –jintaakdáalʼi, lines in palm –teiyí gall bladder –jintaakkwéiyi –sheexú, –shooxú spleen (or pancreas?) –jinkʼí base of hand –jintú grip –kichyá under or beside arm; inside shirt, dress in hands/arms –jín x̱oo among the bones, joints, and muscles –éenee, –éenyee armpit –jín tusʼaag̱í bones of hand –éenee x̱aawú armpit hair –goosh thumb –tʼaḵká side of body; alongside her/him –tlʼeeḵ, –tlʼeiḵ fnger –ḵaatl fank, side of belly –chʼéex̱ʼi, –chʼéix̱ʼi index tnger fank, side of body between the ribs –ḵatlyá and the hip –tlʼiḵtlein middle fnger –kasán torso, body –laayig̱águ, –tlʼiḵkakées tlʼeegí, ring fnger –kéek one side of torso ̱ one of the two symmetrical halves of the torso –tlʼeeḵ ḵíni –wankachʼeeḵ, –x̱eek upper arm pinky, litle fnger –wankachʼeiḵ –x̱eek kadleeyí upper arm muscles –tlʼiḵx̱ʼáak, –x̱ikshatusʼaag̱í, between fngers, webbing between humerus, upper arm bone –tlʼiḵ.wax̱ʼáak, fngers –x̱iktusʼaag̱í –tlʼiḵyax̱ʼáak –x̱ikshá shoulder –tlʼeeḵ kax̱áksi, knuckle –x̱ikshatú inside of shoulder –tlʼeeḵ kagúnlʼi

40 41 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–tlʼiḵshá fngertp –sʼeiyoowú, –sʼayoowú calf of leg –x̱aakw nail (of fnger or toe) –sʼeiyoodleeyí, –x̱akwkʼí cutcle –sʼeiyoowú dleeyí, calf muscle –sʼayoowú dleeyí –x̱akwk’idoogú skin of cutcle –sʼeiyoowú sʼaagí, –x̱akwtayee under fngemail ̱ –sʼayoowú sʼaag̱í, calf bone –tlʼiḵtusʼaagí fnger bones ̱ –sʼeiyootlein sʼaag̱í –gooshtusʼaag̱í bone in thumb –xéesʼi, –xéesʼ shin –kagoowú stump (of amputated limb) –sʼeiyoowutéetʼi, –x̱ʼeitakwtéetʼi, achilles tendon –kasán, –séegi ká waist –x̱ʼeitakwtási, –kasanká on or over waist –saayeetéetʼi –katʼóot the middle of body; waist area foot –gwéinshani baby talk –ḵáash pelvis; hip –x̱ʼusgúnlʼi ankle –ḵáash kasʼaagí hipbone ̱ knob on outer side of ankle knob at the end of hip bone –x̱ʼustʼáḵlʼi the knob of the largest ankle bone, on the outer –ḵáash shukʼwátʼi side of the ankle –ḵáash kʼiwoolí, socket of hip bone (in the pelvis) –x̱ʼuská, –iḵká top of foot –ḵáash guwoolí –x̱ʼusg̱ei inside edge of foot –kʼóolʼ tailbone, botom of spine –x̱ʼuswán outer side of foot –lʼeet tailbone; coccyx; crotch –shutóox̱ʼ outer side of foot up to the –kʼí rump; the fesh around hip anklebone –tóoḵ butocks, but –x̱ʼustáak, –iḵtáak sole of foot –iḵtaakyádi, arch of foot –g̱ushká, –gushká (on) lap –x̱ʼustaakyádi –x̱ʼoos foot, leg –x̱ʼeitákw heel –g̱áts thigh; upper leg –x̱ʼusdaa around feet –g̱atsdaa around thigh –iḵkasʼaag̱í bone(s) on top of the arch of foot –g̱atsdàdliyi thigh muscles; fesh of thigh –x̱ʼustlʼeeḵ, –x̱ʼustlʼeiḵ toe –gatstusʼaaḵ, ̱ thighbone; femur –x̱ʼusgoosh big toe –g̱atstusʼaag̱í –x̱ʼusyaxʼaan tps of toes; toe(s) of moccasin(s), –keey knee shoe(s) end of knee –x̱ʼusx̱aakw toenail –kiyshá virtually interchangeable with keey –x̱ʼustlʼeeḵ tusʼaag̱í toe bone(s) –keeysʼaḵx̱ʼáak kneejoint –x̱ʼus.eetí footprint –kiyshakanóoxʼu kneecap –x̱ʼustlʼiḵyax̱’áak tlʼóogu, underside of knee; (inside of) lower ̱ toejam –saayee leg –x̱ʼustlʼiḵx̱ʼaaksʼeexí –keey ká (restng) on his/her knee(s) hindúsʼ stomach acid; bile in the stomach –téexʼw ká, –tóoxʼ ká (kneeling) on knees

42 43 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

–daahéeni amniotc fuid surrounding it (baby) This is most commonly seen with animal parts when they –teiyí kahéeni, –teiyí, are removed from the animal. For example, g̱áx̱ jín (rabbitʼs bile –teiyí tukahéeni paw) would become g̱áx̱ jíni (rabbit paw) if it were separated shé blood permanently from the animal. This cannot happen with kinship terms, although a few of them seem to have a possessive –tlʼéili semen; its milt (of fsh) suffix (yát ~ –yádi). –lóoxʼu urine As you work with Tlingit more, you will see the possessive kax̱ʼees strong urine smell suffix, especially in names and within body parts that are g̱wáalʼ fart compound words. You will also notice it in speech and texts. kóochʼ noiseless fart kóotlʼ high-pitched fart Names –keech fecal material; contents of intestnes Proper names in Tlingit are those of people, places, clans, háatlʼ feces; dung nations, and many at.óow (sacred clan property). These lʼílʼ feces; dung nouns are special because they typically do not gain suffixes. sʼéix̱ʼ, sʼéex̱ʼ watery diarrhea The important distinction to make here is that they cannot be possessed or pluralized. It is ungrammatical to say haa geitlʼ thick mucus, phlegm ̱ Lḵóodi (Haa Lḵóot~di), which would be saying “our Chilkoot”. dlóoḵ dried mucus You also would not say Kaagwaantaanxʼ, which would trans- x̱éelʼ slime, thick mucus or saliva late into “Kaagwaantaans”. When you learn proper nouns in dirt; scrap(s); rubbish, trash, Tlingit, you just remember not to alter them as you would sʼeex cluter; lint other nouns. x̱ʼastoox̱ sputum; spit háasʼ vomit; urge to vomit Pronouns Tlingit has 64 pronouns, many of which are identical in Relational Nouns sound but not always in placement. It is a journey to learn how to use these correctly, but that is the same in English There are nouns in Tlingit that have a permanent rela- (who or whom?). As we look at them, we will focus on ones tionship with another noun and function in the same way most commonly used in English, and then will introduce the as body parts and kinship above. An example is –x̱us.eetí (–ʼs ones that are in Tlingit but not necessarily in English. That footprints). This and other relational terms are covered in does not mean they are mysterious, it just means that Tlingit chapter 7, as well as . relational suffixes handles the concepts differently. All of the pronouns lists in Alienated here come from the work of Crippen, and explanations for how they function are adapted from “Tlingitology Seminar An alienated noun is an inalienable noun that is perma- Notes” and discussions with Xwaayeenáḵ, Dzéiwsh, X̱ʼaagi nently separated from whatever it held the relationship with Sháawu, G̱uneiwtí, and others about how these function and before. We will see in the coming chapter how possessive suf- can be introduced and explained in English. fixes work in Tlingit, but in short, inalienable nouns do not gain a possessed suffix unless they are separated. The gaining of the suffix shows that it is no longer attached to a possessor.

44 45 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

Person & Number Here is a list of common independent pronouns: There are several concepts to explore in Tlingit pronouns, 1sg x̱át me and the first ones we will look at are person and number. 1pl uháan us indicates who the pronoun refers to in reference to Person 2sg wa.é you the speaker. There are three common possibilities, which are 2pl yeewháan you all first, second, and third. We will use an English verb here as an example of how these function. 3h hú s/he (3) pl hás them 1sg first person singular I am walking. 2sg second person singular You are walking. The third person in Tlingit requires some discussion. First 3sg He is walking. third person singular of all, it is an ungendered pronoun, meaning that it can refer to a male or female person. The second thing is that this one refers to whether the pronoun is singular (one) or Number refers specifically to a human, which is why its symbol is 3h. plural (more than one). All of the examples above are singu- The h is for human and we will look at the non-human third lar in number. If we pluralize them, we get: person later. The last thing is that the symbol for the plural 1pl first person plural We are walking. third person (3) pl looks different because it functions differ- 2pl second person plural You are walking. ently in the verb forms. We will also look at that later. For 3pl third person plural They are walking. now, focus on learning these pronouns and identifying them as you study Tlingit. We will stick to these six person and number variations, Here are independent pronouns in use: and introduce the others later in this chapter. These are the name example translation first six you should learn. You will learn different types of 1sg first person singular x̱át áyá this is me each of these pronouns, and also discover which situations 1pl uháan áyá this is us will call for which type of pronoun. These lists may seem first person plural long and complicated, but understanding how they work 2sg second person singular wa.é áwé that is you will help you to conjugate verbs and show the relationships 2pl second person plural yeewháan áwé that is you all that is s/he between people, things, and other phenomena. 3h third person human singular hú áwé that is her/him Types (3) pl third person human plural hás áwé that is them

Independent In the translations above we must choose which type of These are not specifically tied to a verb or to a relational English pronoun to translate to, which can be awkward at term. They may be used to specify or locate a person, animal, times because the gender is not present in the third person or group. Here is an example: Tlingit pronoun. Also, pronouns function differently in each aadóo sáwé ? who is that? of the languages, so these are always translations and will not x̱át áyá this is me convey the same type of meaning and concepts in all situations.

46 47 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

Possessive Object These are used to show a relationship between things, in- In a verb phrase, the object is commonly impacted by the cluding ownership («haa aaní» – “our land”), kinship term verb, and is not the subject. We will encounter Tlingit verbs origination («du éesh» – “her/his father”), the link to a re- where the object is more like a subject, but for now this quick lational base («ax̱ x̱áni» – “next to me”), and conjugation of definition will do. Here are four examples: certain verbs («du toowú sigóo» – “s/he is happy”). Here are breakdown how it looks translation two examples: x̱at + ∅-six̱án x̱at six̱án s/he loves me aadóo tláa sáwé ? whose mother is that? ∅-x̱a-six̱án x̱asix̱án i love her/him/it ax̱ tláa áwé that is my mother i-∅-six̱án isix̱án s/he loves you x̱at + i-six̱án x̱at isix̱án you loves me Here is a list of common possessive pronouns: 1sg ax̱ my The column on the left separates the object pronoun from 1pl haa our the verb with a hyphen and shows invisible characters. These will begin to make sense after looking at some of the verb 2sg i ~ ee your pronouns (object, subject, and postpositional). It is import- 2pl yee y’all’s ant to note two symbols: «∅» indicates the pronoun is there 3h du her/his but not heard, and «—» shows that type of pronoun does (3) pl has du their not exist. The middle column shows how you would see the verb written, without breaking components apart or listing Note that in the possessive form there are no high tones invisible characters. in the pronouns. As we look at possessive behavior in Tlingit Here is a list of common object pronouns: in the next chapter, we will see how tone is effected in pos- 1sg x̱at me sessed and compound nouns. 1pl us Also, notice that the 2sg form has two possibilities, which haa are indicated by a tilde (~). The tilde means that it can be ei- 2sg i- you ther one, or sometimes that it changes from one to the next. 2pl yee you all This example is just a matter of speaker preference. Some 3h ∅- ~ a- her/him/it speakers prefer the long vowel, and others prefer the short (3) pl has ~ s them vowel, but it does not affect meaning here. When writing in Tlingit, it is standardized to the short form. The first thing to note about these pronouns is whether or Here are examples of in use: possessive pronouns not it attaches itself to the verb. When we talk about Tlingit 1sg ax̱ tláa áwé that is my mother verbs there are some important distinctions to understand. 1pl haa tláa áwé that is our mother In Tlingit, the verb is a single word that contains prefixes, , and . The is everything, which of- 2sg i tláa áwé that is your mother stem suffixes verb phrase ten includes words before the . Later in this lesson, 2pl that is you allʼs mother verb itself yee tláa áwé we will examine these concepts in more depth, for now, just 3h du tláa áwé that is her/his mother note this: the object pronouns listed above are attached to (3) pl has du tláa áwé that is their mother the verb when they end in a hyphen (i-, yee, and a-).

48 49 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

The next thing to note is that there are two possibilities for Here is a list of common subject pronouns: some of them. We will look at examples later, but the expla- 1sg x̱a- i nation for them is as follows: 1pl tu- / too- we used when the subject is also in used when there is a subject 2sg i- you 3h third person, unless the phrase ∅- that is not third person a- contains an ergatve marker. 2pl yi- you all a pluralizer that is used in additon to the third person object pronoun; this 3h ∅- she/he (3) pl has ~ s always exists outside of the verb, and can pluralize the object, subject, or both. (3) pl has ~ s they

The third person plural pronoun appears before all object All of these are attached to the verb, except for the third pronouns, and only pluralizes third person pronouns, since person plural, which functions in the same way as it does the first person and second person pronouns have their own with object pronouns. This could create grammatical com- plural forms. You will learn how to interpret and use plural plications if you were to say “they were cooking them”, and combinations, such as the following: we will examine such things at a later time. For now, just focus on how these operate so you can learn how to plug them has x̱at [verb] they [verb] me has i-[verb] they [verb] you into verbs when you begin forming your own sentences. has haa [verb] they verb us has yee [verb] they [verb] you all Here are examples of subject pronouns in use: has a-[verb] s/he [verb] them has ḵaa [verb] 1sg ∅-x̱a-sa.ée x̱asa.ée I am cooking it they [verb] her/him/it they [verb] people 1pl ∅-tu-sa.ée tusa.ée we are cooking it they [verb] them has ḵu-[verb] 2sg ∅-i-sa.ée isa.ée you are cooking it Here are examples of object pronouns in use: 2pl ∅-yi-sa.ée yisa.ée you all are cooking it 3h a-∅-sa.ée as.ée s/he is cooking it breakdown how it looks translation (3) pl has a-∅-sa.ée has as.ée they are cooking it 1sg x̱at + ∅-six̱án x̱at six̱án s/he loves me 1pl haa + ∅-six̱án haa six̱án s/he loves us 2sg i-∅-six̱án isix̱án s/he loves you Postpositional 2pl yee + ∅-six̱án yee six̱án s/he loves you all Many Tlingit verbs involve motion, and grammatically things do not move towards pronouns. In addition to motion, 3h a-∅-six̱án asix̱án s/he loves him/her there are also concepts that act like motion verbs. For exam- s/he loves them; (3) pl has + a-∅-six̱án has asix̱án they love her/him/it; ple, the phrase i eedé kakḵwanéek translates to “i will tell you” they love them but the grammar is functioning closer to “i will tell it towards you.” Tlingit handles this with a special type of pronoun that combines three things: , , Subject possessive pronoun empty base In a verb phrase, the subject is the agent in the verb, which and directional & locational suffix. We will examine these means the cause or initiator of an event. Here are two exam- in more depth to show how they change with verb tenses and ples: actions, but for now we will look at the basics. Here are several examples: breakdown how it looks translation ∅ + x̱a-sa.ée x̱asa.ée I am cooking it ∅ + i-sa.ée isa.ée you are cooking it

50 51 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

postpositional verb translation empty base to indicate direction and place. ax̱ ee-n akaawaneek Lastly, note that there are several contracted forms that s/he told me about it ax̱ een akaawaneek can take place and should be memorized to avoid confusion and to begin using to achieve a higher level of fluency. ax̱ ee-de akakg̱wanéek s/he will tell me about it ax̱ eedé akakg̱wanéek 1sg ax̱ + een x̱aan with/to me i ee-n akaawaneek 1pl haa + een haan with/to us s/he told you about it i een akaawaneek 3h du + een doon with/to her/him i ee-de akakg̱wanéek 3n a + een aan with/to it s/he will tell you about it i eedé akakg̱wanéek 4h ḵaa + een ḵoon with/to someone

Here is a list of common postpositional pronouns Advanced Pronouns 1sg ax̱ ee- ~ x̱aan (to) me The advanced set of Tlingit pronouns deals with things 1pl haa ee- ~ haa(n)- (to) us grammatically that are logically similar in other languages, 2sg i ee- (to) you but are handled differently in Tlingit than in English. The 2pl yee ee- (to) you all best method of understanding them comes through listen- 3h du ee- ~ u- ~ doon (to) her/him ing to speakers of Tlingit and noting when you hear some (3) pl has du ee- (to) them of them. Also, if you look through published and translated Tlingit you should make special note of these and how they This is our first example of postpositional bases and suf- have been translated. fixes, but we will see plenty of them in the coming chapter The table below lists them, and the table after that defines when we examine ways to modify nouns. For now, just begin the pronoun and gives a short example. They are discussed looking for them in your studies of Tlingit, because they will briefly, but many of them require examples to be understood become important in future uses of verbs and phrases. clearly. The goal here is to know they exist. In more advanced Here are examples of postpositional pronouns in use: lessons, once some of the fundamentals of the Tlingit verb are understood, specific examples will be analyzed and prac- 1sg ax̱ een akaawaneek s/he told me tice drills will be given. 1pl haa een akaawaneek s/he told us ind poss object subj postpositional 2sg i een akaawaneek s/he told you 3n á a ∅- ~ a- ∅- a ee- ~ a- 2pl yee een akaawaneek s/he told you all 3prx ash ash ash- — ash ee- 3h du een akaawaneek s/he told her/him 3obv á a — du- a ee- ~ a- (3) pl s/he told them has du een akaawaneek 4h ḵáa ḵaa ḵaa- ~ ḵu- du- ḵaa ~ ḵu ee- 4n át at at- — at ee- We will look more at the and the suffixes that empty base part aa aa aa- — aa ee- attach to it, but the basic function is to allow suffixes onto areal ḵu- ḵu- — ḵu- pronouns. Pronouns do not take suffixes in Tlingit, so the rflx chúsh chush ~ sh- sh ~ ∅- — chush ee- combination of the possessive pronoun and the empty base recip wóosh woosh woosh= — woosh ee- allow locational & relational suffixes. Many Tlingit verbs involve something traveling (language, news, etc) and need the

52 53 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns

name example ḵaa tláa (a person’s mother). As an object, it translates as “the 3n 3rd person non-human it verb happens to people” as in ḵusix̱án (love of people), and 3prx 3rd person proximate this gal/guy ḵusax̱waa.áx̱ (i heard a person). Learners need to spot the 3obv 3rd person obviate that other gal/guy difference between the contracted form ḵu- and the hom- 4h 4th person human someone; a person onym verb prefix for areal, which is identical. As a subject in 4n 4th person non-human something verbs, it translates to “the verb occurs,” as in yoo duwasáakw part partitive some of them (it is called), hít wududliyéx̱ (a house was built), and adulʼeix̱ areal areal an area ax̱áa (dance paddle). The fourth person human subject will make all ∅ classifiers –d and all non-∅ classifiers (s,l,sh) +d rflx reflexive herself/himself regardless of verb theme or mode. recip reciprocal together 4th person non-human This pronoun is used to indicate that an unspecified thing 3rd person non-human This pronoun is used for anything nonhuman. Note that in is the pronoun. Like the 4th person human pronoun this verbs, the pronoun is identical, meaning that the verb does one is often used as a placeholder in nouns and verbs, and not differentiate whether the subject or object is human or is at times referred to as “indefinite nonhuman.” At times it not. If it mattered, it would be handled outside of the verb has culturally specified meanings in certain verbs and nouns, phrase. The non-human can be animate (animals) or inan- for example: at.óow (sacred clan-owned item), at daná (s/he imate (objects). is drinking alcohol), and Daḵlʼaweidí [daḵ-lʼéiw-at~di] (Thing of the Inland Sand Bar – name of an Eagle-Killer Whale 3rd person proximate Clan). Keep an eye out for these pronouns as you build vo- This pronoun is used to indicate that it is the person that cabulary, and you will see it is one of the most powerful has already been referred to, which we might think of as a words in Tlingit. main character in a story. It is often used when there is a continuous string of actions, or when it is important that we partitive know that some specific person is continuing to do things or This pronoun is used to refer to parts of a group or set, and they are continually being done to them. can cover a wide range of meanings. In some cases, it can mean some general object, as in aadóo aayí sáyá? (whose 3rd person obviate thing is this?). In other cases, it can refer to a separated This pronoun is used to indicate that a person is being talk- groups of things, as in daaḵw.aa sá? (which one of a group?). ed about who is either new to the dialogue or is unimport- It often means the one or ones that perform a verb, and is ant to the main topics. We can think of this as a background used to create words in Tlingit. There are many of these, and character in a story. It is used when some new person comes you will see more as you study. Here are some examples: lítaa into a narrative, but is not important to it, or when someone (knife; literally “the one that slides”), x̱út’aa (adze; literally is referred to outside of the main narrative but is not central “the one that chips out wood”), and ḵutlʼídaa (shovel; literally to it. We will look at examples later, which will help the prox- “the one that throws away a space”). imate and obviate make more sense. areal 4th person human This pronoun often refers to a given space or to weather, This pronoun is used to indicate an unspecified person is and is identical to the independent human pronoun ḵu-. the pronoun, and is best translated as “someone” or “a per- When you are listening to Tlingit, you will learn to tell the son.” It is referred to at times as the “indefinite human,” and difference through context. functions as a placeholder in non-verbal pronouns, such as

54 55 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns reflexive This is a pronoun that signals reflexive properties, meaning that something is occurring to the self. In verbs, it most often occurs as an object pronoun and translates as “the subject does the verb to herself/himself.” When you study verbs more, you will see that this pushes verbs into middle voice (+d), which will make sense at a later date. For now, consider it as something like “to the self”, which makes more sense when seen with examples, such as: chush gudachx̱án (one’s own grandparent – achieved through clan lineage), sh tóog̱aa ditee (s/he is grateful; literally “s/he is okay inside”), and sh tóo altóow (s/he is studying it; literally “s/he is teaching inside herself/himself”). reciprocal This pronoun indicates being together, doing something together, or doing something to each other. In verbs, it occurs outside of the verb itself, is used in addition to other pronouns, and also triggers middle voice (+d). It appears as woosh and wooch interchangeably, and common examples are wooch.een (being together), woosh ji.een (hands together), and woosh gax̱dusháa (wedding).

Pronoun Triangles One way to learn pronouns is to learn them in four sets of three using triangles developed by G̱uneiwtí Marsha Hotch. To begin looking at these, we start with the idea that 1st refers to the speaker, 2nd refers to the person being talked to, and 3rd refers to a separate person being talked about. The first sets we learn are singular, followed by plural. It is helpful to use gestures when learning and teaching these, such as a single finger pointing at yourself, the person you are speaking to, and then someone you are talking about (but not to). After you have mastered the singular forms, use two fingers to signal to your brain that we have moved from singular to plural. This teaches the most common independent, possessive, object, and subject pronouns.

56 57 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Nouns (to) me (to) us (to) you (to) all you (to) him (to) it (to) this gal/guy (to) other guy/girl that (to) somebody (to) something (to) some one, (to) (to) -self (to) each other or (to) together them (to) ostpositional P ̱̱ax ee- ~ x aan haa ee- ~ haa(n)- i ee- ee- yee du ee- ~ u- a ee- ~ a- aan ash ee- a ee- ~ a- oon ḵ aa ~ u ee- ~ ḵ at ee- aa ee- chush woosh has du ee- i we you all you she/he it — other that guy/girl someone — — — each other they S ubject ̱ x a- tu- i- yi- ∅ - ∅ - — du- du- — — — woosh= has ~ s me us you all you her/him it this gal/ guy — someone something one, some -self other each them O bject The Complete Table The Complete ̱ x at haa i- yee ∅ - ~ a- ∅ - ~ a- ash — ḵ aa- ~ u- at aa sh ~ ∅ - woosh= has ~ s my our your y’all’s her/his its this galʼs/guyʼs other that guyʼs/girlʼs someoneʼs something’s some’s one’s, -self’s each other’s their ossessive P ̱ ax haa i- yee du a ash a ḵ aa at aa chush ~ sh- woosh has du me us you all you she/he it this gal/guy other that guy/girl someone something one, some -self each other they The table on the following page lists all of the Tlingit pronouns. You will need to know these as these know to need will You pronouns. Tlingit ofall the lists page following the on table The you go forward with your studies, especially the basic six of studies, them. with your forward go you I ndependent ̱ x át uháan wa.é yeewháan hú á ash á ḵ áa át aa chúsh wóosh hás 3 n 4 n 3 h 4 h 1 pl 1 sg 2 pl 2 sg part 3 prx rflx 3 obv (3) pl recip

58 59 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

60 5 Tricky Nouns

Ḵustí ladzée nooch. Tlél kei kg̱idaleet! — Kingeistí

Life is always hard. You will not quit! — David Katzeek, Shangukeidí1

When learning Tlingit, it is easiest to start by practicing pronunciation and learning nouns. You can continue working on producing the sounds that are in Tlingit by reading words out loud, listening to how a Tlingit speaker says them, and constantly comparing what you are doing to what the speaker does. You can practice with a speaker, an advanced student of the language, and with existing recordings. In time, your mind and body will work together to make the sounds. You might think that some of the more challenging consonants are the place to focus on, but the two things you should focus on early on that will help you later are vowel tone and vowel length. The uvular and ejective consonants will give students of the language a hard time, but you can learn to make those sounds in time. The vowels, however, are sounds you can already make and will help you keep vowel length and tone in mind. Some of the most important things to consider while on your journey with this language are this: you need to keep yourself from quitting, which is very easy to do. I often have students who say, “I cannot say that,” when they encounter a sound that they have never asked their mind and body to

1 Katzeek, David. “Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa – Sea Lion & Ptarmigan.” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/A9FO6S3GTbI.

61 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tricky Nouns make. At that point, I encourage students to be mindful of you might push your hand away from yourself to mark long their English when learning Tlingit. By switching a phrase vowels. like “I can’t” to “that is difficult for me” keeps you from using Practicing these will help you when we look at how Tlingit language of resignation. There are myths out there that it is modifies nouns and forms verbs. When the nouns and verbs difficult or impossible to learn new languages. I hear Tlingit change, then tone, vowel length, and consonants will often people often say, “I am too old for that now,” or “I wish I had change with them. the opportunities you have now when I was your age.” I can understand those feelings, but you have to remember: any- Similar Pairs one can learn this language. You just have to work at it. aatlein many áa tlein big lake Everything that has been done to our language has re- sulted from calculated attempts to kill it off. So, we need to cháatl halibut chʼáalʼ willow have calculated efforts to bring it back into our population, chʼáakʼ eagle chʼáakw long ago towns, region, and land. Deciding to learn Tlingit is not near- chʼeex̱ʼ thimbleberry chʼéix̱ʼw dirt ly enough. You need to keep pushing every single day. You –daa around it dáa weasel may not see the progress right away, or even after extended daak out to sea daaḵ to the inland lengths of time, but at some point the bridges will be crossed –dáali –ʼs rumen déili harbor; shelter and you will find yourself understanding more and more, (di)yee below –tayee underneath – and even someday forming your thoughts in Tlingit. But you young spruce or cotonwood need to stay positive, and keep in mind that new things take dúḵ dúḵlʼ hemlock a long time. If you decided to learn how to play the piano, dlagwáa fsh spear dlágwaa peavey then you would train for finger strength and coordination, something and study the basic structure of music. For basketball it is eech reef éechʼ compact and strength, speed, understanding the game, and your ability to heavy shoot, pass, and defend. The bottom line is this: you can do it, éenaa bark scraper –éenee –ʼs armpit downstream; but you are the one who has to work at it. No one can teach éex eex̱ oil, grease you but yourself; you have to put it inside. south éix̱ʼ slough eix̱ oil, grease Similar Pairs & Groups gaan smokehole gáan outside to the bathroom to outside Similar pairs & groups are sets of words that sound similar gánde gáande and are confusing for learners of a language. There are im- góosʼ cloud –góos –ʼs vagina portant similar pairs & groups to practice that will allow you gooch hill g̱ooch wolf to focus on emphasizing the difference between the sounds roastng stck (split in two so of the language. The following lists are words in Tlingit that towel g̱wéinaa x̱ʼwéinaa meat can be differ slightly in consonant sounds or vowel length and/or inserted) tone. You should practice these to work on the differences haat current, tde háatlʼ poop; waste between some of the more difficult consonants, and espe- –ʼs maternal her/his forehead cially on vowel tone and length. I have seen many speak- –káak uncle –káakʼ ers of Tlingit, including myself, who struggle with tone and –káalkʼw –ʼs maternal –kéilkʼ –ʼs paternal vowel length in Tlingit, so exaggerate the differences and nephew/niece nephew/niece herring oil use physical tools to help remind yourself. For example, you kaat káatʼ clam digging stck might raise and lower your hand for low and high tones, or pressing basket

62 63 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tricky Nouns kag̱eet common loon kag̱ít darkness sʼéilʼ wound sʼélʼ rubber –ʼs cover crazy poles for drying –kaháadi sh kahaadí harlequin duck sʼóosʼ in smokehouse sʼúsʼ neck cord worn –ʼs color –kaséiḵʼu kaséiḵʼw for fance sháal fsh trap shál spoon kaxéelʼ trouble; confict kaxéesʼ wire; phone shaanákʼw litle old person shaanáx̱ valley steady drip rip saw –ʼs older sister kaxʼáasjaa kaxʼásʼaa –ʼs wife –shát –shátx̱ (♀) –káx̱i its sap, phloem –kax̱yee –ʼs ceiling large wooden thunder; sheen wooden bailer shéen dog spoon keitl xeitl thunderbird táaxʼaa mosquito táaxʼálʼ needle half of – –kígi –kíji –ʼs wing vein; tendon (symmetrical) wave; swell teet téetʼ (inside body) kóoḵ cellar; pit ḵóok box tíx fea tíxʼ rope kwaan smallpox –ḵwáan people of – tsu again tsú also small owl kʼákw ḵákw basket lock of –ʼs hair; – without tufs boil (infecton) xʼees –xʼéesʼi ʼs tangled hair du kool –ʼs navel –kʼóolʼ –ʼs tailbone xʼéigaa true; truth xʼéitaa cuthroat trout kamchatka lily; ̱ marten kóox rice kʼóox –xʼéixʼu –ʼs gill (of fsh) xʼéix̱ king crab ocean algea match, stck whirlpool; boiling káasʼ ḵáasʼ stomach xʼóolʼ tde; chaos x̱ʼóolʼ pus; wound that killer whale kéet ḵéetʼ discharges pus x̱á you see x̱áa war party kées bracelet ḵéesʼ food; tde ready, waitng for food container; –x̱ʼayee – to eat or fnish x̱ʼayeit pot or large dish, –ʼs tail –ʼs den, lair speaking large bowl –koowú (of bird or fsh) –ḵoowú yaak mussel yaakw canoe; boat ḵugáasʼ fog ḵugóosʼ cloud(s) –yáanáx̱ more than it yanax̱ underground ḵʼeiḵʼw tern ḵʼéiḵʼw cut; knife wound like –; as much as famine; –ʼs penis yax̱ to completon –yáx̱ –; in accordance –láaw laaxw starvaton with – standing dead red cedar inside – (a laax̱ láax̱ tree you all yee –yee building) heron its sapwood láx̱ʼ –láx̱ʼi yéil raven yéilʼ elderberry (on) the back of knife that (over lítaa litká it, the ridge of it back and forth yoo yú yonder) –lóoxʼu –ʼs urine –luxʼaa –ʼs tp, point lʼéiw sand lʼeiwú wood chip lʼook coho –lʼóotʼ –ʼs tongue Similar Triplets clan; naton draped over – naa –náa cháatl halibut chʼáalʼ willow chʼaakʼw carve liquor; rum fort náaw noow de already déi now dei road; trail óosʼi laundry úsʼaa soap large owl songbird; dzískʼw moose tsískʼw tsʼítskw future (noun), to with tufs bird joy; happiness sagú sákw be (noun)

64 65 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tricky Nouns

–ʼs brother (to the) its empty –éekʼ eeḵ copper éeḵ (♀) beach xákw sandbar xákwlʼi soapberry xákwti shell, spring container goon góon gold –góon isthmus (of water) –xʼaan –ʼs tp xʼáan anger x̱ʼaan fre down Dolly gwáalʼ fart x̱ʼwáalʼ x̱ʼwáatʼ sof brown ̱ (feathers) Varden (how wood for xʼoon x̱ʼoon x̱ʼóon fur seal water; many) tanning fy; bug wall screen héen river xéen x̱ʼéen dye high bush yaan hunger yán hemlock yán shore; land káaxwei cofee kaxweitl itch; rash kaxwéix̱ cranberry down; out soup, meat yé place; way yéi thus yei of boat or key katéix̱ porridge katíx̱ʼaa katʼéx̱ʼaa pounder vehicle sound, wood peace –kayéikʼ noise of – kayéilʼ kayeix̱ shavings along the Similar Groups ḵúnáx̱ really –kaanáx̱ surface ḵúdáx̱ too much of it –dlaakʼ –ʼs sister (♂) –tláakʼw –ʼs mat. aunt grayish old worn tláakw fast tlákw always dress blonde lʼaak lʼáaḵw out boat lʼáax̱ʼ hair tlaagú myth; legend tlagu from the past basket oil or tlaax̱ mold tlax̱ very neil home néilʼ from red néisʼ grease for cedar bark skin; loton tlʼáakʼ pale; pastel tlʼáatlʼ yellow sá say sé neck; voice saa name tlʼátk soil; earth cambium, sap from gaaw drum gáaxw duck deveilʼs inner bark starfsh sáxʼ sʼáx sʼáxtʼ club gáaxʼw herring eggs gaax̱ crying (esp of ̱ ̱ hemlock) g̱áx̱ rabbit g̱aaḵ lynx peat moss; sooḵ sʼóoḵ rib sʼook barnacle on –; horizontal grass car –ká surface of – káa close quarter singers, ḵa and ḵáa man; person red alder sheexw bow and at shéexʼi choir shéix̱ʼw arrow Kamchatka lily kóox kʼóox marten king root; rice tá sleep tʼá tʼaa board salmon in the midst of – kʼóox̱ʼ gum; lead –ḵóoxʼ fat; (a crowd) garden hot springs taay blubber táay tʼaay chum aground, into scar shoe(s) kux ḵux̱ return (back) teel téel téelʼ salmon shallow water be sure astray; lost too much only then hari seal ḵut ḵútx̱ tsá tsaa tsé not to in its way; evening –ʼs honey náakw medicine naaḵw roten wood xáanaa –x̱án.aa –x̱ʼanaa shielding it náaḵw octopus néekw sickness neek news; gossip

66 67 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Tricky Nouns

spray of air stealing, theivery feather –ʼs shoulder táaw tʼáaw –óoxu through –ʼs –óoxʼu blade –ʼs spirit, blowhole tallow; hard fat toow –toowú emotons –ʼs tooth –ʼs husband –oox̱ du x̱úx̱ her his mind- beside it, next paper; –tuwáa face, desires –tuwán to it xʼúxʼ membrane téey patch –téey –ʼs chin dugout canoe for draw, gully, box seet shallow waters séet canyon teey yellow cedar bark –tʼeey –ʼs elbow sʼéetʼ humpback whale sítʼ glacier tooḵ needlefsh –tóoḵ –ʼs but saaxʼw names sʼáaxw hat tʼook cradleboard tʼóokʼ netle hoary marmot; young spruce or dungeness crab túḵlʼ sʼáaw sʼaax̱ groundhog hemlock sʼaax̱ʼ ling cod tléikʼ no tléixʼ one séek belt séekʼ! daughter! tlʼeiḵ fnger tléiḵw berry sʼeek black bear sʼeeḵ smoke tléil not tlʼeex flth; trash sʼeex dirt; scrap sʼéex̱ʼ diarrhea xaas bison; bufalo xʼáas waterfall sʼíxʼ dish; plate sʼéx̱ balsam fr cheek of –ʼs –ʼs skin (of fsh) –xáasʼi –xʼaash butocks shaa mountain sháa women –x̱ʼásʼ –ʼs jaw, lower –shá –ʼs head shaaw gumboot; chiton mandible

empty bivalve sháak tmothy grass shaaḵ drifwood; snag between – xáak shell –x̱ʼáak sháachʼ young herring sháchk swamp canyon; ravine; freshwater shákw strawberry x̱ʼaak gorge x̱ʼáakw sockeye or coho tree root (esp fsh (esp salmon) the inside surface x̱aat spruce) x̱áat the botom of – –táak –taká of the botom of (a cavity) island iceberg – (a cavity) xʼáatʼ xáatl algae commonly behind –; inland beside –; at –ʼs x̱ʼáalʼ skunk cabbage x̱aatlʼ –tʼaak from – –tʼaaḵ side found on rocks táakw winter; year táḵl hammer xáatsʼ blue sky, clear sky xʼáaxʼ apple shawl; cape; táax̱ʼ snail; slug teiḵ its face; vertcal poncho this (right here) yá –yá surface boiled food; behind it –tʼéik teix̱ broth yaa along; down yaa trout (sea) tʼeix̱ʼ fsh hook –téix̱ʼ –ʼs heart yees stone axe yées new; young on the outside of –tʼíka scraper for –; next to – large mussel yeesʼ hemlock bark yéesʼ

68 69 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

Tlingit Drip Analysis The last part was probably hard, so we will close this section with a look at dripping in Tlingit. These are excellent examples of how verbs are made into nouns, a process we will examine later. This is also a preview of how words and sentences can be broken down to determine meaning, which is something we will practice so you can build them up in your mind in the future. katlʼúḵjaa drip, leak with dripping ka-tlʼóoḵ-ch-aa horizontal-surface.rot/fall.habitual.the-one “the one that falls on it like something roten” kalóoxʼjaa; kalóox̱jaa fast drip, leak ka-lóoxʼ-ch-aa horizontal-surface.urinate.habitual.the-one “the one that pees on it” kúḵjaa fast drip with bubbles kóoḵ-ch-aa bubble/gargle.habitual.the-one “the one that bubbles” kaxʼáasjaa trickle of water; steady drip or leak ka-xʼáas-ch-aa horizontal-surface.cascade/waterfall.habitual.the-one “the one that cascades on it like a waterfall”

70 6 Modifying Nouns

Oon yoo x̱ʼadudli.átk, «líl xʼwán ḵáaḵwx̱ x̱at wuneeḵ léelkʼw,» yéi daayaduḵá. Á áwé ḵaa x̱ʼaya.áx̱ch wé át, wé shaa tsú. — Seidayaa

They used to speak to it [the mountain], “don’t let anything bad happen to me, grandparent,” they would say to it. And that mountain could understand human speech, too. — Elizabeth Nyman, Yanyeidí1

Adjectives There are not very many adjectives in Tlingit, and they fall into two categories: ones that occur before the noun they modify (prenominal), and ones that occur after the noun they modify (postnominal). Examples would be Aakʼé Éesh (good father), Lingít xʼáaxʼi (crabapple) and yées shaawát (young woman). The following is a list of known adjectives that occur before the noun.2

aakʼé good, well aatlein much, lots chʼáagu old, ancient ḵáa male, he- ḵúnáx̱ very, actual, real

1 Nyman, Elizabeth. “Ḵudziteeyi Át Ḵulagaawú – The Battle of the Giants.” Gágiwdul.aat: Brought Forth to Reconfirm the Legacy of a Taku River Tlingit Clan. trans. Jeff Leer (Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre, 1993), 6-7. 2 Crippen, James. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013), 8.

71 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

ḵustín giant, monstrous Noun Suffixes Lingít Tlingit, traditonal As you learn how to modify nouns in Tlingit, you will be- sheech female, she- gin to see some of the grammatical rules in Tlingit that affect shóogu frst, inital sound, word length, and meaning. This is often challenging, tatgéiyi of yesterday to learn how to speak a language by learning and applying té stone, rock a series of rules. Your best bet is to look at the rule, focus on one at a time, and comb through Tlingit texts for examples of tlagu(wu) ancient, forever how they are functioning. Once you begin to see them, then tlʼeitáḵw pure you can start listening to Tlingit and identify when you hear xʼéig̱aa true, truly how fluent speakers use them. yées new, young Some learners are frustrated that some suffixes in Tlingit are identical, but we deal with this in English as well. We The second group occur after the noun, modifying the learn to listen to or read the sentence in context and allow noun that occurs before it. Some examples would be keitl our minds to put the pieces together. For example, the fol- shaan (old dog), chʼáakʼ yéisʼ (immature eagle), and hít tlein lowing English examples sound exactly the same, but we un- (big house). The following is a list of known adjectives that derstand their meaning in the context of the sentences: occur after the noun. cats Those are some strange cats. kʼwátʼ round, egg-shaped catʼs That is a catʼs toy ḵʼáatlʼ thin and fat létlʼk sof, pliable catʼs The catʼs in the garage sákw future, to be, for shaan old, elderly Rules for Tlingit Suffixes shísʼḵ raw The table below shows the basic rules for Tlingit suffixes téitlʼ fat (animal) that contain vowels. This will make more sense when read- tóoch fresh (fsh) ing through the explanations that follow. tʼéexʼ hard word unrounded rounded tlein large, big end open closed open closed tlénxʼ large, big (pl.) -v́ ~ -v -vc,́ -v́vc -wv́ ~ -wv -wvc,́ -wv́vc xook dry, dried -c -v́v ~ -vv -cvc,́ cv́vc -wv́v ~ -wvv -cvc,́ cv́vc uwaa similar, fake yádi small, litle, childlike -yv́ ~ -yv -yvc,́ -yv́vc -wv́ ~ -wv -wvc,́ -wv́vc yéeyi past, former, ex- -v -yv́v ~ -yvv -cvc,́ cv́vc -wv́v ~ -wvv -cvc,́ cv́vc yéisʼ dark, dusky, immature

72 73 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

• When talking about Tlingit grammar, symbols may be the tone of both the word ending and suffix will be low. used for consonants (c) and vowels (v), and tone marks This is because most words ending in -aa are often √verb- are shown on the vowel symbol (v́) to show patterns. Here aa, which translates to “the one that √verbs”. For example: are some examples: héen (cv́vc), shaa (cvv), tawéi (cvcv́v). word verb translation english possessed Keep in mind that the following letter combinations are one symbol: ch, chʼ, dl, kʼ, ḵʼ, sʼ, sh, tʼ, tl, tlʼ, xʼ, x̱ʼ. lítaa √leet one that slides knife –lítayi óonaa √.óon one that shoots rife –óonayi Open and Closed x̱útʼaa √x̱óotʼ one that chips (wood) adze –x̱útʼayi • Words and suffixes that end in consonants (c) are called xítʼaa √xéetʼ one that sweeps broom –xítʼayi “closed” and ones that end in vowels (v) are called “open”. g̱wéinaa √g̱oo one that wipes towel –g̱wéinayi ⋆ Open suffixes are the opposite tone of the vowel before gúxʼaa √góoxʼ one that dips (up) cup –gúxʼayi (vc-v́ / vc-v)́ and closed suffixes are always high tone (vc- cvć / vc-cv́ c).́ téeyaa √tee one that chisels chisel –téeyayi ⋆ If an open word (ending in a vowel) gains a suffix that begins with a vowel, then the suffix will start with a so- Unvoiced & Voiced Consonant Pairs norant. It will be «y» for unrounded words and «w» for • Certain unvoiced consonants have a voiced pair. This rounded words. means that the sound comes from the same place in the Unrounded and Rounded mouth, but the voice is used for one and not the other. • In addition to open and closed, there are also rounded To think about this, consider the similarities in sounds (-w) and unrounded. Rounded words end with a -w or between the letters “s” and “z” in English. If you sound with a u/oo vowel and g, g̱, k, kʼ, ḵ, ḵʼ, x, xʼ, x̱, or x̱ʼ. There out these letters and think about it, the only difference is are also a handful of words where the rounded end no whether it is voiced or not. Consider the following English longer appears (ḵáa, saa) but shows up when suffixes are plural suffix examples and pay attention to how the suffix added (ax̱ ḵáawu, saaxʼw). sounds as opposed to how it is spelled.3 ⋆ Unrounded words have a default suffix vowel «-i» and word suffix sound reason rounded words have a default suffix vowel «-u». cats -s ends in a voiceless consonant (non-sibilant) rounded endings catʼs -w u/oo- + -g, -g̱, -k, -kʼ, -ḵ, -ḵʼ, -x, -xʼ, -x̱, -x̱ʼ lost ending clocks -ug, -oog, -uk, -ook, -ukʼ, -ookʼ, -uḵ, ḵáa clockʼs -w -ooḵ, -uḵʼ, -ooḵʼ, -ux, -oox, -uxʼ, -ooxʼ, saa ... dogs -z ends in vowels or voiced non-sibilants -ux̱, -oox̱, -ux̱ʼ, -oox̱ʼ dogʼs banana Vowel Length and Tone bananaʼs • Suffixes that are a single consonant do not affect tone or dances -ez ends in a sibilant sound: s, sh, ch, z, j (g) vowel length. A suffix containing a vowel will often cause danceʼs words ending with a short vowel (-v/-v́) to change to long dishes and low (-vv-cv). dishʼs • A word with more than one syllable that ends with «-aa», will change to low toned «-a» when a suffix is added and 3 Wikipedia. “English Plurals.” modified 9 September 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_plurals

74 75 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Here are the consonant pairs in Tlingit. When a suffix be- Tlingit Noun Suffixes ginning with a vowel is added, then the consonant will become voiced:4

unvoiced voiced unvoiced voiced -ch -j -k -g -t -d -ḵ -g̱ -tl -dl -kw -gu -ts -dz -ḵw -g̱u

This may seem like a lot of rules to remember, but understanding them will help prepare you for the ways that sounds change when we begin modifying words. In linguistics, this is called phonology. When you see enough examples, and especially when you are hearing and speaking the words in context, then it will internalize more with you. As we learn these, it is important to think about them and practice, and Before we look at suffixes, we are going to examine a con- then to listen and watch for the sound as we hear and read cept that we will see later when looking at verbs. When suf- Tlingit texts. fixes are added to nouns, there are three spots where they We will look at several examples here, but you should re- might occur. It might be helpful to think of these as slots in fer to Intermediate Tlingit by the Dauenhauers and Eggleston a slot machine. It might be a lemon, star, number 7, or what- for examples. Many of the uses of these can be found in the ever, but when the symbol comes up that slot is locked up. Tlingit Oral Literature texts by the Dauenhauers, and you In Tlingit grammar, we will see that there are slots where should be studying those texts for examples and uses of a certain number of things might go. There may be several these suffixes. options within a particular slot, but once something is there the other items from that slot cannot appear. When you see these slots, you should be memorizing what may be in that slot and which order it appears in. We will look at examples, and some of these include multiple suffixes to show how they stack up. The chart below shows the order of Tlingit noun suffixes. The number 1 is closest to the noun, and 3 is farthest. Keep in mind that suffixes are attached to and come after the word, and prefixes are attached to and come before the word. Starting on the following page, we will look at them one at a time.

Tlingit Suffix Order 1 2 3 plural & diminutive possessive locative & relational -de~, -gaa~, -u~ 4 As Seth Cable notes, the difference between «t» and «d» in Tlingit isn’t (classically) one of ‘voicing’ as -xʼ -kʼ -(y)i~ -(w)u~ ̱ in English, but rather ‘aspiration’. The difference between those sounds is close to—but not exactly the -ch, -xʼ, -t, -x̱, -dáx̱ -náx̱, -n, same—as the voicing distinction in English (pers. communication).

76 77 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Plural: -xʼ té rock This suffix is added to a noun to show that there are more téikʼ litle rock than one. Use of this suffix might vary with speakers. Some lítaa knife might not add it to the noun unless there are too many to lítaakʼ litle knife easily count; four or five might not call for the suffix for some léiḵʼw red rockfsh speakers. The suffix does not affect tone because it contains léiḵʼwkʼ litle red rockfsh no vowels. Here are some examples: chʼáakʼ eagle hít house chʼáakʼkʼ litle eagle hítxʼ houses tsaa hair seal tsaaxʼ hair seals Plural Diminutive: -xʼi~ sáani ḵóok box For there to be multiple small nouns, a combination is ḵóokxʼ boxes used of the plural suffix and the postpositional diminutive té rock adjective «sáani». This combination may be most familiar in the phrase «aan yatxʼu sáani». The plural diminutive combi- téixʼ rocks nation also tends to flatten the tones of the noun they attach lítaa knife themselves to, which is a process the Dauenhauers have de- lítaaxʼ knives scribed as “tone stealing”. The combination occurs because léiḵʼw red rockfsh; red snapper; yellow eye the plural «-xʼ» and diminutive «-kʼ» suffixes are in the same léiḵʼwxʼ red rockfshes slot, and therefore cannot occur at the same time. Here are chʼáakʼ eagle some examples: chʼáakʼxʼ eagles hít house hitxʼi sáani litle houses Diminutive: -kʼ tsaa hair seal tsaaxʼi sáani litle hair seals This suffix is added to a noun to show that it is small. If ḵóok box the end consonant would create a difficult combination, ḵookxʼi sáani litle boxes then many speakers might instead use the adjective «óoskʼ», which may also be said «óoskʼi» or «óoshkʼ». The suffix does té rock not affect tone because it contains no vowels. Here are some teixʼi sáani litle rocks; pebbles examples: lítaa knife litaaxʼi sáani litle knives hít house léiḵʼw red rockfsh hítkʼ litle house léiḵʼwxʼi sáani litle red rockfsh tsaa hair seal chʼáakʼ eagle tsaakʼ litle hair seal chʼáakʼxʼi sáani litle eagles ḵóok box ḵóokkʼ litle box

78 79 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Possessive: -i~, -yi~, -u~, -wu~ This suffix will create changes in vowel length and tone in certain situations. Words ending with a short and high vowel The Tlingit possessive suffix attaches itself to the noun (-v́) will become long and low (-vv), and the suffix will be that is possessed. In English we would say, “the dog’s water,” high toned. Multisyllabic words that end with «-aa» will be- but if we spoke English with Tlingit grammar we would say, come low and short (-a). “the dog water’s.” The possessive suffix can appear in one of Also, keep in mind the following consonant pairs. These four ways, which are listed above, and follows a set of rules unvoiced consonants will become voiced when gaining a that determine which one it will be. vowel suffix. Before we cover the rules of possessive suffixes, we should revisit possessive pronouns. Knowing the pronouns and the unvoiced voiced unvoiced voiced suffix rules will allow us to put possessive relationships into -ch -j -k -g our speech. Studying and memorizing the list below will also -t -d -ḵ -g̱ make it easier to conjugate phrases like «____ ax̱ jeewú» (I -tl -dl -kw -gu have ____) and verb phrases like «____ ax̱ tuwáa sigóo» (I -ts -dz -ḵw -g̱u want ____). Pay close attention to the presence of tone in independent pronouns and lack of tone in possessive. The following table shows examples. Pay close attention to sym independent possessive vowel length, tone, and consonant changes. 1sg x̱át me ax̱ my hít house 1pl uháan us haa our ax̱ hídi my house 2sg wa.é you i your tsaa hair seal 2pl yeewháan you all yee yʼallʼs haa tsaayí our hair seal 3h hú her/him du her/his ḵóok box 3n á it a its i ḵóogu your box 3p hás them has du their té rock 4h ḵáa someone ḵaa someoneʼs yee teiyí y’allʼs rocks 4n át something at somethingʼs lítaa knife du lítayi her/his knife The possessive suffix will take one of the four forms show léiḵʼw red rockfsh in the table below, which is based on the word it is attaching to. The first thing to consider is whether the word is rounded a léiḵʼu its red rockfsh or not, and the second thing is whether it is open or closed. chʼáakʼ eagle The tone of the suffix will be the opposite of the syllable be- ḵaa chʼáakʼi someoneʼs eagle fore it. unrounded rounded Locative & Postpositional closed open closed open -i~ -yi~ -u~ -wu~ There are a small number of suffixes that function as loca- tives in Tlingit, which mean they are tied to a verb in a verb phrase. An example of this is «Kichx̱áan-xʼ yéi x̱at yatee» (I live in Ketchikan). There are also a large number of postpo-

80 81 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns sitional suffixes and words that primarily have to do with lo- researchers are suggesting that Tlingit is multi-tonal, which cation and direction. Both of these will be explained in more is impacted by stress used to make meaning and influenced detail later, but it is safe to assume that if you see a suffix on by surrounding sounds. a noun and it is not one of the above listed types, then it falls This all can make interpretation challenging, but as you into this large category. build your vocabulary you will be able to spot these words more easily. Here are some examples of compound nouns in hít house Tlingit. The process is similar for including verbs in the com- hítde toward a house pounding, but breaking those words down takes some basic tsaa hair seal understanding of the Tlingit verb: tsaag̱áa afer a hair seal chʼakʼhéeni chʼáakʼ+héen+-i~ ḵóok box ḵóokdáx̱ from the box eagle river eagle.river/water.(relational) té rock asgutuyikkeidlí aas+gutú+yík+keitl+-i~ téixʼ (at rest) on the rock shaa mountain coyote tree.forest.inside-(open container).dog shaaxʼ at the mountain shaat (arriving) at the mountain ách at dusx̱a át á-ch at du-s-√x̱a át shaax̱ (repeated contact) at the mountain fork it-(instrumental) something someone.cl.√eat thing shaadáx̱ from the mountain shaanáx̱ through the mountain; valley ach kooshx̱ʼílʼaa yeit á-ch ∅-ka-w-∅-sh-√x̱’íl’-aa yee-át it-(instrumental) it.on.perf.s/he.cl.√slippery.one ax̱ eedé to me sled (for sledding) beneath.thing

adátxʼi at-yát-xʼ-i Compound Nouns children its.child.(plural).possessive) There are two methods for creating complex nouns in Tlingit. The first way is to have two or more nouns right next akahéix̱i a-ka-∅-√háa-x̱-i to each other, which helps form a relationship between the farmer it.horiz.s/he.√plant.(repetative).(relative) two. What we often see in the names of places, people, and body parts though is the words coming together to create one compound word. In English, this would be the differ- asgutuyiksháa aas-gutú-yík-sháa ence between “never mind” and “nevertheless” where the spider; beetle tree.forest.inside-(open container).women new word has a different flow, and often has a meaning that is more than the simple sum of its parts. asxʼaan sháachʼi aas-xʼaan sháachʼi The basic pattern in Tlingit is that two things occur: 1) green bird (warbler) tree.tip young-herring.(possessed) long vowels often shorten (but not always), and 2) tone flat- tens except for the final word. Tone flattening is still being atx̱á daakahídi at-∅-√x̱á daa-ká-hít-i studied, however, because what may actually be happening is the tone is higher in one area due to stress or emphasis, restaurant it.s/he.√eat around.horiz.house.(possessed) which makes the other high tones appear to flatten. Some

82 83 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns chichuyaa cheech-u-∅-√yáa hinyiklʼeix̱í héen-yík-√lʼéix̱-i shark (porpoise-like) porpoise.perf.cl.√resemble dipper; water ouzel water.in-(not submerged).√dance.(relative) ch’akʼyéisʼ chʼáakʼ-yéisʼ hít kaxʼúxʼu hít ka-xʼúxʼu bark roofng material; immature eagle eagle.discolored house on.paper.(possessed) tarpaper du daakashú du daa-ká-shú hít tayeegáasʼi hít tayee-gáasʼ-i his/her fate her/his around.horiz.end piling, foundaton post; foor house beneath.house-post.(possessed) joist dákdesak’aak daak-de-sa-√kʼaak hoon daakahídi √hoon daa-ká-hít-i mackerel out-to-sea.toward.cl.√? store √sell around.on.house.(possessed) Dikáanḵáawu dikée-aan-ḵáa-wu jig̱wéinaa ji-√g̱wéin-aa (√g̱oo~g̱wéin) God above.land.man/person.(possessed) hand towel; towel hand.√wipe.the-one dís x̱ʼusyee dís x̱ʼoos-yee lug̱wéinaa lu-√g̱wéin-aa (√g̱oo~g̱wéin) moonbeam moon foot.under tssue; handkerchief nose.√wipe.the-one eech kakwéiyi eech ka-kwéiy-i ḵaa yakag̱wéinaa ḵaa ya-ka-√g̱wéin-aa (√g̱oo~g̱wéin) fxed buoy reef on.marker.(possessed) face towel; wash rag personʼs face-hsf.√wipe.the-one gandaadagóogu gan-daa-da-√góok-u du jintakyádi du jin-taak-yát-i woodpecker wood.around.cl-(+d,∅,-i).√peck.(relative) her/his palm her/his hand.bottom.child.(possessed) gantutlʼúkʼx̱u gan-tu-tlʼúkʼx̱-u du ji.eetí du ji-eetí woodworm wood.inside.worm.(possessed) her/his handiwork, artfact her/his hand.remains ganyalʼóotʼ gan-ya-lʼóotʼ a káa dul.usʼku át a ká du-l-√.úsʼ-k-u át fame wood.face.tongue it on someone-(4H.S).cl-(+d,L,-i).√wash.(repeat). washboard (relative) thing g̱alsháatadi g̱a-l-√sháat-át-i captve conj.cl-(+d,∅,-i).√grab/hold.thing.(possessed) hintaak xóodzi héen-taak xóots-i polar bear water.in-(submerged) brown-bear.(possessed)

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86 7 Directional & Relational Terms

Á áwé a daa yoo x̱ʼatula.átgi nooch, yá elʼkaadéi haa wulgáasʼi. A daa yoo x̱ʼatula.átgi nuch. — Shaadaaxʼ

We would always talk about it when we migrated to the coast. We would always talk about it.

— Robert Zubof, Ḵakʼweidí 1

There are three types of terms that describe space, time, and direction in Tlingit. They all appear as postpositions, meaning they refer to the noun that comes before it. These three types of directional & relational terms are: ⋆ independent base — a word that can stand alone and refers to direction, location, or space. ⋆ relational base — a word that needs a noun to relate to, and refers to direction, location, or space. If there is no specific noun to relate to, then the placeholder «a» appears, which means “thing” (a daa, a géide, a shú, etc.). ⋆ suffix — these are most often one syllable attachments to the end of a noun or empty base .

Before we look at those terms and their general meanings, we should spend a little time with the term “postposition”. In English, we are used to “prepositions” that handle this aspect of language, with phrases like, “through the door” and “on the table”. They identify where something is in relation

1 Zuboff, Robert. “Táaxʼaa / Mosquito.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer, trans. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 74–75.

87 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Directional & Relational Terms to something else, and can include stationary terms, such as “on, near, around, underneath”, or motion terms like, “toward, away from, over”. If we were to compare how these function in English and Tlingit, it might look like this: through the door door through on the table table on towards the house house towards after awhile awhile after

Note the use of the article “the” in the English examples, and how they do not exist in Tlingit, which does not have a need for articles in the way that English does/ Determiners To begin talking about direction and location in Tlingit, we should look at determiners and how they function in Tlingit. English has a comparable pair in “this” and “that”, which inform the speaker the general proximity of something. For example, we might say “this house” if it is closer to us than “that house”. In Tlingit, there is a set of four general determiners, and a fifth one that is used in certain situations. You probably have heard these used before, and in many different forms, so now we are going to look closely at how they function, which often combines a suffix to allow speakers and listeners to communicate the specifics of location, direction, or duration. Here are the four most common determiners in Tlingit: yá ~ yáa- this one here, here (near me, in possession) hé ~ héi- this one here, nearby, over here, on my side wé ~ wéi- that one there, nearby, over there (as if pointng) yú ~ yóo- that one over yonder, way over there, far away

To help us think about how these generally work, look at the illustrations on the following page which shows one way determiners can function.

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Suffixes This set of determiners can take on more specific functions when combined with suffixes. The following list includes most of the Tlingit relational suffixes, which can be used to describe direction, location, time, and the type of action taking place in a verb (repetitive, to completion, etc.). We will focus first on the role they play in communicating location and direction.

Relational Suffixes I

-dáx̱ ~ -tx̱ ~ -x̱ from, out of; since -de to, toward; untl; in the manner of -náx̱ through; along, via; including the tme of -t coming to, arriving at; moving about; at a point -wu ~ -u is/are at -xʼ ~ -∅ residing at; at (the scene of); at (the tme of) (in prolonged contact) at; (repeatedly arriving) at; being, -x̱ in the form of

Introduction to Base-Suffix Combinations Taking the four main determiners in Tlingit, we can begin to see how these suffixes are used to create meaning, and also how they function in terms of altering vowel length and tone.

compound components general meaning this one here, here (near me, in yá ~ yáa- — possession) yáadáx̱ / yáatx̱ yá + -dáx̱ from right here yáade yá + -dé towards right here yáanáx̱ yá + -náx̱ through right here arriving right here; at this place right yáat yá + -t here right here; located at this place right yáadu yá + -t + -wu here residing right here; at this place right yáaxʼ yá + -xʼ here moving along right here; repeatedly yáax̱ yá + -x̱ right here

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compound components general meaning usually answered with a determiner that uses that same suffix. Matching the suffix of the question keeps the answer hé ~ héi- — this one here, nearby, over here, on my side logical. To see how this works, letʼs look at the possibilities héidáx̱ / héitx̱ hé + -dáx̱ from here of these suffixes and then questions with matching answers. towards here héide hé + -dé compound components general meaning héináx̱ hé + -náx̱ through here goo- + sá — goo (interrogatve) + sá (say) = héit hé + -t arriving here; at this place (queston word) where? héidu hé + -t + -wu here; located at this place goodáx̱ sá? goo + -dáx̱ + sá from where? héixʼ hé + -xʼ residing here; at this place goodé sá? goo + -dé + sá towards where? héix̱ hé + -x̱ moving along here; repeatedly here goonáx̱ sá? goo + -náx̱ + sá through where? goot sá? goo + -t + sá arriving where? compound components general meaning goosú? goo + -u + -sá located where? that one there, nearby, over there residing where? / restng at where? wé ~ wéi- — (as if pointng) gooxʼ sá? goo + -xʼ + sá moving along where? / from there wéidáx̱ / wéitx̱ wé + -dáx̱ goox̱ sá? goo + -x̱ + sá repeatedly arriving where? wéide wé + -dé towards there wéináx̱ wé + -náx̱ through there goodáx̱ sáwé yee yaagú? where is yʼallʼs canoe from? * wéit wé + -t arriving there; at that place Xunaadáx̱ áyá haa yaagú. our canoe is from Hoonah. wéidu wé + -t + -wu there; located at that place * traditonal greetng when canoe arrives at your village. wéixʼ wé + -xʼ residing there; at that place goodé sá yaa neegút? where are you walking towards? moving along there; repeatedly hoon daakahídidé yaa nx̱agút. i am walking to the store. wéix̱ wé + -x̱ there

where did s/he nail it through? compound components general meaning goonáx̱ sá akaawaxʼóo that one over yonder, way over wé tʼáa yaanáx̱ akaawaxʼóo he nailed it through that wall. yú ~ yóo- — there, far away yóodáx̱ / yóotx̱ yú + -dáx̱ from there (over yonder) goot sá uwaḵúx̱? where did s/he go (by boat/car)? yóode yú + -dé towards there (over yonder) neilt uwaḵúx̱. s/he went home (by boat/car) yóonáx̱ yú + -náx̱ through there (over yonder) goosú ax̱ kéesi? where is my bracelet? arriving there (over yonder); at that yóot yú + -t place yáadu i kéesi. here is your bracelet. there (over yonder); located at that yóodu yú + -t + -wu place gooxʼ sá yéi yatee i éesh? where does your father live? residing there (over yonder); at that Deishúxʼ yéi yatee ax̱ éesh. my father lives in Deishú (Haines). yóoxʼ yú + -xʼ place moving along there (over yonder); goox̱ sá sh kanaltséx̱ch? where is s/he biking along? yóox̱ yú + -x̱ repeatedly there (over yonder) yóox̱ sh kanaltséx̱ch. s/he is biking along way over there. We can also look at the way Tlingit forms questions about direction and location. By now you have probably heard the question, «goosú wa.é?» This question uses a suffix, and is

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We should next learn the following directional term, which Base-Suffix Combinations is also commonly used: To continue looking at base-suffix combinations, we will haa(n) vicinity, area surrounding (person or people) start with the following list, which includes the possessive pronoun «a», the noun «áa» and three relational bases. We This one is more commonly used than «yá» when talking will introduce the remaining noun suffixes, and then look at about motion and direction. Some examples that you might combinations of these bases and any of the suffixes that base already be familiar with are: may gain. haadé / haandé towards right here; (bring it here!)* a its [possessive] haandé i jín give me your hand; put ʼer there á it; that place; tme; reason; fact yakʼéi haat yigoodí it is good you have come here. on; horizontal surface of; inside of vessel for water or –ká food (gúxʼaa ká, sʼíxʼ ká, ḵʼwátl ká, xʼeesháa ká, etc.) * used in ḵu.éexʼ when your name is called for a gif, food, money, bowl, etc. –yá face of; vertcal surface of Another common relational term is: –tú inside of

in its possession (related to «jín», meaning “hand”) –jee These are commonly used in Tlingit, especially «áa» and «a» which can function as a placeholder in Tlingit. Speakers Youʼll notice this one is listed with an em dash before it «– will often make a reference to something specific, and then jee». This is a way of noting that the word is relational, mean- refer to it later as “it” or “there” throughout their speech. The ing that it needs to have a noun to relate to. This could also following sentence examples show how these can be used: appear in dictionaries and other texts as «a jee» (its possession), or «du jee» (her/his possession). The «a» and «du» are a daa yoo tux̱waatán. i thought about it exchangeable with other nouns and possessive pronouns. áa yéi yatee s/he resides there Here are some examples of suffixes used with this relation- a kát iseiwaxʼáḵw you forgot it al term. áa ḵoowdzitee s/he was born there compound components general meaning in its possession (related to «jín», –jee — meaning “hand”) Relational Suffixes II jeedáx̱ jee + -dáx̱ from –ʼs possession The following table completes our list of noun suffixes. jeedé jee + -dé towards –ʼs possession These suffixes do not combine with determiners. jeenáx̱ jee + -náx̱ through –ʼs possession -ch subject of transitve verb; with, using jeet jee + -t arriving at –ʼs possession; at –ʼs (distributed) in the area of; (going) afer, (waitng) for; possession -g̱aa about the tme of jeewú jee + -wú located in –ʼs possession -n with, using, as soon as restng in –ʼs possession; at –ʼs jeexʼ jee + -xʼ possession In the lists below, pay close attention to tone, vowel length moving along –ʼs possession; jeex̱ jee + -x̱ repeatedly in –ʼs possession of the base, and also to the fact that some of the bases will not take some of the suffixes. These are marked by an em dash only in the “compound” and “general meaning” columns. The meanings are approximate translations, and should not be

94 95 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Directional & Relational Terms taken literally in all cases. Tlingit does not function the same compound components general meaning as English, and the context could shift the meaning in some –yá — –ʼs face; –ʼs vertcal surface cases, especially in complex verb phrases. Still, understand- — + -ch — ing these combinations and how they create meaning will — — + -gáa — help you understand how Tlingit functions. ̱ –yaadáx̱ / yá + -dáx̱ from the face of – compound components general meaning –yaax̱ á — it –yaadé yá + -dé towards the face of – ách á + -ch because of it; with it — — + -n — aag̱áa á + -g̱áa afer it; following it –yaanáx̱ / yá + -náx̱ through the face of – aadáx̱ / aax̱ á + -dáx̱ from it; afer it [that tme] –yanax̱ aadé á + -dé towards it arriving at the face of –; on the face –yát yá + -t of – aan á + -n with it –yáwu yá + -wu located on the face of – anax̱ á + -náx̱ through it; along it –yáxʼ / yá + -xʼ residing on the face of –; located on át á + -t arriving at it; at it –yáa the face of – áwu á + -wu located at it –yáx̱ yá + -x̱ moving along on the face of –; áxʼ ~ áa á + -xʼ residing at it; located at it repeatedly on the face of – áx̱ á + -x̱ moving along it; repeatedly at it compound components general meaning

compound components general meaning –tú — inside – –ká — on –; –ʼs horizontal surface — + -ch — — + -ch — –tóog̱aa tú + -g̱áa pleasing; liked; wanted –toodáx̱ / — — + -g̱áa — tú + -dáx̱ from the inside of – –tootx̱ –kaadáx̱ / ká + -dáx̱ from the top of – –kaax̱ –tóode tú + -dé towards the inside of – — — + -n — –kaadé ká + -dé over it; towards the top of –; along the top of – –tóonáx̱ tú + -náx̱ through the inside of – — — + -n — –tóot tú + -t arriving at the inside of –; at the –kaanáx̱ / inside of – ká + -náx̱ through the top of –; along the top –kanax̱ of – –tóowu tú + -wu located inside of – –kát ká + -t arriving on –; on – residing on inside of –; located inside –tóoxʼ tú + -xʼ of – –káwu ká + -wu located on – moving along on the inside of –; –káxʼ / –tóox̱ tú + -x̱ ká + -xʼ residing on –; located on – repeatedly inside of – –káa –káx̱ ká + -x̱ moving along on; repeatedly on –

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Negative Forms & Suffixes (di)kée up above Tlingit suffixes can change when the statement is made in (di)keenaa upstairs a negative form. The negative form is signaled by the particle (di)kínde upwards «tléil», which can appear in any of the following forms: «tléil, (di)yée down below tlél, hél, lél, tíl, l». There is a similar «líl» which is used with (di)yeenaa downstairs prohibitive forms (donʼt). The decision on which negative (di)yínde downwards particle to use appears to be speaker preference, and in the naakée upstream; north chart here they are all listed with «tléil», but they could be ixkée / éex downstream; south any of the listed forms. daaḵ up from the shore (to the inland) I have (in my possession) ax̱ jeewú daḵká on the inland I donʼt have (not in my possession) tléil ax̱ jee éilʼká on the ocean; near the ocean itʼs here yáadu éeḵ down to the shore (from the inland) itʼs not here tléil yáat daak out to sea (from the shore) itʼs there wéidu deikée far out to sea (to the open) itʼs not there tléil wéit yán ashore (from the sea) itʼs home neilú diyáa across (other side) itʼs not home tléil neil tliyáa the far side; further over itʼs there áwu neil inside (a building, house) itʼs not there tléil á gáan outside (from a buidling, house) on his/her face du yáwu ḵúx̱ back, reverse not on his/her face tleil du yá kux aground tleikdé to one side Independent Bases sheeynáx̱ (go) right sʼátʼnáx̱ (go) lef Many of the bases in Tlingit refer to the direction and location of one object in relation to another, but there is a set of independent bases that are relative to a fixed location Relational Bases I which is rooted where the sea meets the shore. The Tlingit are coastal people, and even if the ocean is not being talk- Relational bases can take relational suffixes, but they ed about, these terms appear in the language and bring the need a noun or empty base to relate to, as they refer to a ocean into language in metaphorical ways that sometimes space, location, or relationship between that noun and an- create unique meanings. This is not unique to Tlingit, as oth- other object(s).The following is a list of common relational er people indigenous to coastal areas have the shoreline built bases. Similar to inalienable nouns, these must have a pos- sessing noun or the default «a» (its), and if ~ is attached to into their languages as well. Independent bases do not need the end of the word, then it needs a . any other noun to relate to, and can take relational suffixes. relational suffix Study the following lists and note how they are used in –daa around; about; concerning your studies of Tlingit. –daaká around outside of surface

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–eetí remains; imprint –daat about; regarding –géi~ against; opposing; wrong –g̱óot withhout –ít afer; following –jináḵ taking away from; depriving –kináa(k) above –jís / jiyís for (to have) –kʼí base (standing); trunk (of tree); rump –káx̱ for –lú nose; point –ḵín less than –náa draped over –náḵ away from; lef behind –naa / –nyaa directon of –shagóon source; origin; fundament –shá head; top –shoowú half of; part of –shakée (on) top, above –tóog̱aa pleasing; liked; wanted –shú the end of –x̱ʼéis / x̱ʼeiyís to eat –shuká front; ahead –yáanáx̱ more than; beyond; too much botom (of a cavity); in water (deep enough to –yáx̱ like; according to; equal to –táak submerge) –yís for (the beneft of) –tayee beneath, underneath –tóoḵ botom (sitng); rump; but –tʼáak back inland from The Empty Base –tʼaaḵ beside (see also “side”) There are several verbs that require directional & loca- –tʼéi / tʼéik behind tional suffixes and refer to people, and Tlingit does not allow –tʼiká out toward the open sea from suffixes on names or most pronouns (á [it] is the exception). –wán the edge of Because of this, Tlingit uses what is called an empty base, –waḵshiyee visible; before eyes which is a meaningless base that comes after a possessive –wát mouth of (body or form of water) pronoun or kinship term. Below are examples of empty bases without suffixes. They are written with a tilde (~) on the –xʼaan tp, point, peak, sharp edge; outer limbs of tree or bush end to show that a variety of suffixes can attach. The empty near; at (a personʼs) house –x̱án base cannot appear without a possessor, and almost always –x̱oo among; in the midst of has a suffix. –x̱ʼáak between them ax̱ ee~ –me –x̱ʼé mouth or opening i ee~ –you –x̱ʼusyee beneath of foot of du ee~ –him/her –yís for (the beneft of) haa ee~ –us yee ee~ –you all Relational Nouns has du ee~ –them ax̱ tláa ee~ –my mother Relational nouns cannot accept relational suffixes, but they need a noun or empty base to relate to, as they refer i éesh ee~ –your father to a space, location, or relationship between that noun and another object(s).

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The empty base most commonly has a suffix, so look at the The last option, the suffix «-n», can pair with the empty following lists to see how the empty base functions. base to create the following: ax̱ eedé towards me ax̱ een with me i eedé towards you i een with you du eedé towards him/her du een with him/her haa eedé towards us haa een with us yee eedé towards you-all yee een with you-all has du eedé towards them has du een with them ax̱ tláa eedé towards my mother ax̱ tláa een with my mother i éesh eedé towards your father i éesh een with your father ax̱ éet arriving at me There are options for contraction in certain cases. These i éet arriving at you can be tricky and should be memorized so you can learn how du éet arriving at him/her to listen for them and use them in your speaking. haa éet arriving at us a een aan with it yee éet arriving at you-all ax̱ een x̱aan with me has du éet arriving at them ḵaa een ḵoon with people ax̱ tláa éet arriving at my mother haa een haan with us i éesh éet arriving at your father du een doon with someone ax̱ éex̱ repeatedly arriving at me The empty base has special functions with verbs, often i éex̱ repeatedly arriving at you changing the suffix to note whether the verb is completed, du éex̱ repeatedly arriving at him/her happens repeatedly, or is in the process of occurring. Only haa éex̱ repeatedly arriving at us certain verbs allow the empty base. These are often noted yee éex̱ repeatedly arriving at you-all in the verb documentation done by Eggleston, either in the has du éex̱ repeatedly arriving at them verb theme or the notes. ax̱ tláa éex̱ repeatedly arriving at my mother Somewhat related to the empty base is motion towards a person. In Tlingit, you do not walk directly to someone. A i éesh éex̱ repeatedly arriving at your father pronoun will not take a suffix, so a relational base is used, as in the following examples: Another dynamic word in Tlingit, that can appear in many forms is the following: –x̱án near; at (a personʼs) house tin ~ tín; teen ~ téen; een ~ -n (along) with, by means of; as soon as Ax̱ éesh x̱ánde kḵwagóot. I am going to go by my father. Haa x̱áni g̱anú! Sit by us!

Weʼll finish this chapter with a list of the remaining postpositional bases. There are many of them to look for, so just keep committing them to memory by watching for them and

102 103 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Directional & Relational Terms practicing ways to use them in your speaking. The “Verbal –tushuyee in contriton; deference Structure Handbook” by James Crippen has a list of these –tʼaḵká at side bases, which is one of the many reasons you should keep that –tʼeinyaa inside (lining) handbook with you at all times. –wanyáa apart from Relational Bases II –waḵká blocking view –waḵshú avoiding vision of –daagaanyaa outcast , exclude –waḵyík middle of clearing –daakashú detriment of; at expense of –wanká on the edge of –dayéen facing –wanáak separate from –dakán facing away –xeesʼi the bow of (a boat) –déin vicinity of –x̱uká deck of (a boat) –digiygé middle of –x̱ʼanaa in way, in the way of , obstructng –dook close by; alongside –x̱ʼashú avoiding talking with –dzúk back of; right behind –x̱ʼaxʼaa brink; edge –guyee area at the base of; foot of –x̱ʼayee waitng to eat; waitng to speak –g̱ei between the folds, covers, walls of –yaax̱ the edge of –jig̱éi inside bend of; curve of –yatʼéik behind her back –jiká in the way of; atainable –yatʼéináx̱ in secret (where nobody can see); –jiseiyí in the shelter of (esp a tree) away from peopleʼs view among faces –jiyee ready to be used –yax̱oo waitng for –kagé meetng –yayee covering –katʼóotʼ partway up inside; hlafway up inside –yináa in way, actng as a shield for –keeká across from; facing –yinaa / niyaa back and forth between –kík alongside; catching up –yuwaaká –kooká paralelling; reminding –niyaa directon Relational Nouns II –niyaadé / yinaadé toward, in directon –niyaa / yinaa in way, actng as a shield for –daséixʼ out of reach of –seiyí in the shelter of –déinnáx̱ right way of; properly –shutú the end side of –eetéenáx̱ lacking; without at the foot of a slope; down from the crest of; –gukáaxʼ speaking clearly –shuwee back from the crest of –g̱unayáak separate from; apart from –tadaa exterior botom –jig̱áa enough; adequate –taká inside botom –jiḵín not enough –tawán right next to; up close –jix̱ooní working with; pitching in –tuḵyee below outlet; low lying area –jiyeet burdened by; sufering

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–ji.een working with; helping Examples With Noun Phrases –káaxʼ depending on yaakw shuká the bow of a boat, forward –kakán vantage point dzeit shuwee at the landing (or foot) of a dock –kayaa sort of like; not quite ḵéesʼ shuwee high tde line –kayee patern, model, template dáanaa shoowú a half dollar –kayís for it héen táak the botom of a body of water –keek along with ganaltáak in the fre –kíknáx̱ in additon du tuwáxʼ his/her thought, will; to his/her thinking –kujín motvated by du tuwáadáx̱ due to his/her efort or doing –ḵóoxʼ amidst crowd; public ḵaa tʼáak behind all people, the least of all people –lukaax̱ hurry; spur of moment du yatʼéik behind his/her back, out of his/her view –niyís preparaton for (tme) ḵaa yatʼéináx̱ when no one is looking –sóox̱ ready, hurry, early for du jix̱án at hand (for him/her to work with) –tuwáxʼ opinion; feeling du x̱ʼax̱án at hand (“at mouth”, for him/her to eat or drink) –tuḵín not meetng expectatons g̱agaan x̱ʼusyee sunbeam, ray of sunlight –wanyeedé set aside; hidden dís x̱ʼusyee moonbeam –waḵdaséixʼ hidden from view du x̱ʼusyee under his/her feet, underfoot –waḵgáa pleasing to see ̱ tʼaa yá wall –waḵkáxʼ plainly; obviously shaa yadaa mountain side –waḵnáx̱ leaving vision yaax̱ the side of it one that matches; an amount that matches; –x̱ooní equivalent to; one like woosh yaayí a pair –x̱ʼadaséixʼ out of eatng; out of speaking du x̱ʼayáx̱ according to his/her order or instructon –x̱ʼajihéen disgusted by speech du jiyáx̱ according to his/her example or model –x̱ʼanáḵ taking away food gaaw yáx̱ on tme –x̱ʼatʼaaḵ verbal support aan x̱ʼayee in a town, on the streets of a town –x̱ʼéig̱aa good to eat; good words sheen x̱ʼayee place for bailing a canoe –x̱ʼoosí leg du jiyee in front of him/her, ready for him/her –yaayí one of a pair du x̱ʼayee before him/her, ready for him/her to eat or drink –yayís antcipatng taat yeen middle of the night –ya.áak room; space; opportunity dei yík in a road or path –yeen middle of (a period of tme) héen yík in a river, in the water –yinaadé / niyaadé toward, in directon yaakw yík in a boat –yuwaa missing, avoiding; belly du g̱oojí yinaadé toward his wolf (Raven song)

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108 109 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

110 8 Particles, Interjections, Phrases

Eeshaandéin ágé haa daa tuwatee uháan tsú ax̱ káalkʼw hás ax̱ éesh hás? — Naa Tláa

Does death take pity on us too my brothersʼ children, my fathers? — Jessie Dalton, Tʼaḵdeintaan 1

Particles Particles are words that rarely appear on their own, and their meaning tends to come from combining with other words in ways that requires memorization. Learning how to interpret and use particles is critical to gaining a high level of fluency, as they can connect thoughts in ways unique to the language and can help a speaker “sound” like a native speaker of the language. The particles listed here are given with a simple definition, but as you continue your studies in Tlingit, watch for how they are used and help to create, adjust, and direct meaning in conversations, stories, and more. Many of the entries in this chapter come from the Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary (Leer) and Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá! (Dauenhauer & Dauenhauer). The first entries do not stand on their own, so they are shown in combinations with other particles. These are followed by a series of other particles. You will begin spotting these more and more as you study Tlingit. 1 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. Haa Tuwunáagu Yís: For Our Healing Spirit. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 242-243.

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name/voice; combines with other chʼa g̱óot diferent; other sá partcles to form questons chʼa g̱unaḵáa someone else; a diferent person daa sá ~ daat sá? what? chʼa g̱unayé somewhere else; someplace else daaḵw.aa sá? which one? chʼa g̱una.aa diferent one; another one wáa sá? how? chʼa g̱una.aan somewhere else; someplace else aadóo sá ~ áa sá? who? chʼa g̱una.át something else; a supernatural being goosá ~ goosú? where? chʼa kageinax̱ patently; carefully; quietly xʼoon sá? how many? chʼa koogéiyi carelessly; any which way gwátgeen sá? when (in the future)? chʼa kʼát at least gwátk sá? when (in the past)? chʼa kʼikát at least; once in a while daat yís sá? for what (beneft)? chʼa na.aaní it shoiuld not be done; be sure not to daat gáa sá? for what (purpose)? / afer what? ̱ chʼa nichká good for nothing; useless wáanáx̱ sá? why? chʼa neechx̱ for nothing; in vain; without success wáa nanée sáwé at some point chʼa tlákw always; constantly; all the tme tléil ~ tlél ~ lél ~ hél ~ l not (negatve) chʼa yaadachóon straight; directly; honestly tlél daa sá nothing chʼa yéi ordinary; usual tlél wáa sá itʼs okay; itʼs so-so chʼa yeisú just now; fnally; stll chʼa yóokʼ ~ chʼa yákʼw ~ tlél aadóo sá ~ tlél áa sá nobody suddenly; immediately; right away chʼa yáakʼw tlél gooxʼ sá nowhere ldakát all; every chʼa the very; just chʼa ldakát ... every single ... chʼa daa sá whatever; anything ldakát át everything chʼa daaḵw.aa sá any (certain) one; whichever one ldakát ḵáa everyone chʼa wáa sá however; any old way ldakát yé everywhere chʼa wáa kugei sá any amount; however many chʼu stll; even chʼa wáa yateeyi aa sá any kind (of); whichever kind chʼu déix̱ both chʼa wáa yateeyi yéixʼ sá on any occasion chʼu shóogu the same chʼa aadóo sá ~ chʼa áa sá? whoever; anyone, anybody chʼu tle ~ chʼu tlei when; while chʼa gooxʼ sá wherever chʼu tleix̱ forever chʼa xʼoon sá any number of; however many chʼa xʼoonináx̱ sá any number of people; however interrogatve (turns statements into many people gé ~ ágé yes/no questons); contracts to ák- chʼa gwátgeen sá whenever (in the future) before a demonstratve (ákwé, ákyá) chʼa aan although, even though, however á (focus; emphasis) chʼa aaní ~ chʼa aanínáx̱ ~ x̱á ~x̱áa sofens an asserton (“you see”) peacefully; calmly; patently; nicely chʼa aanídáx̱ ch’as only, just chʼa g̱ég̱aa in vain; for nothingl without success

112 113 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Particles tsʼas merely Interjections kwshé maybe (hopeful, positve) An interjection quickly conveys a feeling. They are difficult gushé i donʼt know for sure to translate, because the meaning depends on the situation, shákdé perhaps, probably (likely) tone, volume, and relationship of the speakers. When looking at the meanings here, keep in mind that it can change gí ~ gíwé perhaps, I guess, it would seem (not likely) dramatically depending on the situation. These should be gwál ~ gwál yé perhaps (doubtul) used on a regular basis when surprised, happy, teasing, and gu.aal I hope, would that (optatve) more. They are easy to learn, and replacing them in your ḵashde I thought speech even when you are not speaking Tlingit will help you actually, in fact (contrary to what continue to think in Tlingit. ḵachu ~ ḵachoo ~ x̱achu was thought); or Use of interjections depends on your relationship with the ḵu.aa~ḵwa however other speaker. There are things that are not offensive if you are okay teasing one another. These same things, if said to a ásí discovery of something previously unclear (“oh, so, I see”) stranger or someone with more cultural authority (grandpar- second-hand informaton about ent, leader) in public, could be insulting. Work with speakers ásgí something previously unclear (“I to make sure you understand the uses. hear, I guess”) emphatcally assertve (“indeed, for ha.é holy cow!; see how you are (putng sdágáa ~ dágáa sure”) on airs) kʼát small amount; limited see how you are (teasing, shame dóoooóo on you) tsá only then jé see how you are (disapproval) tsú also hachgwá. ~ chgwá. thatʼs what you get s’é frst ax̱ adée oh dear (lit. “my thing”) déi now, this tme (appears afer verb) haadláa ~ dláa good grief; too much shé ~ shéi (mild surprise) x’wán be sure to (with imperatve, hortatve) gwáa ~ gu.áa (strong surprise) be sure not to (with admonitve) tsé háw ~ háʼ oh my (surprise) just, simply, just then tle éitskʼ yummy already, by now (appears before scary de verb) atsganée again, stll, some more (note tone tlá. ~ tlúm ~ tláp whoops tsu diference with tsú, “also”) hú ouch (vowel is ofen drawn out and óosh hypothetcal (“as if, if only, even if”) shaky) ag̱anáa oh no (ofen associated with grief) tlax̱ very éeee yuck, eeew ḵúnáx̱ really é check it out; wow óoskʼ ~ óoskʼi ~ óoxkʼ litle; cute héeʼ cute! poor thing (can be teasing or eesháan sympathetc)

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haaw well tsu yéi yanaḵá! say it again! shkʼé let me see; let me think x̱wasikóo i know xwéi phew (exhauston) tlél x̱wasakú i donʼt know x̱x̱x̱ ugh haa gushé i donʼt know tsú you exaggerate yisikóo gé? do you know? litsʼáa it smells good yeeysikóo gé? do you all know? lichán it stnks; it smells strong wutusikóo we know tlél wutusakú we donʼt know awsikóo s/he knows Conversational Phrases tlél awuskú s/he doesnʼt know This set of phrases are helpful in conversation. Many of tlél daa sá awuskú s/he doesnʼt know anything the verb forms are commands (imperative), which must be x̱ʼanawóosʼ! ask her/him! used carefully. In general, Tlingit allows a lot of commands tlél ax̱ daa yaa ḵushusgé i donʼt understand without having to soften them (“hand me the salt” instead a kát x̱at seiwaxʼáḵw i forgot of “please pass the salt”), but some of them should be used with discretion, unless there is comfort between the speak- ḵinees.aax̱! listen! ers. Teasing in private is different than teasing in public, and ḵinayis.aax̱! you all listen! when ceremonial oratory is being delivered you should act ax̱ x̱ʼéide ḵinees.aax̱! listen to me! and respond appropriately. du x̱ʼéide ḵinees.aax̱!! listen to her/him! gunalchéesh thank you x̱at iya.áx̱ch gé? do you hear me? aatlein gunalchéesh many thanks x̱at x̱ʼeeya.áx̱ch gé? do you understand me? gunalchéesh tlein big thanks Lingít x̱ʼeeya.áx̱ch gé? do you understand Tlingit? chʼa yéi gugéinkʼ a litle sh tóog̱aa x̱aaditee i am grateful tlél wáa sá (utí) itʼs okay; donʼt worry about it Lingít sh tóo x̱altóow Iʼm learning Tlingit lidzée itʼs difcult g̱aa yatee itʼs good; itʼs pleasing tlél uldzée itʼs not difcult tlél g̱aa ushtí it is not good; it is unpleasant yakʼéi good; fne lig̱aas itʼs taboo; itʼs forbidden tlél ushkʼé itʼs bad wáa sá duwasáakw ____? how is ___ called? tlél eeshkʼé youʼre bad wáa sá x̱ʼaduwaḵaa ____? how do you say ___? kʼidéin well; nice; carefully kashaxít! write it (singular)! dziyáak a while ago; just now kayshaxít! you all write it (plural)! dziyáagin afer a while; later nidatóow! read (singular)! naytóow! you all read (plural)! chʼa yéi g̱unéin sometmes kéenáx̱ natóow! read it out loud! wáang̱aneins ~ wáang̱aneens now and then; sometmes tlél unalé almost x̱aan kananeek! tell me (singular)! x̱aan kanayneek! you all tell me (plural)! yéi yanaḵá! say it! tsu x̱aan kananeek! tell me again!

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Lingít x̱ʼéináx̱ x̱aan kananeek! tell me in Tlingit nashtá! go to sleep, already (singular)! yoo x̱ʼatán! speak (singular)! natá dé! go to sleep right now (singular)! yoo x̱ʼayla.á! you all speak (plural)! nayx̱éixʼw! you all go to sleep (plural)! idaná! drink (it)! yéi áwé that is how it is x̱á! eat (it)! yéi ákwé? is that how it is? is that right? yéi kwshé? is that perhaps how it is? a yáx̱ áwé it is like that a yáx̱ ákwé? is it like that? hóochʼ done; gone hóochʼ áwé itʼs all gone; itʼs done déi áwé! knock it of! sh eelkʼátlʼ! shut up; say nothing; calm down! ilí! donʼt! ilí sʼé! wait! tliyéi ~ tliyéixʼ stop; be stll ihí dé! stop now! tsóokʼ! more! haagú! come here (singular)! haat yi.á! you all come here (plural)! neil gú! come in (singular)! neil yi.á! you all come in (plural)! g̱anú! sit down (singular)! g̱ayḵí! you all sit down (plural)! gidaan ~ gidahaan! stand up (singular)! gaydinaaḵ! you all stand up (plural)! chúk ~ júk! scram, go away! ná! take it! haahée! hand it over! góok! go ahead; do it! latín! look! g̱án! look here now! tláakw hurry; fast i éet ḵoowaháa itʼs your turn natá! go to sleep (singular)!

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120 9 Introducing the Tlingit Verb

Keitl tóo akayanook. Yú neilx’ áyú g̱agaan x̱’oos áwé oowayáa. Neildéi koodagánch neildéi. — Tseexwáa

The bear would feel the approach of the dog. In the den they seem like sunbeams. They would shine in, into the den. — J.B. Fawcet, Wooshkeetaan1

The lists presented throughout this book—nouns, noun modifiers, directional & relational terms, particles, and some conversational phrases—are expansive and may be intimidating. The lists of body parts, kinship terms, and directional & relational terms are fairly complete, but the lists of nouns and phrases only scratch the surface of what is out there. The benefit of these parts of Tlingit is you can look them up fairly easy in the Dictionary of Tlingit, Interior Tlingit Noun Dictio- nary, and “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook”, and this text. You should always be learning more of these, every single day, and noting how fluent speakers use them. Learners of Tlingit will often be amazed on how the language functions differently than imagined, even after decades of study. Do not take this as a discouraging sign, because I have seen fluent speakers at times have to discuss many of these aspects of language to figure out how to best put things together. And there are always variables. Personal speech patterns and dialect differences can result in different patterns for the same types of things. This is no different than English or any

1 Fawcett, J.B. “Kaats’.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhau- er. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 224–225.

121 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Introducing the Tlingit Verb other language, where a speaker might have different ideas mar in ways that break sentences into small parts to see how on how to communicate the same thing. One speaker might they fit together, and also to teach through basically reas- say, “walk the dog,” and others might say, “he wants out,” “pot- sembling those pieces. This discomfort is understandable. ty time,” “throw him out,” etc. The same thing is being com- The fluent birth speaker internalized the rules of Tlingit in municated but in different ways. the same way that all language learners do from birth: their Your study of Tlingit must be more than memorizing lists, brain and body was prepared to absorb all the rules as birth although that is a part of it. You should make sure you are learners. Most speakers do not think about the rules behind spending equal amounts of time listening to the language sound systems (should the possessive/plural suffix be -s, -es, and creating language yourself. Throughout your lifetime of or -ez?) or the use of articles (definite, indefinite, or none?). study you should always be asking how Tlingit looks at things Instead, the birth speaker often knows what sounds right differently, so you can think in Tlingit, but the complexity and what does not, and goes from there. you might encounter with things up to this point is pretty Tlingit is no different, however, second-language learners minimal when compared to the Tlingit verb. often benefit from this type of learning because they have to This is the spot where many speakers find themselves become speakers through a three step process: understand stuck in their studies of Tlingit. When learning nouns and how grammar functions in English, understand how gram- other parts of speech, a learner can figure out where to put mar works in Tlingit, then deconstruct English patterns and things in order to substitute Tlingit into language patterns. reconstruct them with Tlingit. This does not mean that the Many aspects of word order, concepts, space and time, and speaker forgets English or becomes worse in it somehow, but other things differ greatly but these can be understood over it does mean that the speaker often becomes more aware of time by listening, speaking, and conversing about how the choices made when putting language together. words and thoughts are functioning in Tlingit. As the student of Tlingit moves forward, they end up learn- But at the heart of our sacred language we find the Tlingit ing about the field of Tlingit linguistics, and this includes a verb. There is no more important part of speech than this, series of terms that most speakers of English and Tlingit are and you will spend more time and energy on this part of the not familiar with. As you move forward with your studies, it language than anything else. When learning to speak Tlingit, is always important to keep your humility and to avoid of- you should be practicing every single day, and it may help fending other speakers and learners. If you know more Tlingit to divide your energy between three things: easily attainable than another learner or potential learner, then you should parts of language (new nouns, counting, colors, directional & keep them involved in the language process and make sure relational terms), complex parts of Tlingit culture and worl- they do not feel left out. If you know more terms about the dview (spirituality, clan law, clan relations & kinship terms, language than a fluent birth speaker, then be careful to make etc.), and aspects of Tlingit grammar. sure the fluent speaker knows they are the superior speaker. If we surveyed every Tlingit class being taught right now, It can be intimidating when grammar is analyzed at every we would probably find the least amount of time being spent level, no matter what language you are learning, but for the on the Tlingit verb, and that is understandable. But verbal second-language learner this is a crucial step in transitioning structure is the key to being able to think in Tlingit and to to thinking in Tlingit. The shift is a complex one, requiring a stay in conversations for long amounts of time. Within the higher level of commitment—in terms of time, brain pow- verb, more than anything else, we will find a whole series of er, and worldview—than learning nouns or phrases. For this new linguistic terms and concepts, and these are essential to reason, we see classes often stuck at this part and circling being able to comprehend and create verbal structures and back to nouns, colors, or phrase drills. Most second-language sentences. learners take a break from pushing forward at the verb, which Many speakers are nervous about studying Tlingit gram- can be disheartening because the learner felt like there was

122 123 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Introducing the Tlingit Verb so much momentum gained in knowing more words, phras- tences that come from “Crippenʼs Tlingitology Seminar”.2 We es, and particles. will look at the sentences first, and then talk about how they But if you can devote yourself, over and over, to this part of function, with focus paid to methods of spotting the Tlingit the language, then you will unlock the way our fluent speak- verb. ers are thinking, and the way that every speaker of Tlingit Letʼs start by taking a look at our first group of sample sen- for the past 10,000 years has been thinking. That is not to say tences, including their translations. that there is a magic switch that suddenly tunes you into all of that, but without being able to comprehend and create Sample Sentences complex sentences and verbs you will be left with partial 1. ax̱ tláach ax̱ éesh asix̱án comprehension and the ability to only repeat memorized my mother loves my father phrases, verb forms, and somewhat frozen sentences. 2. yú héende kg̱wagóot We are going to slowly look at Tlingit verbs, beginning s/he will go (by walking) toward that river (over yonder) with some sample sentences where we can learn how to spot 3. wé héennáx̱ yaa naḵúx̱ s/he is boatng across/along that river a verb and understand the basic parts of a verb phrase. As 4. káaxweig̱áa hoon daakahídidé woogoot you move forward with these studies, keep in mind that you he went to the store for cofee should be spending most of your time listening to Tlingit, 5. ḵaashaxáshaa een wé tás aawaxaash focusing on the rhythm of the language and the sound sys- he cut that thread with scissors tem, and then you should be speaking it so your mind and 6. ax̱ aat yís x̱waa.oo body understand that this is what we do now, and then the I bought it for my paternal aunt smallest portion of time and energy should be spent on the 7. haa jeexʼ a náḵ has kawdikʼéetʼ they died of leaving it behind in our possession technical details. That may seem counter-intuitive in light of what we just discussed, but it will keep you moving forward Basic Parts of a Sentence in terms of having a sense of accomplishment, and will give your brain a break from the analysis of a completely different A sentence may contain the following parts: noun phrase, and complex language. verb phrase, adjective, adverb, numbers, and particles. The When we have discussions of grammar we tend to move noun phrase can contain the information we have covered into conversations dominated by English, so it is good to so far, like nouns, modifiers to nouns, and directional & re- have plenty of activities as an individual and as a group to lational terms. At times, a noun phrase is bound to the verb, keep yourself in the language in between grammar sessions. meaning the noun phrase must be included when using the In other language revitalization programs, grammatical verb. terms have been developed within the language which helps The verb phrase is the information that is tied to the verb keep the grammar discussions within the target language. by grammar, and includes three major areas: preverb, verb, That should be a goal for the Tlingit community. and postverb. As you become more familiar with Tlingit grammar, you will be able to spot these parts and the compo- How to Spot a Verb nents within them with more skill, but for now keep in mind that the verb phrase contains all the material needed to fully The advantage to studying all the other parts of speech understand the verb. first is that you can train yourself to find where the verb is in The preverb often contains information about the direc- a sentence. There is still research to do in Tlingit word order, tion and relation of motion verbs. In English we might use but the first thing to keep in mind is the basic structure of the verb. First of all, we will look at a series of sample sen- 2 Crippen, James. “Tlingitology Seminar Notes: Background and Morphology” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013), 14–17.

124 125 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Introducing the Tlingit Verb

lary of nouns, directional & relational terms, particles, and interjections is that you can increase your ability to spot these as comparisons: “he walked towards home,” and “the verbs. After looking at the structure of Tlingit, you will also ball rolled down the hill,” and the text in italics would be the improve on spotting verbs based on their shape. Generally in the preverb in Tlingit. So, rewriting those sentences us- speaking, the verb changes more in the front (prefix) than in ing Tlingit grammar in English we would say “home towards the back (suffix), which is different than in English. he walked,” and “hill down the ball rolled.” This is consistent with the word order we looked at when introducing relation- aadé woogoot walked there al & directional terms. The other types of information found aadé yaa nagút is walking there in the preverb are adverbs, the third person pluralizer, and postpositional pronouns. yakʼéi s/he/it is good In the postverb we most often find two things: verb auxil- wookʼéi s/he/it was good iaries and specifying nouns. Verb auxiliaries are most commonly these two: awsiteen s/he/it sees/saw her/him/it yei agux̱satéen s/he/it will see her/him/it • nooch ~ nuch ~ neech: this puts the verb in a habitual form, which changes a verb from s/he does that to s/he always does that. Sometimes this appears as the suffix In Tlingit, the root occurs near the end of the verb, and «-ch». prefixes are much more common, whereas English puts more information in the suffix. This means that the meaning • noojéen ~ neejéen: this puts the verb in a decessive habit- of the verb is near the end in Tlingit and near the beginning ual form, which changes a verb from s/he does that to s/ in English. This changes the way we interact with verbs, be- he always used to do that. Sometimes this appears as the ginning with how we look them up to find their meaning and suffix «-jéen». leading to understanding how to put the pieces together to conjugate verbs and have complex conversations. Identifying the Verb The breakdown of verbs is a discussion for later, but it is When beginning to look at Tlingit grammar, one of the good to touch on now and then to see what Tlingit verbs most important skills to develop is to identify a verb. Most commonly look like. For now, letʼs take another look at our other things can be looked up using existing resources, but sample sentences, only this time we will identify the verbs. the verb is undoubtedly the heart of the Tlingit language. While you will always be building vocabulary and focusing Sample Sentences with Verbs Identified on how to think in Tlingit—which has to do with concepts, 1. ax̱ tláach ax̱ éesh asix̱án metaphors, word order, and how you look at things in the my mother loves my father world—your ability to interpret and put verbs together will 2. yú héende kg̱wagóot be your most important skill in determining your abilities s/he will go (by walking) toward that river (over yonder) as a speaker. To be honest, you will spend more time with 3. wé héennáx̱ yaa naḵúx̱ s/he is boatng across/along that river questions than answers, but as a lifelong student of the lan- 4. káaxweig̱áa hoon daakahídidé woogoot guage you will be looking at what exactly makes the Tlingit he went to the store for cofee language function, and therefore you will be looking into the 5. ḵaashaxáshaa een wé tás aawaxaash actual (as opposed to the translated) thought-world of our he cut that thread with scissors ancestors. 6. ax̱ aat yís x̱waa.oo One of the main benefits of always building your vocabu- I bought it for my paternal aunt

126 127 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Introducing the Tlingit Verb

7. haa jeexʼ a náḵ has kawdikʼéetʼ 3. wé héennáx̱ yaa naḵúx̱ they died of leaving it behind in our possession wé héen-náx̱ yaa naḵúx̱ These are good sentences to start with because they are determiner noun.directonal-sufx verb short and the verb is located at the end of the sentence. We that water.along/through/via s/he is going (by boat or car) will close this chapter by breaking these sentences apart and 4. káaxweigáa hoon daakahídidé woogoot noting the parts of speech and how the meaning is working ̱ for each of these pieces. káaxwei-g̱áa hoon daa-ka-hít-i-dé woogoot Whenever we break Tlingit language apart to see how the noun.directonal-sufx noun noun.relatonal-base.noun. verb relatonal-sufx.directonal-sufx pieces fit together, remember that we are working in the cofee-afer/for selling around.on.(relatonal).house. s/he went (by walking) areas in between Tlingit and English. This is often called toward “Tlingit Linguistics,” although what we are doing here is on a very introductory level of that field. Keep in mind that the 5. ḵaashaxáshaa een wé tás aawaxaash sum of the parts is greater than the individual parts. ḵaa-sha-√xásh-aa een wé tás aawaxaash The most important thing you can ever do in learning noun.body-part.verb.noun relatonal-base determiner noun verb Tlingit is listening to fluent speakers. As a second language peron.head.√cut.the-one with that thread s/he cut her/him/it learner you might have a different way of looking at the language, and you might know more about Tlingit linguistics, 6. ax̱ aat yís x̱waa.oo but the fluent speaker is the master of the language. There ax̱ aat yís x̱waa.oo are times when second language learners mistakenly believe pronoun kinship relatonal-base verb that they know more about the language because they can my paternal-aunt for-(beneft) i bought her/him/it talk about suffixes and other parts of speech that birth speakers have had no need to discuss. This is false, and is probably 7. haa jeexʼ a náḵ has kawdikʼéetʼ driven by a deep-seated belief that everything can be under- haa jee-xʼ a náḵ has kawdikʼéetʼ stood in English. That belief is also false. English and Tlingit pronoun relatonal-base.relatonal-sufx noun relatonal-base verb Linguistics help the second language learner see the ways our possession.at-(residing) it away from; lef they died of that Tlingit functions so it can be taken apart and put back behind together, but the fluent speaker is always the greatest asset, teacher, and resource. Sample Sentences: Grammar Breakdown 1. ax̱ tláach ax̱ éesh asix̱án ax̱ tláa-ch ax̱ éesh asix̱án pronoun kinship.ergatve-sufx pronoun kinship verb my mother.subject my father s/he loves her/him

2. yú héende kg̱wagóot yú héen-de kg̱wagóot determiner noun.directonal-sufx verb that (over yonder) water.towards s/he will go (by walking)

128 129 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

130 10 The Classifier & Root

Tléil daatnáx̱ sá kwshí yéi yándei kagux̱dayáa. Wooch isx̱án, chʼa tléixʼ tí, ach asgíwé wooch x̱oo yakagux̱dadáa haa ḵusteeyí. — Wóochx̱ Kaduhaa

There is nothing that can force this to happen. Love for each other, being one, perhaps that is what will blend our lives together,. — Jimmie George, Daḵlʼaweidí1

Basic Tlingit Verbal Structure In order to improve our ability to spot verbs, and especially to begin comprehending how they are used in Tlingit so we can understand and speak the language fluently, we will begin to look at Tlingit grammar. The path to fluency in Tlingit consists of these major components: listening to fluent speakers, memorizing sets of words, grasping Tlingit grammar, mastering pronunciation of difficult consonants, controlling vowel length and tone, and speaking every day regardless of your current abilities. Over the past fifty years the overwhelming majority of learners have stopped their intense studies of Tlingit at the doorstep of Tlingit grammar, which makes fluency virtually impossible. This text and the following ones will introduce grammatical concepts in a staggered fashion, beginning with overall structures and leading to complex and at times unpredictable nuances of the language.

1 George, Jimmie. “Ḵéix̱ʼ 1971 / Kake 1971ʼ.” Haa Tuwunáagu Yís—For Our Healing Spirit: Tlingit Orato- ry. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 168–169.

131 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem

The previous chapter introduced the basic structure of a possible. As you learn more about Tlingit grammar, you will Tlingit verb phrase, which consists of the following three notice things that happen naturally with birth speakers, and parts: preverb, verb, and postverb. The verb is always there, those interactions will help you become a better speaker. The and the preverb occurs much more often than the postverb. rules are only the framework, the skeleton, the foundation. To begin seeing how verbs function, we will break the verb The fluent birth speakers, our elders, our wisdom keepers, down into its three components, which are: prefix(es), stem, are the heart, the walls, and the strength of our language. and suffix(es). From there, the stem can be broken down It is key to keep this concept in mind or else you will speak into its three components and further examined. English with Tlingit grammatical rules. Tlingit culture and This is a lot to take in at once without examples, so take worldview must be at the center of your language use in or- a look at the illustration below, which takes us deeper into der to use what many elders would consider proper ways of Tlingit verbal structure. We will examine each of these parts speaking and subject matter in different social situations. and you will eventually see how they act and interact to make Grammar study is vital for the second language learner, Tlingit verbs function. What we will do here is a basic intro- though, because Tlingit patterns will have to be created from duction. If you want to take things to a deeper level, consult a mind that has spent the vast majority of its time in another the works of Crippen, Eggleston, and Cable to see more of language, most likely English, and you have to break down the intricacies of Tlingit grammar. the way you think and build it back up with Tlingit grammar and concepts. Sample Sentences with Verbal Analysis In order to look at more complicated grammar, we are going to need some more complicated sentences. The following sentences come from the magnificent work of language advocates and teachers Nora & Richard Dauenhauer. These sentences are a bit more complicated that those introduced in the last chapter, and several of them also contain concepts that come from the Tlingit way of seeing the world. The first step is to familiarize yourself with the sentences and their translation. Hopefully, this leads you to diving into the stories and other recordings & translations to see the genius of our ancestors.

Raven & His Uncle by Jimmy Johnson 2 áwé, du x̱ánt uwagút wéi ḵáa. Students of the language should remember that fluent this man came by her. speakers do not always think of things in the terms that we láx̱ʼ yóo tuwasáagu át. use as second language learners. Whether a fluent speaker itʼs what we call blue heron. can identify the prefix or other part of a verb is not very important to the learner. Instead, your focus with fluent speakers should always be to engage them in language and to chal- 2 Johnson, Jimmy. “Raven and His Uncle.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript). trans. Nora Dauen- lenge yourself and them to stay in the language as much as hauer & Richard Dauenhauer.

132 133 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem

Anooshí, Yaaneekee x̱ʼéidax̱ 3 and then continue without referring to that information, as- yá Laax̱aayík yóo duwasaagu yé át haa wligásʼ suming that you already know it. This is seen often in stories Sʼitáḵdáx̱. when the subject does not clearly change in the grammar but it is understood within the language. we moved to this place called Laaxaayíḵ from Situk. Keep in mind that we are taking steps, but sometimes referring to things you will encounter in the future. For now, Anax̱ áyá letʼs break these sentences down one level at a time. We will yan awlisʼís yá Lituya Bay start with verb phrases & noun phrases, and then within the Anóoshi. verb phrases we will look at preverb and verb materials. Through this the Russians Identifying the Verb Phrase sailed into Lituya Bay. One of the first steps to analyzing Tlingit verbs is to iso- 4 Yéil Yaagú, Jeeník x̱ʼéidax̱ late the verb phrase from the rest of the sentence. There may tlé yú gusʼ yát wulihásh at doogú daa.aax̱w. be linked noun phrases, and noun phrases that are pulled the bundle of furs foated out to the face of the clouds. into the preverb, but we can practice spotting where the verb phrase starts and stops and then we see the area where Kaatsʼ, Tseexwáa x̱ʼéidax̱ 5 moving things around becomes a little more restricted, and Yees G̱eey yóo áwé duwasáakw Lingítch where the majority of verb conjugation occurs. dleit ḵáach ḵwá Yes Bay. For our first step, we will isolate the verb phrases and then Yees G̱eey is what Tlingits call the place, identify any areas that are in the preverb, verb, and post- but the White People call it Yes Bay. verb. To start with, letʼs look at the first level of verbal structure, as shown in the following image: G̱agaan x̱ʼoos áwé oowayáa wé keitl tundatáani áwé, wé áa kdahánch, wé shaawát. The dogsʼ thoughts seem like sunbeams; the woman would jump up to reach for them. With that in mind, we will revisit the sample sentences for These are wonderful Tlingit sentences, and we should be this chapter and break them into their components. careful when pulling them out of context like this. Indeed, the act of interpretation in Tlingit and translation into En- Sentences Analysis Level: Verb Phrases glish is a lifetime project, and different speakers might have áwé, du x̱ánt uwagút wéi ḵáa different interpretations. You will learn later as well that the Tlingit language tends to give a certain bit of information particle verb phrase noun phrase 3 Yaaneekee / Charlie White. “Anooshí / First Russiansʼ.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora before verb preverb verb after verb Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 292–297. áwé, du x̱ánt uwagút wéi ḵáa 4 Jeeník / Jennie White. “Yéil Yaagú / Ravenʼs Boatʼ.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauen- that is, arriving next to him he walked this man hauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 298–301. 5 Tseexwáa / Fawcett, J.B. “Kaatsʼ.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 218–243.

134 135 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem láx̱ʼ yóo tuwasáagu át G̱agaan x̱ʼoos áwé oowayáa wé keitl tundatáani áwé,

noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase wé áa kdahánch, wé shaawát. before verb preverb verb after verb noun phrase noun phrase láx̱ʼ yóo tuwasáagu át before verb verb after verb blue heron thus we call it thing g̱agaan x̱ʼoos áwé oowayáa wé keitl tundatáani áwé sun foot, that is it is as if; it resembles those dog thoughts, that is yá Laax̱aayík yóo duwasaagu yé át haawligásʼ Sʼitáḵdáx̱ noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase noun phrase verb phrase before verb preverb verb after verb before verb preverb verb postverb wé áa kdahánch, wé shaawát yá Laax̱aayík yóo duwasaagu yé there that place she stands that woman this Laaxaayíḵ thus it is called place

verb phrase noun phrase In these examples we see the dynamic ways that noun preverb verb after verb phrases and verb phrases are working together to present information. In Tlingit, the order in which these are presented át haa wligásʼ Sʼitáḵdáx̱ can be changed, often placing the most important informa- arriving at it we migrated from Sʼitáḵ tion at the head (front) of sentences. The preverb is often telling us the type of motion that is involved, or has words anax̱ áyá yan awlisʼís yá Lituya Bay Anóoshi that appear because of the verb mode. If there is motion in- noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase volved, then we usually see the direction & location terms before verb preverb verb after verb that were introduced in chapter seven. anax̱ áyá yan awlisʼís yá Lituya Bay Anóoshi Having material in the preverb is more common than in through it, this is shore it blew (there) this Lituya Bay, Russians the postverb. This is a pattern of Tlingit as well, where information is more commonly presented before the verb and tlé yú gusʼ yát wulihásh at doogú daa.aax̱w before the stem when looking at preverbs and prefixes. noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase Identifying the Prefix, Stem, and Suffix before verb preverb verb after verb tlé yú gusʼ yát awlisʼís at doogú daa.aax̱w Once we begin seeing the verb phrase, which takes time then those clouds arriving at the face it blew (there) somethingʼs hide ted-around and practice, then we can begin spotting the main components of that verb phrase and that helps us to interpret Yees G̱eey yóo áwé duwasáakw Lingítch what is being communicated. If a learner wants to interpret dleit ḵáach ḵwá Yes Bay. and use verbs in Tlingit, then it is vital to understand how they generally function, and then to continue to increase noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase noun phrase the knowledge of patterns and rules as you internalize more before verb preverb verb after verb verbs and their patterns. Yees G̱eey yóo áwé duwasáakw Lingítch dleit ḵáach ḵwá Yes Bay. Once we have the verb phrase isolated, then we need to Yees G̱eey thus that is it is called by Tlingits white people though Yes Bay start taking a closer look at what is happening in the three main areas of the verb in order to communicate effectively in Tlingit. To start with, letʼs look at the next level of complexity, as shown in the following illustration:

136 137 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem

anax̱ áyá yan awlisʼís yá Lituya Bay Anóoshi prefix stem suffix awli- -sʼís — it blew (there)

tlé yú gusʼ yát wulihásh at doogú daa.aax̱w prefix verb postverb wuli- -hásh — it drifed (to) The next step to see how these verbs are functioning is to take our analysis to the next level and see how the verbs are Yees G̱eey yóo áwé duwasáakw Lingítch put together. Our goal here is to show which components are dleit ḵáach ḵwá Yes Bay. in the verbs and which part of the verb they are appearing in, prefix stem suffix which helps show how to unpack a Tlingit verb. duwa- -sáa- -kw Sentences Analysis Level: the Verb it is called

G̱agaan x̱ʼoos áwé oowayáa wé keitl tundatáani áwé, áwé, du x̱ánt uwagút wéi ḵáa wé áa kdahánch, wé shaawát. prefix stem suffix prefix stem suffix u-wa -gút — oowa- -yáa — s/he walked it is as if; it resembles láx̱ʼ yóo tuwasáagu át prefix stem suffix prefix stem suffix kda- -hán -ch tuwa- -sáa -gu she stands the one we call There are reasons we begin to look at Tlingit in this way. We are breaking the language into its functioning pieces so yá Laax̱aayík yóo duwasaagu yé at haawligásʼ Sʼitáḵdáx̱ we can understand how those pieces work and then learn prefix stem suffix how to put them together for speech and spot them for un- duwa- -saa- -gu derstanding. The more you study this aspect of Tlingit, the the one called more you will be amazed at how fluent speakers can do these things so effectively and can help correct you as you try to prefix stem suffix push your abilities to understand and speak Tlingit. haa wli- -gásʼ — As we continue our studies we will examine what the indi- we migrated vidual pieces are in the prefix, stem, and suffix, and will also examine the ways that these pieces undergo contraction. An example in English is when “cannot” becomes “canʼt” and “want to do” becomes “wanna do.” In Tlingit, contraction oc-

138 139 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem curs much more often, and in ways that may appear unpre- The Verb Root dictable at times but actually follow specific patterns. Tlingit has several roots that are homonyms, which means Learning Tlingit involves a lot of pattern learning, and they sound the same but have different meanings. English then memorization, and guess work after that. You will learn has many of these, such as Beau (name), bow (tied), and bow the ways that verbs are classified and how that impacts the (and arrow). For Tlingit roots these are marked with a super- way they are conjugated. Verb conjugation is a shift in the scripted number, such as: verb for different situations, which are mainly in what we root example translation call valency and mode. Valency has to do with conjugating for number or person (object and subject), and mode has to √saa ¹ (be narrow) yéi kwlisáa itʼs narrow do with changing the qualities of the verbs arguments, which √saa ² (name) yéi aawasáa s/he named her/him/it that have to do with factors like: did it occur? did it create a new √saa ³ (rest) wudlisáa s/he rested; s/he is restng state? did it begin? is it dependent upon other actions? The conjugations for person and number involves charts While the meaning might be apparent in most verbs, there that can be memorized and inserted into a template, and are many occasions where the grammar is more metaphori- changing a verb for mode involves memorizing which el- cal than literal. Understanding how verb roots work in Tlingit ements appear, in which order, and how other parts of the can lead to a better understanding of how the language sees verb might shift, namely the classifier and stem variation. the world and communicates about it, as in the following: Identifying the Root and Classifier root meaning example translation √tʼaach slap héen kaanáx̱ yaa ndatʼách s/he is swimming across the river √táaxʼ bite kasʼéet akaawatáxʼ s/he gripped it (with pliers) √x̱óotʼ ¹ drag shax̱alx̱óotʼ iʼm fshing (with a rod) √haa ³ move invisibly du éet yaan uwaháa s/he is hungry

As you develop a better understanding of Tlingit, one of your tasks is to memorize more roots, and then to memorize the patterns that may surround the root to create new verbs. The root is the centerpiece of the verb, but there are three main areas of the verb template that may change in order to create new verbs, and those are: classifier, thematic prefixes, and preverbs. In order to spot verbs, you should be going through texts and highlighting what you think the verb root is, and then Our focus now shifts to the prefix and the stem. We will looking up the verb from there and seeing if you can find the start with the stem and, which is the heart of the verb and pattern in the Tlingit Verb Dictionary or Dictionary of Tlingit. contains the core meaning. This is located near the end of the Keep in mind that most verb roots are looked up using the verb, and you should practice “spotting the stem” in the verb long and low form of the verb. Look back at the table above and extracting the root. On either side of the root you have and see the root and how that root appears in the example. elements that change the verbs meaning and conjugation, The root has a shape in the stem, which means the vowel but the root is the heart of the verb and could be thought of length and tone may change in different verb modes, and as the starting point. in some situations he vowels may change altogether (oo~ei).

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The shape of the stem is called stem variation and is one Classifier of the more complex parts of Tlingit, but through study –i +i –i +i of patterns and systems, it is mostly predictable. Refer to Egglestonʼs thesis or Crippenʼs “Tlingitology” for more infor- ∅ ∅- ÿa- s sa- si- mation on . stem variation d+∅ da- di- d+s s- dzi- The Classifier 6 –i +i –i +i Immediately to the left of the root is the classifier, which changes what the verb does. A classifier comes from one of l la- li- sh sha- shi- four groups, and then moves within that group to signal a number of things that may be going on in the verb. The first d+l l- dli- d+sh sh- ji- thing to think about is the group. In Tlingit we see similar symbols when looking at a detailed analysis of the language. The classifier has three main functions. The first is that it One of those is the ∅ symbol, which may appear in the fol- helps create new verbs by noting causation (someone doing lowing: it as opposed to it happening), a different type of action or

verb verb segment ∅ translation state with the same general meaning, or classification (types of objects or actions). Using the root «√teen» (to see), we can yéi x̱waasáa ∅-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√sáa object i named her/him that see how a classifier shift can change the action related to the yéi x̱at woosáa x̱at + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√sáa subject s/he named me that meaning in the tables below. In our first examples, letʼs say tlél yéi ix̱wasá i-u-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√sáa classifier i didnʼt name you that we are sitting in my kitchen and a dog comes into the yard. I yéi x̱at g̱asaa x̱at + g̱a-∅-√sáa conjugation prefix let her/him name me that might say «keitl x̱aatéen» which means “I see a dog”, and that is all I am communicating. If it is a dog that keeps coming Even though each of these use the same symbol, they are into my yard and pooping all over the place, digging holes, completely different from one another. There is likely a com- and causing a ruckus, then I might say «wé keitl x̱wasiteen» mon trait, though, according to the research of Crippen, that (I see that dog) and the classifier group shift here moves the explains the frequency of the ∅ in Tlingit linguistics. If we seen object from general to specific. This is not just any dog, look at each of these areas, we can theorize that the ∅ is the but it is a specific dog that we have probably talked about default category, and it shifts to something else when a new before. If I decide to watch him so I can go holler if he starts form is added to the verb. This certainly appears to be the wrecking my yard, I might say «wé keitl x̱alatín» (I am watch- case in the classifier, where the ∅ group has the most entires. ing that dog), and this classifier group shift introduces some In order to see how the classifier functions in Tlingit, we causation to the verb. I am not seeing, but I am watching, should start by examining a table that shows the groups and and this verb could also mean “to watch over something” but classifiers within those groups. A verb has a classifier group we would know from the context that it is not being used and shifts between –i and +i to basically mark completion that way. This is one way the classifier works with the root to of the verb. Whether the verb will be –i or +i is determined create new verbs. by the and . The next component is the verb type verb mode classifier , which marks middle voice, self-benefit, and a example translation d-component group form change in transitivity. ∅ ÿa- keitl x̱aatéen i see a dog s si- wé keitl x̱wasiteen i saw that dog l la- wé keitl x̱alatín i am watching that dog 6 Examples from Eggleston “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms” & Naish & Story Tlingit Verb Dictionary

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Another way the classifier functions is to introduce clas- prefix cl root example translation classification sification to verbs. Tlingit regularly classifies nouns by their general compact — ∅ √tee ax̱ jeet tí wé té hand me the rock characteristics. It does this for many types of verbs, but es- object pecially for handling verbs which are used for picking things — s √tee ax̱ jeet satí wé séek hand me the belt complex object up, handing them to someone, putting them somewhere, round or spherical ka- ∅ √tee ax̱ jeet katí wé xʼáaxʼ hand me the apple carrying them around and more. A simpler classification is object hand me the animate and inanimate things, as in the following examples: hoop-like object ka- s √tee ax̱ jeet kasatí wé kées bracelet classifier hand me the rope rope-like object example translation ji- ∅ √tee ax̱ jeet jití wé tíxʼ group form (by one of the ends) with ends ∅ ÿa- yagéi there are many hand me the coiled coiled rope-like ji-ka- ∅ √tee ax̱ jeet jikatí wé tíxʼ rope object l li- ligéi s/he is tall hand me the ji-ka- s √tee ax̱ jeet jiksatí wé kakéin rope-like object ∅ ÿa- yadál it is heavy uncoiled yarn hand me the l li- lidál s/he is heavy emtpy container — ∅ √taan ax̱ jeet tán wé gúxʼaa (empty) cup hand me the pail container with The handling verbs are also great examples, but the way (with something — s √.een ax̱ jeet sa.ín wé xʼeesháa contents they classify includes more dynamic changes to the verb, in it) which allows for many more options. This is done by chang- long stck-like object ka- ∅ √taan ax̱ jeet katán wé ḵáasʼ hand me the stck ing the root, the classifier, and thematic prefixes, as in the (two hands) long stck-like object following examples. With handling verbs, you will find varia- hand me the rife — s √taan ax̱ jeet satán wé óonaa (two hands) tion from speaker to speaker, perhaps because of dialect dif- ax̱ jeet kasatán wé ferences or the loss of certain specialized classification in the ka- s √taan hand me the pencil/ short stck-like kooxéedaa pen object (one hand) language. The following table includes examples pulled from a variety of sources7 and included here to show the ways that — s √nook ax̱ jeet sanú wé dóosh hand me the cat living creature hand me the (dead) the classifier, root, and thematic prefixes interact to create dead creature — s √taa ax̱ jeet satá wé x̱áat fsh new verbs that are sometimes doing similar things. hand me the fabric; cloth Keep in mind that the classifier shifts to create new verbs. — ∅ √.aax̱ ax̱ jeet áx̱ wé xʼóow blanket According to Crippen, the default form is the ∅-group, and hand me the (stack — ∅ √naa ax̱ jeet laná wé jigwéinaa fat fexible bundle then the s-group, then the l-group, and lastly the sh-group. ̱ of) towels It appears that when a new verb is created, the most likely — ∅ √kwaach ax̱ jeet kwách wé lʼéiw hand me the sand cupped in hands option would be to create a ∅-group verb. If the a new verb is plural objects in — s √nei ax̱ jeet sané wé jishagóon hand me those tools made based upon that verb, then an s-group would be made, general and an l-group. There are exceptions, such as verbs that only — l √.aat ax̱ jeet la.át wé at la.át hand me the baggage and have a non-∅ classifier (s, l, sh), and if the verb root contains baggage personal belongings hand me all of that all of one type of a sibilant (s, ts, dz) then it is unlikely to have an s-group. The ka- ∅ √jeil ax̱ jeet kajél wé dáanaa money thing sh-group appears to have a distinct purpose and is much less all of one type of put the ladders over common, as will be explained after the handling verb table. thing in several trips ka- l √jeil wéide kalajél wé dzeit there to one place

7 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard. Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá – Say It in Tlingit: A Tlingit Phrasebook (Juneau: Sealas- ka Heritage Institute, 2002), 59–62. Crippen, James. “Verbal Structure Handbook”, 47. Naish, Story. Tlingit Verb Dictionary, 36 & 42.

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The sh-group classifier appears to have a pejorative conno- Some verbs are naturally reflexive and are the classifier is tation, meaning that it is often associated with verbs that sig- naturally +d, but –d is the default form of the classifier. The nal disapproval. Not all of the sh-group have the pejorative classifier will be +d is several other situations: 1) when the quality however, like «át wujikʼéin» (s/he is jumping around), transitivity of the verb is changed by removing an object, 2) but many of do. One example would be the verbs «héen ax̱ when the self-benefactive prefix «g̱a-» appears, and 3) when tuwáa sigóo» (I want water) and «tlél ax̱ tuwáa ushgú héen» the 4th person human pronoun «du-» is present. Verbs that (I donʼt want water). The classifier is changing groups here, are a d+∅ classifier will go –d with the pronoun «du-». These which means it is functioning like a different verb. Another last qualities are shown in the following examples: 8 example can be seen with the table below, although the «tlél classifier sub example translation ukʼé» form is very rare. group form classifier ∅- ∅ +d di- +i wudihaan s/he stood up example translation group form x̱a- ∅ +d di- +i x̱wadihaan s/he stood up ∅ ÿa- +i yakʼéi her/him/it is good du- ∅ –d ÿa- +i wuduwahaan someone stood up ∅ ∅- –i tlél ukʼé her/him/it isnʼt good ∅- s –d si +i awsiteen s/he saw her/him/it sh sh- –i tlél ushkʼé her/him/it is bad; her/him/it is evil x̱a- s –d si +i x̱wasiteen i saw her/him/it du- s +d dzi +i wududziteen it is seen Another function of the classifier is conjugating to note the ∅- l –d li +i awlitín i watched her/him/it completion of a verb. The –i form marks an incomplete state and the +i form marks a completed state. Tlingit conjugates x̱a- l –d li +i x̱walitín i watched her/him/it for event rather than for time, so whether the verb has been du- l +d dli +i wududlitín it was watched completed is more important than when it occurred, which ∅- sh –d shi +i awshikʼaan s/he hated her/him/it is why you can have verbs that are conjugated the same if you x̱a- sh –d shi +i x̱washikʼaan i hated her/him/it were describing something today or yesterday. For example, dush +d ji +i wudujikʼaan s/he was hated one could say «tatgé ix̱wsiteen» (I saw you yesterday) and «yeedát áwé ix̱wsiteen» (I see you now), although the trans- The insertion of the self-benefactive prefix «g̱a-» will also lation is misleading because Tlingit looks at time and events push the verb +d, and adds “for the self” the verbʼs meaning. in a different manner than English does. This is different than middle voice because the subject is not The classifier can also note middle voice, where the sub- necessarily an object. In English, “I am cooking for myself” ject of the verb is also the object. This is called +d in Tlingit would be self-benefactive and “I am cooking myself” would linguistics, and is a quality in reflexive and reciprocal verb be an middle voice. modes, which are marked with pronouns, as in the following Tlingit grammar is undoubtedly complicated, but there examples from Crippen “Tlingitology”: are systems you can understand, no matter how much they classifier example translation tangle within each other. There is no better way to under- group form stand the way Tlingit people have perceived the world than s –d si- +i x̱wasiteen i saw her/him/it to study the deep details of the language. The language is a thought world that just cannot be accurately translated. s +d dzi- +i sh x̱wadziteen i saw myself Donʼt worry if it does not all make sense at once, because in s –d si- +i wutusiteen we saw her/him/it time the pieces will keep coming to the surface. s +d dzi- +i woosh wutudziteen we saw each other 8 Eggleston, Keri. “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms – A Component of ‘575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms’”

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Stem Variation how it might change between the following shapes: One of the final qualities involving the root is called stem type description example translation variation, which is the ways in which the shape of the stem vv- long and low yéi yatee s/he/it is that way changes in verb modes or when suffixes are attached. The v́v long and high yéi kg̱watée s/he/it will be that way following factors determine stem variation: 1) whether the v́ short and high tlél yéi utí s/he/it isnʼt that way stem is variable or invariable. Invariable stems are rare, but do not change in different verb modes or when suffixes are The verb mode and conjugation prefix combine with the added; 2) the stem type; 3) the verb mode; and 4) the conju- stem type to determine what the shape of the stem will be gation prefix. in various situations. This can be affected by other factors, Eggleston marks stem variable stems with a tilde (~) after such as relative clauses. For examples of stem variation the verb root, whereas Crippen does not mark variable stems and to read more about it, see the works of Leer, Crippen, but instead marks invariable stems with a superscript saltire Eggleston, and Cable. For now, look at the following tables cross (˟) after the root marker, as in the following: based on those appearing in Eggleston (2014) that show the mode √root example stem variation translation possibilities for stem variation. As is the case with most imperfective √x̱án ˟ asix̱án cvć s/he loves her/him/it things with Tlingit, there are exceptions to the rules. Crippen perfective √x̱án ˟ awsix̱án cvć s/he loved her/him/it and Eggleston have more on stem variation, but these charts will get you most of the way there and will help you to inter- future √x̱án ˟ kei agux̱sax̱án cvć s/he will love her/him/it nalize the patterns. imperfective √kʼaan ashikʼáan cv́vc s/he hates her/him/it open roots perfective √kʼaan awshikʼaan cvvc s/he hated her/him/it cvv cvvh future √kʼaan kei agux̱shakʼáan cvć s/he will hate her/him/it ∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a progressive There are six stem types in stem variation, and research cv́v-n cv́v-n cv́v-n cv́v-n from Leer and Crippen point to the Tongass dialect as origin imperfectives point for these types of verb stems. Keeping in mind the dif- perfective (+) cv́v cvv cv́v cvv ference between Eggleston and Crippen as far as whether to perfective (–) cv́ cvv cv́ cv mark invariable or variable, verb themes in modern Tlingit imperative cv́ / cv́v cv́ cv́ / cv́v cv́ publications will show the verb stem in the following ways: perfective habituals cv́v-ych cv́v-ch cv́v-ych cvv-ch type name type name future (+) cv́v cv́v cv́v cv́v cvv open cvvc closed future (–) cvv cvv cvv cvv cvvʰ fading cv́vc glotalized hortative cv́v / cvv cvv cv́v / cvv cvv invariable ejectve ˟ cv́vcʼ repetitive cv́v-x̱ cv́v-{k,ch} cvv-x̱ cvv-{k,ch} ~ variable imperfective potentials cv́v / cvv cvv cv́v / cvv cvv Earlier chapters mentioned that the “c” and “v” are sym- conditional cv́v-ni cv́v-ni cv́v-ni cv́v-ni bols to represent consonants, and for the purposes of this discussion we can consider the glottal stop at the beginning of some roots a consonant (√.aat = √cvv). When looking at stem variation, we are most concerned with the vowel and

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closed roots yá Laax̱aayík yóo duwasaagu yé at haawligásʼ Sʼitáḵdáx̱ cvvc cv́vc cv́vcʼ classifier √root stem variation ∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a appearance mode progressive ÿa- –d,∅,+i √saa cv́v imperfectives cvć cvć cvć cvć cvć ʼ cvć ʼ perfective (+) cvć cvvc cvć cv́vc cvć ʼ cv́vcʼ classifier √root stem variation perfective (–) cvvc cvvc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ appearance mode imperative cvć cvvc cvć cv́vc cvć ʼ cv́vcʼ li –d,l,+i √gáasʼ cvć ʼ perfective cvc-ch́ / cvc-ch́ / cvć ʼ-ch / cvc-ch́ cvc-ch́ cvć ʼ-ch habituals cvvc-ch cv́vc-ch cv́vcʼ-ch anax̱ áyá yan awlisʼís yá Lituya Bay Anóoshi future (+) cv́vc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ classifier √root stem variation future (–) cvvc cvvc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ appearance mode cvć ʼ / li –d,l,+i -√sʼees cvć hortative cvć / cvvc cvvc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ repetitive cvc-́ cvc-́ cvć ʼ- tlé yú gusʼ yát wulihásh at doogú daa.aax̱w imperfective cvc-x́ ̱ cvc-x́ ̱ cvć ʼ-x̱ {k,ch} {k,ch} {k,ch} classifier √root stem variation potentials cvć / cvvc cvvc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc appearance mode conditional cvc-ní cvc-ní cvc-ní cvć ʼ-ni cvć ʼ-ni cvć ʼ-ni li –d,l,+i √haash cvć

With all this in mind, we will revisit the sample sentences Yees G̱eey yóo áwé duwasáakw Lingítch we have been looking at in this chapter and analyze the clas- dleit ḵáach ḵwá Yes Bay. , , and of the verbs. sifier root stem variation classifier √root stem variation Sentences Analysis Level: the Classifier & Stem appearance mode ÿa –d,∅,+i √saa cv́v áwé, du x̱ánt uwagút wéi ḵáa G̱agaan x̱ʼoos áwé oowayáa wé keitl tundatáani áwé, classifier √root stem variation wé áa kdahánch, wé shaawát. appearance mode classifier √root stem variation ÿa- –d,∅,+i √goot cvć appearance mode ÿa –d,∅,+i √yaa cv́v láx̱ʼ yóo tuwasáagu át classifier √root stem variation classifier √root stem variation appearance mode appearance mode ÿa- –d,∅,+i √saa cv́v da +d,∅,–i √haan cv́n

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The most important thing to take from these analyses is to In English, when a specific noun is used, then the pronoun learn that there are parts of verbs and you can teach yourself goes away. For example how to identify them. Our focus now will be on four parts: Nancy called out to Jane. object pronouns in the prefix, subject pronouns in the pre- Jim broke our lamp. fix, thematic prefixes, and the stem. Your goal here should be You loaned my uncle ten dollars. learning how to identify these different parts. At a later point I forgot my speech. you can focus on the specifics of how these function and affect each other, but for now try to learn how to spot them and If we use Tlingit grammatical patterns in these examples, then use that information to look up verbs. however, we would have: Nancy her-she-called Jane. Verb Prefixes Jim it-he-broke our lamp. Him to -loaned my uncle ten dollars. There are many parts of the Tlingit verb prefix, but we will it-you -forgot my speech. start by looking at pronouns and thematic prefixes. These it-I have very different functions, and you should familiarize This is a good way to think about the ways that pronouns yourself with them in their isolated form so you can begin function in Tlingit, and how they are built into the verb. The spotting them in Tlingit and noticing the many ways that specifying nouns can be moved around, but if there is confu- these prefixes can change a verb. For an extensive list of the sion, then the ergative marker will be attached to the noun prefixes, see Crippenʼs “Verbal Structure Handbook”. that specifies the subject. Objects pronouns always come first in Tlingit. In English, Object and Subject Pronouns the subject is preferred first, but it can really go either way. There are a number of things to keep in mind when look- In Tlingit, the object pronoun must come first and the order ing at object and subject pronouns. Generally speaking, ob- cannot be changed since pronouns are built into the verb jects are the recipients of the verb and subjects are the actors prefix. The placement of specifying noun phrases does not of the verb. In the following English sentences, the object is affect the order of pronouns. underlined and the subject is in italics. Object pronouns in Tlingit have been standardized with the following rule: one letter pronouns are in the and She drove the car down the road. prefix connected to the verb (contraction), and pronouns with I gave you twenty dollars. more than one letter are in the but disconnected from The sun is burning your skin. prefix the verb (pre-contraction). The exception is the 4th person The dog ate my homework. form «ḵu-». All open object pronouns, regardless of wheth- In Tlingit, if the pronoun is in the theme, then it is always er they are connected to the verb will affect contraction in there and affects conjugation of the verb. A specifying noun the prefix, as evident in the following examples from Lingít phrase can exist outside of the verb, but that does not re- X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá: 9 move the pronoun from the verb. To think about this, we will continue to use English language with Tlingit grammar in ax̱ toowú sigóo ix̱wsateení iʼm happy to see you [s] the following examples: yakʼéi yee x̱wsateení itʼs good to see you [p] She called her. He broke it. You loaned him ten dollars. I forgot it. 9 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard. Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá – Say It in Tlingit: A Tlingit Phrasebook (Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2002) .

152 153 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem

Prefix contraction is impacted by other open ended words are some of the most common and intermediate learners that appear directly before the verb, such as preverbs found should be able to identify them: in motion verbs, such as «aadé, aagáa, kei, gági, etc». ̱ ḵu- areal: referring to a space The last thing to keep in mind is the pronoun «has,» which can pluralize the third person object, the third person sub- tu- inside x̱ʼa- ~ ḵʼa- mouth; opening ject, or in some cases both. The pronoun plural number marker can appear in addition to object and subject pro- ji- hand; possession nouns, and will always be linked to a third person object sha- head and/or subject. These pronouns will be looked at in greater shu- end detail when we practice conjugating verbs for person. sa- ~ se- voice Plural pronoun marker: ya- face; vertcal surface (3) pl has ~ s they; them ka- on; horizontal surface

As we learn to spot and identify prefixes in Tlingit verbs, we Object pronouns: need to know where they appear. Cable, Crippen, Eggleston, x̱at frst person singular object pronoun Leer, the Dauenhauers, and Naish & Story have spent tre- haa frst person plural object pronoun mendous amounts of time and energy mapping out the i- second person singular object pronoun Tlingit verb, and we will move through these in pieces, slowly yee second person plural object pronoun unfolding the complexities that exist within each part. ∅ ~ a- third person object pronoun There are over 20 positions within the verb where things may appear. These positions are named and each one has ḵaa ~ ḵu- fourth person human object pronoun one or more things that may appear in that slot. The slots are at fourth person non-human object pronoun numbered in a system that helps identify where they appear in relation to the verb root. The root is position zero (o), and Subject pronouns: positions are numbered increasingly to the right of the root x̱a- frst person singular subject pronoun (1, 2, 3, etc.) and decreasingly to the left (–1, –2, –3, etc.). tu- frst person plural subject pronoun Similar to what we have seen in noun suffixes, these po- i- second person singular subject pronoun sitions work like a slot machine, meaning that once things appear in those slots then the slot is full and nothing else yi- second person plural subject pronoun can appear there. While the Tlingit linguistic community has third person subject pronoun ∅- developed a stronger understanding of how these positions du- fourth person human subject pronoun function, that understanding is a developing process and will likely continue to undergo change in how Tlingit grammar is documented and taught. Thematic Prefixes Regardless of these changes, your role as a learner is to These are prefixes that can adjust the meaning of the verb, internalize these patterns as much as possible to mimic the and are key to how the verb functions. While these prefixes ways that fluent speakers use them. The understanding of do have meaning, some of them function differently than the these patterns and the ways they are used diversely is what meaning itself might imply. Crippenʼs “Tlingit Verbal Struc- places you on the path to mastering what is often referred to ture Handbook” lists most known prefixes, but the following as “old Tlingit”, so you should always be listening for how all

154 155 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi The Root & the Stem these parts are being used by fluent speakers. Conjugation Prefix Thematic prefixes have five possible locations within the Every verb has a conjugation prefix, which does a number verb, however the appearance of two in the same verb is un- of things. It appears in certain verb modes, such as hortative common, and more than two is very rare. Like most things in and imperative. It determines if a preverb will appear in cer- Tlingit, this may sound like a lot of information to take in at tain verb modes, and if so which preverb that should be. It once, but it is important to give yourself time to see the pat- also combines with verb mode and stem type to determine terns. Your brain will fill the gaps in for you over time. the stem variation for a verb. The chart below shows the items covered in this chap- Motion verbs change their conjugation prefix depend- ter and their location relative to one another. The thematic ing on what type of motion it is, which is another classifi- prefixes listed in the table on the previous page are all in- cation method of Tlingit. The type of motion is determined alienable incorporated nouns, meaning that they are derived by the motion preverb and a complete list can be found in from nouns and are built into the prefix with the meaning the “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” 26–29. You can read of those nouns. For a complete list, see the “Verbal Structure more about verb mode and the conjugation prefix in “575 Handbook.” Tlingit Verbs” and “Tlingitology”. The following table lists the four conjugation prefixes and their associated meaning:

type general description ∅ moton that comes to an end na unbounded moton ga upward moton g̱a downward moton

Verb Mode We will close this chapter with a brief introduction to verb mode, using examples from “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Para- digms” 10 with the verb ∅-√goot which is a motion verb that would change its conjugation prefix depending on the type of motion. For our example, this is a na conjugation prefix, which is a common type of motion. Take note of the verb mode, what it is communicating, and what types of changes the verb undergoes. As you read and listen to more Tlingit, pay attention to the components in the verb and how they change. Look up examples in the texts mentioned throughout this book and figure out how they are working. Start memorizing the verbs you commonly use in different modes, and then attempt to take verb themes and create different verb modes out of that theme.

10 Eggleston, Keri. ““575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms – A Component of ʼ575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigmsʼ” (Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013), 15-16.

156 157 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

mode tlingit english cl stem var imperatve go there! (do it!) aadé nagú! ∅- –i cv́ perfectve prohibitve donʼt go there! (donʼt do it!) líl aadé yigoodíḵ! ∅- –i cvvc repettve imperfectve prohibitve líl aadé yoo eegútgiḵ! donʼt go there! ∅- –i cvć (donʼt [ever] do it!) progressive imperfectve + s/he is going (in the process of doing it) aadé yaa nagút there ∅- –i cvć progressive imperfectve – s/heʼs not going (not in the process of doing it) tlél aadé yaa unagút there ∅- –i cvć repettve imperfectve s/he goes there (does it [regularly]) aadé yoo yagútk (regularly) ÿa- +i cvć perfectve + s/he went there (did it) aadé woogoot ÿa- +i cvvc perfectve – s/he didnʼt go (didnʼt do it) tlél aadé wugoot there ∅- –i cvvc perfectve habitual + s/he goes there (does it every tme) aadé nagútch (every tme) ∅- –i cvć perfectve habitual – s/he hasnʼt (hasnʼt done it yet) tlél aadé unagútch gone there yet ∅- –i cvć perfectve atributve the one who (the one who did it) wé aadé wugoodi aa went there ∅- –i cvvc future + s/he will go (will do it) aadé kg̱wagóot there ∅- –i cv́vc future – s/he wonʼt go (wonʼt do it) tlél aadé kg̱wagoot there ∅- –i cvvc hortatve let her/him go (let her/him do it) aadé ng̱agoot there ∅- –i cvvc tlél aadé aadé potental atributve no way can they ÿa- +i cvvc (no way s/he can do it) ng̱waagoodi yé go there potental decessive s/he would (would have done it) aadé ng̱wagoodín have gone there ÿa- +i cvvc conditonal if/when sh/e (if/when s/he does it) aadé nagútni goes there ∅- –i cvć

158 11 Using Tlingit Language Resources

Yagéiyi átx̱ ḵudzitee, Yá Aas Ḵwáani chʼa haa jiyís jeewanáḵ. Ách áwé at kookéidich wuháanch tsú tulayéx̱ nuch. Haa yoo x̱ʼatángi tóoxʼ hél a káx̱ a seiwaxʼáḵw nooch aadé a tóonáx̱ ḵutudziteeyi yé. — Keiheenákʼw

These plentful things exist., the Tree People provided them, just for us, they have let them go. Because of that we also using it as parables, too. Inside our language we never forget the way we was born through it. — John Martn, Tʼaḵdeintaan1

As you continue your journey of learning Tlingit, you need to keep your tools with you. We call these «ax̱ jishagóoni,» “my tools,” and you should always be ready to look something up or to try and figure out how to say something. There are texts that you cannot live without on a daily basis if you are a serious student of the language. That being said, you should always keep in mind that a fluent elder is a better source than any text, but that you should be familiar with the resources used to internalize Tlingit as well. In the digital age, this may mean downloading the texts to smart phones, tablets, or computer, and most of the resources you need can be found at www.tlingitlanguage.com under the “resources” tab. The Alaska Native Language Center, Sealaska Heritage Institute, Goldbelt Heritage Foundation, Yukon Native Language Centre, and others have generous- ly made their materials freely available online for learners, 1 Martin, John. “Kingeistí ḵa Keiheenákʼw Aas Ḵwáani Daat Yoo Has X̱ʼawli.át (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ip2iwSSSoQE.

159 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Using Tlingit Language Resources which means you can do an awful lot without breaking the icon” so students can study words by their semantic group- bank or your back. If you are a fan of books, however, you ings. should consider breaking the binding on these books and This dictionary is alphabetical in Tlingit, which is a mod- having them spiral bound so you can move through them ified version of the English alphabet, so users will be able to more quickly. I have also seen savvy students use tab markers get around pretty quick after learning the Tlingit alphabet. so certain sections or letters can be found more quickly. With Verbs are listed by verb root, so it is good to continue to prac- electronic versions of the dictionaries, grammars, and more tice identifying roots in verbs. The table below shows how you can quickly search using an electronic Table of Contents the following verbs would be looked up: or using the search window. verb root translation page We will talk about three main sources here, including a ba- ilichán gé? √chaan do you stnk? 56 sic overview of how to use them to look up content. In our 91 later studies we will talk about how to use these resources to i toowú sigóo √goo you are happy interpret and create language, and will also introduce other héen ax̱ tuwáa sigóo √goo i want water 91 critical texts, namely: James Crippenʼs “Tlingit Verbal Struc- aadé woogoot √goot s/he walked there 93–94 ture Handbook” & “Tlingitology Seminar Notes: Background haagú! √goot come here! 94 and Morphology”, and Keri Egglestonʼs “575 Tlingit Verbs: A wáanáx̱ sáwé eeg̱áax̱? √g̱aax̱ why are you crying? 102 Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms”. táakwde yaa ḵunahéin √haa winter is coming 113 In addition to these, you should be spending lots of time ax̱ éet yaan uwaháa √haa iʼm hungry 114 with Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá: Say It In Tlingit! and the accompany- i éet ḵuwaháa √haa itʼs your turn 114 ing audio CD Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Ax̱: Hear It In Tlingit! In this you my grandparent is 115 will find many key phrases and concepts in Tlingit. kei ndahán ax̱ léelkʼw √haan standing up Dictionary of Tlingit awsikóo √koo s/he knows it 151 yakʼéi √kʼéi s/he/it is good 157 http://www.sealaskaheritage.org/sites/default/files/Tlingit_dictio- nary_web.pdf yéi x̱ʼayaḵá √ḵaa s/he is saying that 162–163 s/he is going home http://tlingitlanguage.com/resources/Dictionary-of-Tlingit.pdf 171 neildé yaa naḵúx̱ √ḵoox̱ (by boat or car) Compiled by X̱ʼaagi Sháawu Keri Eggleston and pub- what are you going to 188 lished by Sealaska Heritage Institute, this dictionary is daat g̱áa sá gag̱eelʼóon? √lʼoon hunt for? the first to combine Tlingit verbs with other parts of héen x̱adaná √naa i am drinking water 189 speech and utilizes the Edwards-Leer Theme of listing yéi daanané! √nei work on it! 196 verb themes. The verb theme, as described by Eggleston, yan gé yeewanéi? √nei are you all ready? 196 is a skeletal representation of a given verb, listing all of yan yéi jix̱waanei √nei i fnished working on it 197 its required parts with hyphens in between. This text also includes an overview of key grammatical wáa sá at woonei? √nei what happened? 197 concepts in the introduction. The first section is “Tlingit to Deiyáa yoo duwasáakw √sáakw it is called pack-trail 203–204 English” and contains the most comprehensive information, ax̱ éet yidishée √shee you helped me 221–222 especially for verbs. X̱ʼaagi Sháawu did amazing work with has gux̱dashóoch √shooch they are going to bathe 225 a group of elders who helped detail how many of the words natá dé! √taa go to sleep right now! 227 work, and also produced excellent sample sentences. There a daa yoo tuwatánk √taan s/he is thinking about it 230 is also an “English to Tlingit” section so students can figure yoo x̱ʼayatánk √taan s/he is speaking 233 out how to say words in Tlingit, and a “Tlingit Thematic Lex-

160 161 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Using Tlingit Language Resources

verb root translation page detail later, but for now think of it this way: perfective (hap- tás eetéenax̱ x̱at yatee √tee i need thread 235 pened), imperfective (happening), and repetitive imperfec- Lingítx̱ haa sitee √tee we are Tlingit 236 tive (happens regularly). There is a bit more to it than that, but this will get you started on looking for patterns and using áxʼ ḵudzitee √tee it exists there 235–236 some of the verbs. Three hyphens (---) means that the verb it was all right 237 tlél wáa sá wootee √tee mode does not exist for that particular verb. Below is an ex- i jeet x̱waatée √tee i gave it to you 239 ample2, for the verb “to eat”: kéet xaatéen √teen i see a killer whale 242 tsu yéi ikḵwasatéen √teen i will see you again 242 watch carefully over 242 kʼidéin sh eeltín! √teen yourself! s/he is reading a book/ 246 xʼúxʼ aawatóow √toow paper Lingít sh tóo tooltóow √toow we are studying Tlingit 247 ax̱astʼeix̱ √tʼeix̱ i am fshing 255 kei gux̱lats’áa √tsʼáa it is going to smell good 268 This dictionary also lists a verb theme, which looks some- s/he wrote/drew/ thing like O-S-∅-x̱aa~ (∅ act). This code shows the parts of akawshixít √xeet 282–283 photographed it the verb that are there, and when you learn how to read and x̱at wudixwétl √xweitl i am tred 288 use this code it will give you the information needed to con- x̱áat ix̱á √x̱aa you are eatng fsh 294 jugate verbs once you learn the basic rules behind changing ix̱six̱án √x̱án i love you 297–298 the various parts and contracting prefixes. The last thing to note in our introduction to the Dictionary gáande has woo.aat √.aat they went outside 330 of Tlingit is that the most useful information is in the “Tlingit neil yi.á! √.aat you all come in! 330–331 to English” section. This includes verb modes, verb themes, at duwa.áx̱ √.aax̱ something is heard 335 and sample sentences. If you look a word up in the “English Lingít x̱ʼax̱aa.áx̱ch √.aax̱ i understand tlingit 336 to Tlingit” section, then you should look that word up in the hít wutuwa.oo √.oo we bought a house 340 “Tlingit to English” section as well to see if there is more in- i jín na.óosʼ! √.óosʼ wash your hands! 341 formation. This is especially true for verbs. The more you can look at the information a Tlingit verb contains and think There are certainly things to notice in the table above, like about its use in sample sentences and other bits of language the shape of the root changing «√haa ~ héin» and also roots your encounter, the more you will absorb consciously and that appear the same but are actually different. When we subconsciously. start looking more closely at verbs, we will look at the reasons behind this. For now, just keep in mind that if the root 575+ Tlingit Verbs you are looking for ends in «-éin» or «-éix̱» then check for http://www.goldbeltheritage.org/verbs an ending of «-aa» or «-oo» with the same consonant at the This online database of verbs and conju- beginning if there is one. gations was compiled by X̱ʼaagi Sháawu Keri When verbs are listed, the root is listed first, and then verbs Eggleston and sponsored by the Goldbelt that use that root are listed underneath it. When a verb is Heritage Foundation. There are two main listed you will see it in three modes: perfective, imperfective, sections to the interface: Lingít and English. and . These will be explained in more repetitive imperfective 2 Edwards. Dictionary of Tlingit, 294.

162 163 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Using Tlingit Language Resources

Verbs are listed in Tlingit by their √root and in English by the their way through the introductions and appendix because keyword, which is the definition of the verb boiled down to it serves as a great commentary on Tlingit grammar and also one or two words. gives learners a look into the development of how we under- The most useful part of this resource is that most of the stand, learn, and teach Tlingit. verbs are conjugated for mode (tense/aspect). Verb mode in The Tlingit Verb Dictionary is made up of two main parts: Tlingit marks tense, aspect, and mood, which most easily English-Tlingit & Tlingit-English. The majority of the infor- compares to tense (past, present, future) in English. Many of mation, including sample sentences and illustrations, are in these verbs are also conjugated for person. The most com- the English-Tlingit section. This is useful for looking up verbs mon way to think of this is first person (me, i), second person quickly in English. The criticism users have noted is that the (you), and third person (her/him, s/he). Person can also be dictionary lists the verb with thematic prefixes, classifier, singular (me, i, you, her/him, s/he) and plural (us, we, you and root. The example sentences are wonderful, but list a all, them, they). limited amount of verb modes per entry. Learners would of- In addition to this, the web site has descriptions of the ten try to copy verbs they learned from the sample sentences most common verb modes under the link, “Descriptions of into other sentences, which might lead to something like this Verb Tense/Aspects,” and also has prefix combinations for in English: verb mode and person. These are extremely useful because verb sample sentence constructed sentence you can take the prefix combination for verb modes and add see he sees a raven. i sees three ravens yesterday. the root. There are variables that make the process more difficult than a cut and paste process, but this is a tremendous This is not meant to diminish importance of the Tlingit Verb tool to get you started and to be thinking about how the pre- Dictionary, which is one of the most important texts created fixes are actually formed. to date for Tlingit because the sheer number of entries. The When in the “Lingít” section you would look a verb up by Dictionary of Tlingit has over 500 verbs, and the Tlingit Verb its root. The root will have verbs listed in the form, perfective Dictionary probably has over 3,500 verbs listed. The amount and when you select a verb it will show the verb in its various of content is amazing, and there are still plenty of verbs that modes. The more you use this web site to look up verbs, the were not documented in this text and need to be worked on higher your chances of conjugating verbs correctly early on, to continue building on what we have recorded in a form and the more you will absorb the patterns by using them and that allows us to fully use the verb. breaking them down for interpretation. What you will find when studying verbs is that there is a Tlingit Verb Dictionary list of things needed to use a verb in different modes. When you hear the verb in any form you should be able to tell the This text was created by Shaachookwá Constance thematic prefixes, classifier, and root. There are several oth- Naish and Naats Tláa Gillian Story and was published er things needed, though, that only reveal themselves in cer- by the Alaska Native Language Center at the Universi- tain forms, and those are: conjugation prefix and imperfec- ty of Alaska Fairbanks in 1973. For thirty-six years this tive form. These items will be discussed in much more detail was the only way to look up verbs in Tlingit, and the later, and you will begin to see why they are so important to sheer number of entries has never been matched since Tlingit grammar. its release. The introductions and appendix are where Using the Tlingit Verb Dictionary requires understanding an entire generation of second-language learners first of its structure. The English-Tlingit section lists verbs by En- learned about Tlingit grammar and verbal structure. glish keywords alphabetically. For some verbs, it refers you Some of the terms and concepts are out of date, and the to another verb that Tlingit would use to describe that type text itself is out of print now, but learners should work

164 165 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Using Tlingit Language Resources of activity. A definition is then given, and then a diagram From there the text lists the definition, with the primary form of the verb, which is explained in the “Introduction to definition that it is listed under in the English-Tlingit section Part 2 and Appendix section 3.1” of the text.3 This method of underlined. Specific information is listed in parentheses, listing the verb has preverb material listed first, if it is there, which often have to do with the type of action or the types followed by the + sign and the verb listed with thematic pre- of nouns involved in the action. The use of superscript num- fixes, the classifier, and root separated by hyphens. An exam- bers will be explained later, as well as how to translate the ple4 of the same verb, “to eat”: patterns listed here into the ones used today. Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary This text was created by Weihá Jeff Leer of the Alaska Native Language Center and Doug Hitch & John Ritter The second section lists verbs by the root (which they call of the Yukon Native Language Centre. It is the most stem) using the following alphabet5 (listed here left to right): comprehensive list of nouns in existence, and contains information about dialect differences for Inland Tlingit .ee .ei .oo .aa .i .e .u .a h y communities and also lists many nouns that are specific to the interior. w n d t tʼ dz ts tsʼ s sʼ This was the first Tlingit dictionary to have an al- phabetic system that is adapted from the English alphabet, j ch chʼ sh dl tl tlʼ l lʼ g which makes finding words faster and easier. It includes a gw k kw kʼ kʼw x xw xʼ xʼw g̱ section organized semantically, a Tlingit alphabetized section, and an English alphabetized section. It also has a sec- g̱w ḵ ḵw ḵʼ ḵʼw x̱ x̱w x̱ʼ x̱ʼw tion of classificatory verbs, which change depending on the object shape and type. Alphabetical order begins with vowels, and the order of The Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary uses the inland or- consonants is based on where the sound is pronounced in thography, which can create some confusion for those famil- the mouth, beginning at the lips and moving towards the iar with the coastal orthography. The following charts show back of the throat. how to transliterate these writing systems, with the inland Verbs listed in this section start with the root, and then dif- writing system shown above and the coastal equivalent list- ferent verbs are listed below the root. Valency of the verb is ed in the row immediately below. marked in one of three ways: A student of Tlingit should be able to read both orthogra- symbol meaning grammatical effect phies in order to communicate with those who have learned (tr) transitve the verb includes an object and a subject in a different system. The materials that have been devel- (in) intransitve the verb includes only a subject oped through the Yukon Native Language Centre, namely (st) statve verb the verb includes only an object the teaching materials on their website (www.ynlc.ca) and the incredible text Gágiwduł.àt: Brought Forth to Reconfirm : the Legacy of a Taku River Tlingit Clan, which was written by Seidayaa Elizabeth Nyman and Jeff Leer. This text contains traditional stories, migration stories, and personal & family 3 Story, Gillan and Constance Nash. Tlingit Verb Dictionary, 11. histories. It contains masterful Tlingit with a collaborative 4 Tlingit Verb Dictionary, 77. and effective translation process. 5 Tlingit Verb Dictionary, 264.

166 167 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

Transliterating Interior Tlingit Orthography

Vowels a á à â a á aa áa e é è ê e é ei éi i í ì î i í ee ée u ú ù û u ú oo óo Consonants gh kh khʼ xh xhʼ g̱ ḵ ḵʼ x̱ x̱ ʼ Tlingit Oral Literature Collection Every student of the Tlingit language should have the Tlingit Oral Literature series by Ḵeixwnéi Nora Dauenhau- er and Xwaayeenáḵ Richard Dauenhauer. These were published through the Sealaska Heritage Institute and Univer- sity of Washington Press. The current texts are Haa Shuká, Our Ancestors: Tlingit Oral Narratives, which is a collection of stories and translations with an extensive introduction that covers—among other things—Tlingit storytelling and use of figurative language; Haa Tuwunáagu Yís, For Our Healing Spirit: Tlingit Oratory, which includes speeches from various ceremonial occasions and an extensive introduction that covers ceremonial practices, methods of delivering a traditional speech in those ceremonies, and a history of Alaska Native people and Alaskan education; Haa Ḵusteeyí, Our Culture: Tlingit Life Stories, which contains incredible biog- raphies of clan, political, and language leaders in Southeast Alaska; and Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká, Russians in Tlingit Amer- ica: The Battles of Sitka 1802 and 1804, which was co-edited by Lydia T. Black and contains vast amounts of information on Tlingit-Russian relations, including two Tlingit narratives of the account.

168 12 Yéil ḵa Yáay

Yakʼéiyi lʼéiwt g̱alaháash yá yáay. — Yakwx̱waan Tláa

I wish this whale would foat to a fne sand. — Katherine Mills, Tʼaḵdeintaan1

Introduction To conclude our practice of finding verbs and roots, we will look at a Raven Story. This story will appear in the next Tlingit Oratory Literature Series, which is a collection of Ra- ven stories. Richard Dauenhauer granted permission to use the story here to show some methods of using documented stories to understand Tlingit grammar. It was told by Katherine Mills and recorded by Nora Marks Dauenhauer. Transcription and translation was done by Nora & Richard Dauenhauer, though this version has some changes in line patterns and interpretation. When translating works back and forth between Tlingit and English, we should keep in mind that the act of translation is a highly personalized and fluid process. There is no one right way to do things, so your study of a translated story is really the viewing of a collective moment between speakers and listeners of multiple languages who have their own personal judgments on interpretation and collective meaning. As you become more familiar with Tlingit you might have your own take on meaning and translation for particular parts of stories. One of the main issues regarding moving

1 Mills, Katherine. “Raven and Whale.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript). trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer

169 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Yéil k̲a Yáay from Tlingit to English in a text is that the word order and the language functions. ways the language function differ greatly between Tlingit and English. In particular, Tlingit might go a long time with a Yéil ḵa Yáay – Yakwx̱waan Tláa x̱ʼéidáx̱ 2 small number of pronouns indicating a wide variety of char- Tléix' yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil áwé át woogoot. acters. The speaker often assumes you can follow along, even though there is little in the language that signals which char- Áwé awsiteen yá yáay. acters are being referred to in a particular passage. The more Héennáx̱ kei aklakél'ch yú yaaw. you study Tlingit, the more you will become comfortable Áwé ch'á wá-a-a-a-a-a-a-s tsú du x̱'éit ag̱asnei wé yaaw. with this and other characteristics of the language. Wáa nanée sáwé yéi tuwdisháat, 5 Your role, for now, as a learner is to read this all the way «Shk’é áa daak ḵukḵwadaḵeen. through. You can also listen to the story as it was originally Tle wé yaaw x̱'ayeex̱ x̱'awut'aax̱í, áwé x̱át tsu du yíkdei kḵwadaḵéen. told at www.tlingitlanguage.com/raven. You should read it Yéi áwé tsá aa yakḵwadláaḵ, yá yaaw wusx̱á.» using the following methods: Áwé tle áa daak wudiḵín. • Read the Tlingit out loud, paying no attention to the Tle ḵúnáx̱ yá yaaw du yíkt kawu.aayí áwé wé yáay, tle a yíkdei wdzigeet yá English. yaaw x̱oo. • Listen to the recording and read the Tlingit while listen- Tle yá yáay du yoowuk’óol’ áwé áwú á yá Yéil. 10 ing, focusing on tempo, rhythm, and the way words flow Tle áx' shóot awdi.ák. from one to the next. Sometimes words that end with Tle áx' áwé agalt'óos' wé Yáaych sax̱a yaaw. vowels will roll right into the next word. Tle k'idéin, ch’u tle oosk’ítʼch. • Read the Tlingit out loud again, all the way through, keep- Tle ldakát á yax̱ awoosx̱áaych yáax' áwé tsú neil aa koo.áaych. ing in mind the way that the speaker sounded for these Yú yáay ḵu.aa yú yaaw tle neil koo.áaych. 15 parts. Yá Yéil a taayí tle yax̱ ayagoos.éech. • Read the Tlingit and look at the English. Áyá yeedát barbecue yóo duwasáakw yasátk aadéi at gas.ee yé. Spot the Verbs and the √Roots Wáa nanée sáwé x̱’awdzináḵ wé yáay wé yaaw neilx̱ kalasóosji. Aatlein yaaw áyú aawax̱áa yú Yéil. Once you have moved through the text a few times, it is time to go to work on the text to see how fluent speakers use Ch'a aan áyú, yú yáay yix̱dixwás’i yú taay ḵa ldakát du yik.ádi; tle ch’u tle yú yú 20 verbs. yáay yoowú tsú tle tle yax̱ ayawsix̱áa, ḵa yá taay. Ldakát át. • Use a highlighter and mark all of the verbs Ldakát yú yáay yik.ádi yóo ax̱á. • Use a pen and mark all of the verb stems Ts'as du x̱'éi kéi nak'éin yú atx̱á. • Use a different colored pen and mark all known words. Wáa nanée sáwé a téix̱' aax̱ aawaxaash. • Compare with the glossed version in the next chapter. Tle woonaa yú yáay. 25 Du een áwé át wulihaash. As you go through this text, keep in mind that there is cul- Áwé tle a yíkdei áwé éex'. tural information contained within this story. There are parts of this story, like many Raven stories, that are very funny in «Yak'éiyi l'éiw-w-w-w-w-w-w-t shé x̱at g̱alaháash. the Tlingit language. This story is sacred, but that does not 2 Mills, Katherine. “Raven and Whale.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript). trans. Nora Dauenhauer mean we cannot break it into its individual parts to see how & Richard Dauenhauer. Includes edits by Lance Twitchell, Fred White, and Marsha Hotch.

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Yak’éiyi l’éiwt g̱alaháash yá yáay,» yóo áwé a yíkdei éex’. «Tléik', tléik'. Ch'áakw éex'i áwé tóo aawanúk yan wulihásh yú yáay. 30 Hél wutoojaaḵ. Yá teet du een át x̱'awdiyeiḵ. Haa eeg̱áa át woosoo. 65 Awsikóo yánt áyú wlihásh. Yáanáx̱ yan wulitidi yáay áyá.» Ách áwé tle tsu a tóodei éex'. «A tóodei gé at duwa.áx̱ch?» «Aadóo sgí ḵáa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash? «Aaá, a tóodei x̱á at duwa.áx̱ch. Aadóo sgí ḵáa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash?» 35 A tóodáx̱ kei át wudiḵín.» Ch'a yéi x̱'ayaḵaayí áwé adátx’ich áwé seiwa.áx̱. «Haaw. 70 Át ḵaa loowagooḵ wé áa yéi yateeyi ḵu.oo. Haaw. Áwé tle s a t'aawjixéex neildé. Yóo áwé duwa.áx̱ch, ch’áakw tsú yéi at woonei. Áyú wé at yátx'i yéi has sh kalneek has du tláa ḵa has du éesh has een. Áwé yú aantḵeenéech has aawax̱áa. «Yáay tlein áyú yóonáx̱ yan wulihásh. 40 Tle ḵutx̱ has shoowaxéex.» A yíkdei kasiyeidéin at duwa.áx̱ch.» Ách áwé yéi ḵuyawaḵaa—ách uwa.ax̱i ḵu.óoch: «Yá yan wulhaashí, woonaawú. 75 Ách áwé tle aadéi aawa.aat, ldakát ḵaa jishagóoni een. A tóodáx̱ kei át wudaḵeení. Át a.áat áwé sawduwa.áx̱ wé Yéil. Hél aadéi x̱duwax̱aayi yé. «Aadoo sgí ḵaa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ḵug̱axáash.» Tle anáḵ yóo naligás'k!» Áwé tle a daa wuduwanaaḵ. 45 Ách áwé tle tle anáḵ at wuduwaxoon. Tle kakawdudlis'úw tle wé yáay tlein. Tle ldakát yóo neildéi kawduwajeili yáay daa ideidí tle anáḵ ḵuwligáas’. 80 Tle, tle du eetée yáx̱ áx̱ ḵukunalgéi, áwé anax̱ kei wdiḵín. Áwé Yéil ḵu.aa tle áa yéi wootee. G̱áa! Yú yáay tlein a shóox' yéi wootee, Tle ch'a kei ndaḵín áwé, ch’a kei ndaḵín kindachóon. Tle ldakát á shunaxéex áwé tsá aax̱ wudiḵeen. Áwé tle ldakát áyú a ḵwáan áwé tle yéi s x̱’ayaḵá: «Ch’a kei gidaḵeen! 50 Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yáat'aa. Ch'a kei gidaḵeen!» Tle kíndei kei ndaḵín. Wáa nanée sáwé, «Ḵuyáx̱ needaḵeen, ḵuyáx̱ needaḵeen.» Tle yan t'éidei wdiḵeen. Yan t'éit daḵéen áwé tle, tle daa— daa da.ús’kw. 55 Tláakw yatee daa da.ús'kw. Ldakát yú eex̱, ldakát át áwé du daatx̱ a.ús'kw. Wáa nanée sáwé ayaawadlaaḵ. Tle k’idéin sh wudzinei. Yáax' áwé tle aan yaa uwagút. 60 Há’, ldakat áwé neildéi yaa kandujél yú yáay daa ideidí dleey ḵa yú taay, ldakát át. Áwé tle yéi ḵuyawsiḵaa, «Hó. Yáay tlein áyá yeeyjáḵ.»

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Raven & Whale told by Katherine Mills Ldakát át. Everything. He's eatng up everything inside the whale. Tléix' yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil áwé át There was this one tme when Raven was Ldakát yú yáay yik.ádi yóo ax̱á. woogoot. walking around. Ts'as du x̱'éi kéi nak'éin yú atx̱á. He's getng hooked on eatng these foods. Áwé awsiteen yá yáay. He saw this whale. Wáa nanée sáwé a téix̱' aax̱ At some point he cut out its heart. Héennáx̱ kei aklakél'ch yú yaaw. The whale is chasing herring through the aawaxaash. water. Tle woonaa yú yáay. Then the whale died. 25 Áwé ch'á wá-a-a-a-a-a-a-s tsú du x̱'éit Just h-o-w-w-w-w-w can Raven get a taste of Du een áwé át wulihaash. He foated around with it. agasnei wé yaaw. the herring? ̱ Áwé tle a yíkdei áwé éex'. Then he's hollering inside it. Wáa nanée sáwé yéi tuwdisháat, It was at some point that he thought, 5 “Hmmm ... Let me fy out there. «Yak'éiyi l'éiw-w-w-w-w-w-w-t shé x̱at “Oh, maybe let it foat me to a fne s-a-a-a- «Shk’é áa daak ḵukḵwadaḵeen. a-a-and. g̱alaháash. Tle wé yaaw x̱'ayeex̱ x̱'awut'aax̱í, áwé Then, when the whale's jaws open for the Yak’éiyi l’éiwt galaháash yá yáay,» yóo Let this whale would foat to a fne sand,” is x̱át tsu du yíkdei kḵwadaḵéen. herring, I'll fy inside, too. ̱ áwé a yíkdei éex’. what he’s hollering inside it. Yéi áwé tsá aa yakḵwadláaḵ, yá yaaw It's the only way I'll get to eat the herring." Ch'áakw éex'i áwé tóo aawanúk yan Afer hollering a long tme he felt the whale 30 wusx̱á.» wulihásh yú yáay. foat to the beach. Áwé tle áa daak wudiḵín. So he few out there. Yá teet du een át x̱'awdiyeiḵ. The lips of the breakers were sliding all over Tle ḵúnáx̱ yá yaaw du yíkt kawu.aayí Just when the herrings were pouring inside it. the whale, Raven fell down inside among the áwé wé yáay, tle a yíkdei wdzigeet yá He knew he had foated to the beach. herring. Awsikóo yánt áyú wlihásh. yaaw x̱oo. Ách áwé tle tsu a tóodei éex'. That's why he hollered inside it again. Tle yá yáay du yoowuk’óol’ áwé áwú á Raven was right in the botom of the 10 stomach of the whale. «Aadóo sgí ḵáa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash? “Who could let someone cut above a yá Yéil. person? Then he made a fre there. Tle áx' shóot awdi.ák. Aadóo sgí ḵáa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash?» Who could let someone cut above a 35 Tle áx' áwé agalt'óos' wé Yáaych sax̱a Then right there he barbecues the herring person?” yaaw. the whale is eatng. Ch'a yéi x̱'ayaḵaayí áwé adátx’ich áwé While he was saying this children heard him. Tle k'idéin, ch’u tle oosk’ítʼch. He would eat them just fne without any seiwa.áx̱. trouble. Át ḵaa loowagooḵ wé áa yéi yateeyi The people who were living there were Tle ldakát á yax̱ awoosx̱áaych yáax' He would eat all of them and here another ḵu.oo. running around. load would come pouring in. áwé tsú neil aa koo.áaych. Áwé tle s at'aawjixéex neildé. Then they ran home to tell the news. Yú yáay ḵu.aa yú yaaw tle neil koo. The herring would come pouring into the 15 Áyú wé at yátx'i yéi has sh kalneek has These children are telling it to their mothers whale. áaych. du tláa ḵa has du éesh has een. and fathers. Yá Yéil a taayí tle yax̱ ayagoos.éech. Raven would cook its blubber. "Yáay tlein áyú yóonáx̱ yan wulihásh. "A huge whale foated to shore over there. 40 Áyá yeedát barbecue yóo duwasáakw Nowadays that kind of fast cooking style is A yíkdei kasiyeidéin at duwa.áx̱ch." Strange sounds are coming from inside." yasátk aadéi at gas.ee yé. called a barbecue. Ách áwé tle aadéi aawa.aat, ldakát ḵaa That's why the people went over there then Wáa nanée sáwé x̱’awdzináḵ wé yáay At some point the whale quit eatng the jishagóoni een. with all their tools. wé yaaw neilx̱ kalasóosji. herring that were pouring in. Át a.áat áwé sawduwa.áx̱ wé Yéil. When they got there they heard the voice of Aatlein yaaw áyú aawax̱áa yú Yéil. Raven had eaten a huge amount of herring. that Raven. Ch'a aan áyú, yú yáay yix̱dixwás’i Even with this, the fat hanging inside the 20 "Aadoo sgí ḵaa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ḵug̱axáash." “Who could let someone cut above a yú taay ḵa ldakát du yik.ádi; tle ch’u whale and all of its internal organs; then he person?” even ate up the whale’s stomach, and the Áwé tle a daa wuduwanaaḵ. Then people stood around it. 45 tle yú yú yáay yoowú tsú tle tle yax̱ fat. ayawsix̱áa, ḵa yá taay. Tle kakawdudlis'úw tle wé yáay tlein. Then the huge whale was chopped open.

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Tle, tle du eetée yáx̱ áx̱ ḵukunalgéi, Then as soon as it was wide enough for Áwé yú aantḵeenéech has aawax̱áa. The people of the village ate it. Raven, he few out. áwé anax̱ kei wdiḵín. Tle ḵutx̱ has shoowaxéex.» They all died of. G̱áa! "Caw!" Ách áwé yéi ḵuyawaḵaa—ách uwa. That was why the people—the people who 75 Tle ch'a kei ndaḵín áwé, ch’a kei Then he’s fying up, fying up and away. ax̱i ḵu.óoch: «Yá yan wulhaashí, heard this—said: ”This carcass that foated ashore was dead. ndaḵín kindachóon. woonaawú. Áwé tle ldakát áyú a ḵwáan áwé tle yéi Then all of the people of the place said, “Just 50 A tóodáx̱ kei át wudaḵeení. That thing that few out of it. fy up! s x̱’ayaḵá: «Ch’a kei gidaḵeen! Hél aadéi x̱duwax̱aayi yé. No way should people eat any of it. Ch'a kei gidaḵeen!» “Just fy up!” Tle anáḵ yóo naligás'k!» Move away from it!" Tle kíndei kei ndaḵín. Then he’s fying upwards. Ách áwé tle tle anáḵ at wuduwaxoon. This was the reason then that people Wáa nanée sáwé, «Ḵuyáx̱ needaḵeen, At some point,"Fly horizontally! Fly prepared to leave it. ḵuyáx̱ needaḵeen.» horizontally!” Tle ldakát yóo neildéi kawduwajeili Then all the parts of the whale that were 80 brought home were lef behind. Tle yan t'éidei wdiḵeen. Then he few out of sight. yáay daa ideidí tle anáḵ ḵuwligáas’. Yan t'éit daḵéen áwé tle, tle daa— daa When he fies out of sight then, then he’s 55 Áwé Yéil ḵu.aa tle áa yéi wootee. But then Raven stayed there. da.ús’kw. washing his body. Yú yáay tlein a shóox' yéi wootee, He was in the remains of the huge whale. Tláakw yatee daa da.ús'kw. Heʼs quickly washing his body. Tle ldakát á shunaxéex áwé tsá aax̱ Only when it was fnally all gone did he fy away. Ldakát yú eex̱, ldakát át áwé du daatx̱ All that grease, he's washing everything of. wudiḵeen. a.ús'kw. Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yáat'aa. That's how this one ends. Wáa nanée sáwé ayaawadlaaḵ. At some point he was done. Tle k’idéin sh wudzinei. Then he really primped himself. Yáax' áwé tle aan yaa uwagút. Here he went past the village then. 60 Há’, ldakat áwé neildéi yaa kandujél Well, they’re taking home all of the whale, yú yáay daa ideidí dleey ḵa yú taay, all the parts of the whale, the meat and the blubber, all of it. ldakát át. Áwé tle yéi ḵuyawsiḵaa, «Hó. Yáay Then he said to them, ”Wow! You killed a tlein áyá yeeyjáḵ.» huge whale.” «Tléik', tléik'. "No, no. Hél wutoojaaḵ. We didn't kill it. Haa eeg̱áa át woosoo. It was good luck. 65 Yáanáx̱ yan wulitidi yáay áyá.» This is a whale that was carried to shore by the waves." «A tóodei gé at duwa.áx̱ch?» "Was anything heard anything inside?" «Aaá. A tóodei x̱á at duwa.áx̱ch. "Yes. Something sure was heard inside. A tóodáx̱ kei át wudiḵín.» Something few out of it." «Haaw. "Well. 70 Haaw. Well. Yóo áwé duwa.áx̱ch, ch’áakw tsú yéi at It is heard that long ago this also happened. woonei.

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178 13 Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Aadóo sgí ḵáa kaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash? — Yakwx̱waan Tláa

Who could let someone cut above a person? — Katherine Mills, Tʼaḵdeintaan1

Tlingit Grammatical Structure We will conclude our initial study of Tlingit verbs with a gloss of the Raven & Whale story as told by Katherine Mills. We have covered some basics of Tlingit grammatical structure, but in order to begin looking at the bigger picture we will introduce a few more complexities. We have begun looking at how to identify Tlingit verbs, locate the root, and unpack the general meaning and phenomena the verb is describing. We have also looked at lists of types of words in Tlingit so we can become more skilled at locating the verb and also figuring out how these other parts of speech work. Particles are very interesting in Tlingit, and you should be listening and watching for them to see how fluent speakers use them to convey meaning. We have looked at the verb phrase and its basic components: preverb, verb, and postverb. Within the verb itself, we will begin to examine the different potential parts that are in there. The √root is the central part of the verb, so we continue to break things into smaller parts and examine how those parts interact with one another. The heart of the verb is the stem, and it consists of two things: root and stem variation. In front of the stem is the prefix, and on the end is the suffix. 1 Mills, Katherine. “Raven and Whale.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript).

179 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Sentence glossing in Tlingit is a multi-step process, and tion typically works, and with enough practice can help the is best practiced using sentences where the definition is al- learner create new sentences and phrases by remembering ready given, such as the Raven & Whale story here and the the many patterns that exist, especially in the verb prefix. stories and speeches in Haa Shuká, Haa Tuwunáagu Yís,2 and Here are several simple sentences that we can begin ana- Gágiwdul.aat.3 This chapter has three intentions: 1) introduc- lyzing. The work we have already done in this text and on our ing the concepts of segmenting and glossing in Tlingit, 2) giv- own, identifying nouns, noun modifiers, particles, locational ing lists of common items seen in Tlingit grammar, including terms, verbs, and verb components, will all be useful as we their location and gloss codes, 3) showing examples of sen- move forward and unpack the language. tence glossing, and 4) showing a sentence gloss sample using We should also keep in mind that not all fluent speakers the Raven & Whale story. For more information on sentence are going to want to talk about how these parts intersect and glossing, see “Segmenting and glossing Tlingit,” and for a full alter each other. That does not ever mean that the second list of known items in the categories presented here, see the language learner knows more; it only means that a second “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook.”4 language learner masters the language with different tools. The fluent birth speaker is always superior when it comes to Segmenting in Tlingit creating and interpreting Tlingit, because they do not have The first step in identifying all the parts within a phrase to do the work of translation. Segmenting and glossing are or sentence is separating the individual components. This is acts of translation, and should be seen as a tool to help un- very tricky because of the way that Tlingit contracts in verb derstand the language while the learner searches out and prefixes, and also the way that tone and vowel length are af- creates listening and speaking opportunities that will help fected by suffixes and word compounding. With practice, the internalize these complex concepts. student of Tlingit can learn to identify the components, but Sample Gloss Sentences 1 work should be done in groups, or with guidance, and should use basic phrases and also using printed materials. There are basic phrases wonderful examples in the works of Crippen and Cable, and tlingit meaning also the detailed explanations of verb modes and the con- wáa sá iyatee? how are you? tents of those verb modes have been accurately documented by Eggleston in both her dictionary and dissertation. yakʼéi ix̱wsateení it is good to see you To begin with, we will take a couple of common phrases héen ax̱ tuwáa sigóo i want water that most learners are familiar with by now, and will seg- ax̱ tláa du éesh áwé Daḵlʼaweidí my motherʼs father is Daḵlʼaweidí ment those. After that, we will segment the first few sentenc- g̱anú! sit down! es of the Raven & Whale story. This process, which unpacks hoon daakahídidé woogoot s/he went to the store (walking) the materials within Tlingit, is good to help see how contrac- goosú i dóoshi? where is your cat?

2 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. Haa Shuká, Our Ancestors: Tlingit Oral Narratives. Seattle: Universi- ty of Washington Press, 1981. The first step with these sentences is to separate compo- ----. Haa Tuwunáagu Yís, For Our Healing Spirit: Tlingit Oratory. Seattle: University of Washington Press, nents using hyphens. The difficulties may come from either 1990. contractions or invisible components like the zero marker 3 Nyman, Elizabeth. Gágiwdul.aat: Brought Forth to Reconfirm the Legacy of a Taku River Tlingit Clan. (∅, which may be a classifier, conjugation prefix, subject trans. Jeff Leer. Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre, 1993. pronoun, or object pronoun) or in some cases things that 4 Crippen, James. “Segmenting and glossing Tlingit” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013). contract out of the verb. When segmenting and glossing, it ----. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British is best to think of the action in layers. At the top layer is the Columbia, 2013).

180 181 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit phrase or sentence as we would write it in Tlingit. Beneath with Tlingit language. that is where we would write out the segmented version, like Later in this chapter we will look at a collection of the most in the table below. common components in Tlingit grammar. These are the ba- We are going to separate any noun modifiers from the sics that you should master, and one of the goals here is to be noun, and then return the noun to an unaltered state. The able to write it in a different way, instead of how we would same will be done for all other parts of speech. The verb will write it in Tlingit we are thinking about what all the indi- be unpacked, and the components in the prefix and suffix vidual components are and how we can see them for what will be segmented, but for now we will keep the root exactly they are, which might mean using characters we have not as it appears in the verb. The root of the verb will be marked used much until now, like the «ÿ» and «∅» symbols. The «ÿ» with the root symbol (√), which helps us see how the root is important to distinguish because it will appear as a «y» functions. In later lessons, we will identify the root by num- unless preceded by «-u/-oo» which will cause it to become ber if there are homonym roots (√x̱aa ¹, √x̱aa ²). These con- «-w». This change will happen when the «-u/-oo» directly cepts will be covered later as we learn more about verbal precedes the «ÿ» in a word, or in some cases when the previ- structure, especially Tlingit roots and stem variation. ous word ends with a «-u/-oo». Also note that open suffixes are written with the tone that basic phrases — segmented they have in the text, since there is no default. Remember- tlingit meaning ing back to rules of Tlingit suffixes, if it begins or ends with wáa sá iyatee? how are you? a vowel then it will be the opposite of the vowel before it. wáa sá i-ÿa-√tee? The suffix in the segmenting should appear exactly as it does yakʼéi ix̱wsateení it is good to see you in the text. Nouns, however, should be written as they ap- ∅-ÿa-√kʼéi i-ÿu-x̱a-sa-√teen-í pear. A good example is «áa» – there, which may fluctuate héen ax̱ tuwáa sigóo i want water in tone and vowel length when taking on suffixes. When we héen ax̱ tu-ÿá si-√góo segment, though, the noun returns to its unaltered form to ax̱ tláa du éesh áwé Daḵlʼaweidí my motherʼs father is Daḵlʼaweidí help us see how it is affected by other elements. ax̱ tláa du éesh á-wé Daaḵ-lʼéiw-ádi We will also see some common things in Tlingit that are ganú! ̱ sit down! unusual and have to be memorized. One of those things is g̱a-∅-√nú(k)! the perfective «ÿu-» combining with the first person singular hoon daakahídidé woogoot s/he went to the store (walking) subject (1s.S) pronoun. The order that these appear is perfec- hoon daaka-hít-i-dé ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot tive-subject, but when they contract the perfective marker goosú i dóoshi? where is your cat? jumps to the other side of the pronoun, and we have «x̱wa-». goo-sá-ú i dóosh-i? Despite this, we segment in the order of the Tlingit verbal template, and not according to how they contract. For more After trying this out, there are a number of things to look on the Tlingit Verbal template, see the works of Eggleston back at and examine. We have talked about basic verbal and Crippen. structure, so we are now figuring what is appearing in the The other items of note are the ways that verb roots oc- verb by looking at the order in which they appear and the casionally change their form in rather dramatic ways. There type of verb that is being used. We have learned how to use are a few verbs that lose the end consonant in certain com- these verbs and other parts of speech, and now we are begin- mand forms, and √nook ¹ (sit; be situated) is one of these, as ning to look more closely to see how they function. The goal in the command form g̱anú (sit down)! There will be other of this is to be able to construct our own sentences, stringing situations where the verb root changes because of a suffix, thoughts together and responding to the world around us such as the following: «awlig̱oo» – s/he wiped it & «yei an-

182 183 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit alg̱wéin» – s/he is wiping it. These changes are predictable basic phrases — segmented & glossed when studying Tlingit roots and how their shape changes in tlingit different modes. ax̱ tláa du éesh áwé Daḵlʼaweidí We will also have to become skilled at spotting elements in ax̱ tláa du éesh á-wé Daaḵ-lʼéiw-át-i grammar that are not obvious and can be easily confused for my-(1s.P) mother her/his-(3s.P) father (focus).there inland.sand.thing.poss one another. The zero object, zero conjugation prefix, zero g̱anú! subject, and zero classifier. There are occasions, where there g̱a-∅-√nú(k)! might be three of them in a row, such as the following: g̱a-con.cl-(–d,∅,–i).√sit/be-situated hoon daakahídidé woogoot a.áx̱ni if/when s/he hears her/him/it hoon daaka-hít-i-dé ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot a-∅-∅-∅-√áx̱-ni sell/shop around-outside.house.rel.towards pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√go/walk goosú i dóoshi? We will figure these parts out in time, but we know they goo-sá-ú i dóosh-i? where.voice.at your-(2s.P) cat.pos are there by the structure of the verb mode, which in this case contains an Object Pronoun «a-», a Conjugation Prefix The basic method utilized at the gloss level is to translate «∅-», a Subject Pronoun «∅-», and a classifier «∅-». This is a these parts we have segmented, or to label them so we can complicated scenario, but a very unusual one. begin to see how they function. The segment level retains Sentence Glossing in Tlingit all spaces, and expands words to identifiable parts using hyphens. For example, «aadé» would be separated into «á-dé» Instead of thinking about ways in which we can confuse so the suffix is separated from the base, yet we still see the ourselves, letʼs revisit our group of sample sentences and attachment through the hyphen. The tone for the noun «á» learn to gloss the next level. On level one we have the Tlingit is restored, but the tone of the suffix stays the same. For the as we would write it when transcribing. This is how it would next level down, the hyphen would switch to a period, and look in a text. The next layer down is the segment where the it would look like “it.towards”. The reason for this is that hy- parts are separated. phens at the third level are used to show compound explana- Our next layer is going to be our gloss, where we identify tions like in classifiers or pronouns. This may seem jarring at the meaning and/or function of the individual components. first, but will make sense the more that you see it. This is where the charts come in handy, like in the tables be- The reason for coding the language like this is it helps to low or in the “Verbal Structure Handbook.” see what is going on beneath the surface of the language, basic phrases — segmented & glossed which is especially helpful to understand how the classifier and conjugation prefixes work, as well as other parts of the tlingit verb that typically appear in the prefix. It will also help you wáa sá i-yatee? to see how contraction works in the prefix, so you can then wáa sá i-ÿa-√tee? how voice you-(2s.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be begin making those combinations yourself by memorizing yakʼéi ix̱wsateení information given in the verb theme. ∅-ÿa-√kʼéi i-ÿu-x̱a-sa-√teen-í To get us on track with segmenting and glossing in Tlingit, her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√good you-(2s.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√see.(rel) we will start with the following charts, which are some of the héen ax̱ tuwáa sigóo most common elements found in Tlingit. These lists should héen ax̱ tu-ÿá si-√góo water/river my-(1s.P) inside-(hollow).vsf cl-(–d,s,+i).√happy be committed to memory over time, because you will be able to then spot them in Tlingit grammar and use them to make your verb conjugations. Meaning is given for the parts that

184 185 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit have them, but sometimes the meaning is not as important Noun Suffixes as the grammatical or conceptual function. Following these tlingit gloss meaning cnj tables is a sample glossing using the Raven & Whale Story by -t arrived at a point; arriving at ∅ Katherine Mills. -x̱ at moving at; repeatedly arriving at ∅ Tlingit Glossing Decoder Key -de toward to, toward, untl, manner of na -dáx̱ from from, out of na Determiners -náḵ leave without, leaving behind na tlingit gloss meaning -náx̱ through through, along, by, via, across na yá right-here right here -g̱aa after around, about, by, afer, for na hé here here wé there that Relational Bases yú over-there that (over yonder) tlingit gloss meaning haa(n) surroundings here; surrounding area –daa around around, about –daaká around-outside around outside, surface Possessive Pronouns –dayeen facing facing tlingit gloss meaning –déin vicinity vicinity ax̱ my-(1s.P) frst person singular possessive pronoun –eetí remains remains, imprint haa our-(1p.P) frst person plural possessive pronoun –géi~ against against, opposing, wrong i your-(2s.P) second person singular possessive pronoun –jee possession possession yee yʼalls-(2p.P) second person plural possessive pronoun –ít following afer, following du her/his-(3s.P) third person singular possessive pronoun –ká hzsf horizontal surface; on has du their-(3p.P) third person plural possessive pronoun –kináa(k) above ḵaa someoneʼs-(4H.P) fourth person human possessive pronoun –kʼí base base (standing) fourth person non-human possessive somethingʼs-(4N.P) –shakée top top, above at pronoun –shá head head Noun Suffixes –shú end end, tp tlingit gloss meaning cnj –shuká ahead front, ahead -ch ergative subject of transitve verb — –táak bottom-(cavity) botom (cavity) -x̱ locative denotes group for «-x̱ sitee» verb –tayee underneath underneath, below -kʼ dim diminutve –tú inside-(hollow) inside (hollow object) -xʼ pl plural –tʼaak behind-(inland) behind (inland) -i ~ -yi- ~ –tʼaaḵ beside beside pos possessive -u ~ -wu –tʼeik behind behind -xʼ residing at, on, in, by — –x̱oo among among -u at verbless locatve phrase — –x̱án near near -n with with, using, as soon as — –x̱ʼáak between between

186 187 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Relational Bases Preverbs (+17) tlingit gloss meaning tlingit cnj meaning –x̱ʼé mouth mouth, opening áa ∅ there –ÿa vsf vertcal surface, face daag̱í ∅ from water to shore –ÿee below/in-bldg below; inside building gági ∅ from shadow into open inside (shallow object, object open beginning, startng inside-(shallow) g̱unaÿéi ~ g̱unéi ∅ –yík to above) f héeni ∅ into water –ÿináa covering covering neil(t), neilx̱, neildé ∅ inside, homeward, into building Relational Nouns ÿan, ÿax̱, ÿánde ∅ completng, fnishing tlingit gloss meaning ḵut ga astray, lost, –daat about about, regarding yaax̱ g̱a into vehicle or boat haat, haax̱, haa(n)dé ∅ here, this way, toward speaker –g̱óot lacking without, lacking –jee possession possession ux̱ (+ kei) ∅ blindly, out of control –jináḵ depriving taking away, depriving e2 ḵwáaḵx̱ (+ daaḵ) ∅ by mistake, wrongly –jís ~ jiyís for-having for having ÿan, ÿax̱, ÿánde ∅ ashore, onto ground, restng –ít following afer, following héenx̱ g̱a into water –káx̱ for for yóot, yóox̱, yóode ∅ hence, away, of –ḵín less less than ḵux̱, ḵux̱x̱ ḵúx̱de ∅ aback, reversed directon, return (+d) leave away from, leaving behind ḵux, ḵuxx̱ ḵúxde ∅ aground, into shallow water –náḵ e1 –shagóon origin source, origin, fundament kei ∅ up, upward –x̱ʼéis ~ x̱ʼeiyís for-eating to eat yei ∅ down, downward down to shore, beachward –ÿáanáx̱ more more than yeiḵ, yéèḵ S ∅ –yáx̱ like like, as, similar to daaḵ ~ dáàḵ ∅ inland from shore, back from open, of s of fre –ÿeeg̱áa waiting-for waitng for d daak ~ dáàk ∅ seaward, into open, falling from sky, –ÿís for-benefit for, beneftng s onto fre yéi — thus, so c Postpositional Pronouns (+18) yóo — quotaton tlingit gloss meaning b ÿaa ~ ÿa — mental state or actvity ax̱ ee- ~ x̱aan to-me-(1s.Pp) (to) me yoo ∅ back and forth, to and fro a haa ee- ~ haa(n)- to-us-(1p.Pp) (to) us yaa na along, down, obliquely, progressive i ee- to-you-(2s.Pp) (to) you yee ee- to-yʼall-(2p.Pp) (to) you all du ee- ~ u- to-her/him-(3.Pp) (to) him has du ee to-them-(3.Pp) (to) them ḵaa ~ ḵu ee- ~ ḵoon to-somebody-(4N.Pp) (to) somebody a ee- ~ a- ~ aan to-something-(4H.Pp) (to) it

188 189 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Object Pronouns (+14) Contracting Prefixes (+7 to +4) tlingit gloss meaning Outer Conjugation (+7) x̱at me-(1s.O) frst person singular object pronoun tlingit gloss meaning haa us-(1p.O) frst person plural object pronoun ga- ga-con ga conjugaton prefx i- you-(2s.O) second person singular object pronoun ga- ga-md ga mode yee yʼall-(2p.O) second person plural object pronoun ∅ ~ a- her/him/it-(3.O) third person object pronoun Irrealis (+6) ḵaa ~ ḵu- people-(4h.O) fourth person human object pronoun tlingit gloss meaning fourth person non-human object something-(4n.O) u- irr irrealis at pronoun sh (rflx) refexive (+d) Inner Conjugation (+5) woosh (recip) reciprocal (+d) tlingit gloss meaning ∅- ∅-con ∅ conjugaton prefx Thematic Prefixes (+13 to +9) g̱a- g̱a-con g̱a conjugaton prefx na- na-con na conjugaton prefx Areal (+13) na- na-md na mode tlingit gloss meaning ḵu- areal relatng to a space Perfective & G̱a-mode (+4) ka- comp compared to tlingit gloss meaning ÿu- ~ u- pfv perfectve Inalienable Incorporated Nouns (+11) g̱a- g̱a-md g̱a mode tlingit meaning tlingit meaning ji- hand/possession x̱ʼa ~ x̱ʼe ~ ḵʼa- mouth/opening Subject Pronouns (+2) tu- inside sha- head/top tlingit gloss meaning sa- ~ se- voice/neck shu- end x̱a- i-(1s.S) frst person singular subject pronoun lu- nose/point a- a- thematc tu- we-(1p.S) frst person plural subject pronoun daa- around i- you-(2s.S) second person singular subject pronoun yi- yʼall-(2p.S) second person plural subject pronoun Surface (+10–+9) ∅- s/he-(3.S) third person subject pronoun tlingit gloss meaning fourth person human subject pronoun someone-(4H.S) –d for all ∅-classifers and ka- rnd spherical du- +d for all non-∅ classifers ka- hsf horizontal surface/on ÿa- vsf vertcal surface/face

Self Benefactive (+8) tlingit gloss meaning ga- sb to do the verb for the self (+d)

190 191 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Classifier (+1) Additional Information –i +i –i +i Grammatical Notes ∅ ∅- ÿa- s sa- si- cl-(–d,∅,–i) cl-(–d,∅,+i) cl-(–d,s,–i) cl-(–d,s,+i) gloss meaning (focus) focus partcle d+∅ da- di- d+s s- dzi- cl-(+d,∅,–i) cl-(+d,∅,+i) cl-(+d,s,–i) cl-(+d,s,+i) (singluar) verb has root for singular subject (plural) verb has root for plural subject –i +i –i +i (plural objects, etc.) verb is specifc for type of noun

l la- li- sh sha- shi- cl-(–d,l,–i) cl-(–d,l,+i) cl-(–d,sh,–i) cl-(–d,sh,+i)

d+l l- dli- d+sh sh- ji- Raven & Whale Segment & Gloss cl-(+d,l,–i) cl-(+d,l,+i) cl-(+d,sh,–i) cl-(+d,sh,+i) Tléixʼ yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil tléixʼ ∅-ÿa-√tee-yi aa á-wé Stem Variation (–1) áwé át woogoot. one her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be.(nominalize) one (focus).there appearance variation appearance variation There was this one tme when Raven was yá yéil á-wé aa-t ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot walking around. this raven (focus).there there.arrived pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√go-(walk) CV́ short high CV́VC long high Áwé awsiteen yá yáay. á-wé a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen yá yáay short high long high (focus).there her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see-(specific) this CV́C CV́VCʼ He saw this whale. whale CV́Cʼ short high CVV long low Héennáx̱ kei aklakélʼch yú long high long low héen-náx̱ kei a-ka-∅-la-√kélʼ-ch yú yaaw CV́V CVVC yaaw. water-through up her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,l,–i).√chase-(plural The whale is chasing herring through the objects) those-(over yonder) herring Suffixes (–2 to –4) water. Áwé chʼá wá-a-a-a-a-a-a-s tsú á-wé chʼa wáa sá tsú du x̱ʼé-t tlingit gloss meaning (focus)-that just how voice also her/his mouth-arrived du x̱ʼéit ag̱asnei wé yaaw? -i ~ -yi ~ u- ~ wu- rel relatve clause marker a-g̱a-∅-sa-√nei wé yaaw? Just h-o-w-w-w-w-w can Raven get a taste of her/him/it-(3.O).g̱a-md.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√carry-(plural objects) that -x̱aa miss miss the target of acton the herring? herring -een dec decessive (used to) Wáa nanée sáwé yéi tuwdisháat, «Shkʼé áa daak wáa nanée sá-wé yéi tu-ÿu-∅-di-√sháat -ni cndl conditonal how when voice-that thus inside.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,+i).√grab ḵukḵwadaḵeen. -x̱ rep repettve shkʼé áa daak ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da-√ḵeen It was at some point that he thought, hmm there out-to-sea/open areal.ga-conj.irr.g̱a-mode.i-(1s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly -ch hab habitual “Hmmm ... Let me fy out there. nominalizing (turns verb to noun or Tle wé yaaw x̱ʼayeex̱ tle wé yaaw x̱ʼa-yee-x̱ x̱ʼa-ÿu-∅-∅-√tʼaax̱-í, nom -i ~ -yi ~ u- ~ wu- adjectve) then that herring mouth-below-along mouth.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅-,-i). x̱ʼawutʼaax̱í, áwé x̱át tsú du open-wide-(relative) yíkdei kḵwadaḵéen. á-wé x̱át tsú du yík-dei ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da-√ḵéen Verb Auxilaries Then, when the whaleʼs jaw opens wide for (focus)-that me too her/his inside(open container)-towards ga-conj.irr.g̱a- the herring, Iʼll fy inside, too. mode.i-(1s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly tlingit gloss meaning Yéi áwé tsá aa yakḵwadláaḵ, yéi á-wé tsá aa ya-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√dláaḵ, neech ~ nooch hab habitual (always) thus (focus)-that only-then there vsf.ga-conj.irr.g̱a-mode.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,– yá yaaw wusx̱á.» i).√obtain dec-hab decessive habitual (always used to) neejéen ~ noojéen Itʼs the only way Iʼll get the herring heʼs yá yaaw ÿu-∅-s-√x̱á eatng.” this herring pf.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,s,-i).√eat Áwé tle áa daak wudiḵín. á-wé tle áa daak ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín tle ḵú-náx̱ (focus)-that then there out-to-sea/open pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly then So he few out there. really

192 193 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Tle ḵúnáx̱ yá yaaw du yíkt yá yaaw du yík-t ∅-ka-ÿu-∅-√.aa-yí wáa nanée sá-wé this herring her/his inside-arrived her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.cl-(–d,∅,–i).√flow. Wáa nanée sáwé x̱ʼawdzináḵ how when voice-that kawu.aayí áwé wé yáay, tle a (relative) wé yáay wé yaaw neilx̱ x̱ʼa-ÿu-dzi-√náḵ yíkdei wdzigeet yá yaaw x̱oo. á-wé wé yáay mouth-pfv.cl-(+d,s,+i).√quit (focus)-that that whale kalasóosji. Just when the herrings were pouring inside wé yáay the whale, Raven fell down inside among tle a yík-dei ∅-ÿu-dzi-√geet yá yaaw x̱oo At some point the whale quit eatng the that whale the herring. then it-(3s.P) inside-(open container)-towards her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.cl- herring that were pouring in. (+d,s,+i).√fall this herring among wé yaaw neil-x̱ ∅-ka-la-√sóos-ch-i that herring home-along her/him/it.hsf.cl(–d,l,–i).√fall-(repeatedly).(relative) Tle yá yáay, du yoowukʼóolʼ tle yá yáay aatlein yaaw á-yú a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√x̱áa áwé áwú á yá Yéil. then this whale Aatlein yaaw áyú aawax̱áa lots herring (focus).that-(over yonder) her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(3.S). cl-(–d,∅,+i).√eat Then this whale, Raven was right in the du yoowú-kʼóolʼ á-wé á-wú á yá yéil yú Yéil. her/his stomach-tailbone (focus)-that it-at (focus) this raven botom of the stomach. Raven had eaten a huge amount of herring. yú yéil that-(over yonder) raven Tle áxʼ shóot awdi.ák. tle á-xʼ shóo-t a-ÿu-∅-di√.ák then it-residing turning-over-endwise-arriving a-theme.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S). chʼa aa-een á-yú Then he made a fre there. cl-(+d.∅,+i).√fix-fire Chʼa aan áyú, yú yáay just it-with (focus)-that-(over yonder) tle á-xʼ á-wé a-ga-∅-la-√tʼóosʼ yix̱dixwásʼi yú taay ḵa ldakát yú yáay yik-x̱-di-√xwásʼ-i then it-residing (focus)-that her/him/it-(3.O).CP-ga.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,l,- du yik.ádi; that-(over yonder) whale inside.along.cl-(+d,∅,+i).√hang-(in clusters). Tle áxʼ áwé agaltʼóosʼ wé i).√cook-(meat, open flame) (relative) Even with this, the fat hanging inside the Yáaych sax̱a yaaw. wé yáay-ch whale and all of its internal organs; yú taay ḵa ldakát du yik-át-i that-(over yonder) fat and all her/his-(3s.P) inside.thing.(possessed) Then right there he barbecues the whaleʼs that whale-(ergative) herring that he is eatng. ∅-sa-√x̱a yaaw tle chʼu tle yú s/he/it-(1.S).cl-(–d,s,-i).√eat herring tle chʼu tle yú yú yáay yoowú then just then that-(over yonder) Tle kʼidéin, chʼu tle yú yáay yoowú tsú tle tle √kʼei-déin tsú tle tle yax̱ ayawsix̱áa, ḵa that-(over yonder) whale stomach too then then √well-(adverb) ooskʼítʼch. yá taay. tle yax̱ a-ya-ÿu-si-√x̱áa He would eat them just fne without any chʼu tle ÿu-∅-s-√kʼítʼ-ch then he even ate up the whale’s stomach, then (completion) her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.cl-(–d,s,–i).√eat just then pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,s,-i).√eat-up-(one whole thing)-(repeatedly) trouble. and the fat. ḵa yá taay Tle ldakát á yax̱ awoosx̱áaych tle ldakát á yax̱ a-ÿu-∅-sa-√x̱áa-y-ch and the fat then all (focus) (completion) her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,- yáaxʼ áwé tsú neil aa koo. i).√eat.(repeatedly) Ldakát át. ldakát át all thing áaych. yá-xʼ á-wé tsú neil aa ∅-ka-ÿu-∅-√.áa-y-ch Everything. He would eat all of them and here another here-residing (focus)-that too home there her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.s/he/it- (3.S).√pour-(repeatedly) Ldakát yú yáay yik.ádi yóo ldakát yú yáay yik-át-i load would come pouring in. all that-(over yonder) what inside-(open container).thing.(possessed) ax̱á. Yú yáay ḵu.aa yú yaaw tle yú yáay ḵu.aa yóo a-∅-∅-√x̱á that-(over yonder) whale though Heʼs eatng up everything inside the whale. along her/him/it-(3.O).s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√eat neil koo.áaych. yú yaaw tle neil koo.áa-ych The herring would come pouring into the tsʼas du x̱ʼéi kéi ∅-na-∅-√kʼéi-n that-(over yonder) herring then home her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.s/he/it- Tsʼas du x̱ʼéi kéi nakʼéin yú merely her/his-(3s.P) mouth up her/him/it-(3.O).na-md.cl-(–d,∅,–i).√good. whale. (3.S).√pour-(repeatedly) atx̱á. (progressive) yá yéil a taa-yí Heʼs getng hooked on eatng these foods. yú at-√x̱á Yá Yéil a taayí tle yax̱ this raven its-(3.P) fat-(possessed) that-(over yonder) thing-√eat ayagoos.éech. tle yax̱ a-ya-ga-u-∅-sa-√.ée-ch Wáa nanée sáwé a téix̱ʼ aax̱ Raven would then cook all its blubber. then (completion) her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.irr.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,-i).cook. wáa nanée sá-wé a téix̱ʼ aa-dáx̱ a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√xaash (repeatedly) aawaxaash? how when voice-that its-(3n.P) heart there-from her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/ it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√cut Áyá yeedát barbecue yóo á-yá yeedát “barbecue” At some point he cut out its heart. (focus)-this now “barbecue” duwasáakw yasátk aadéi at Tle woonaa yú yáay. tle ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√naa yú yáay yóo ∅-du-ÿa-√sáa-kw then her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√die that-(over yonder) whale gas.ee yé. along her/him/it-(3.O).someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√call/name.(repeatedly) Then the whale died. Nowadays that kind of fast cooking style is yasátk aa-déi at ga-∅-sa-√.ee yé Du een áwé át wulihaash. du ee-n á-wé á-t ∅-ÿu-li-√haash called a barbecue. fast it-towards something-(4N.O) CP-ga.s/he/it-(3.S).√cook the-way her/his (empty base)-with (focus).that it-arrived her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.cl- He foated around with it. (–d,l,+i).√drift/float Áwé tle a yíkdei áwé .éexʼ. á-wé tle a yík-dei á-wé ∅-∅-√.éexʼ (focus)-that then its-(3n.P) inside-(open container).towards her/him/it-(3.O). Then heʼs hollering inside it. cl-(–d,∅,–i).√call-out

194 195 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

«Yakʼéiyi lʼéiw-w-w-w-w-w- Áyú wé at yátxʼi yéi has sh á-yú wé at yát-xʼ-i w-t shé x̱at galaháash ÿa-√kʼéi-yi lʼéiw-t (kw)shé x̱at g̱a-la-√háash (focus)-that-(over yonder) its-(4N.P) child.(plural).(possessive) ̱ cl-(–d,∅,+i).√good.(nomilization) sand-arrive hope me-(1s.O) g̱a-mode.cl- kalneek has du tláa ḵa has du (–d,l,-i).√drift/float yéi has sh ka-∅-l-√neek “Oh, maybe let it foat me to a fne s-a-a-a- éesh has een. thus (plural) reflexive hsf.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,l,-i).√tell a-a-and. These children are telling it to their mothers has du tláa ḵa has du éesh has ee-n Yakʼéiyi lʼéiwt galaháash yá and fathers. their-(3p.P) mother and their-(3p.P) father (empty base).with ̱ ÿa-√kʼéi-yi lʼéiw-t x̱at g̱a-la-√háash yá yáay yáay,» cl-(–d,∅,+i).√good.(nomilization) sand-arrive me-(1s.O) g̱a-mode.cl-(–d,l,- «Yáay tlein áyú yóonáx̱ yan yáay tlein á-yú i).√drift/float this whale whale large (focus).that-(over yonder) Let this whale would foat to a fne sand,” wulihásh. yóo-náx̱ yan ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh yóo áwé a yíkdei .éexʼ. yóo á-wé a yík-dei ∅-∅-√.éexʼ “A huge whale foated to shore over there. that-(over yonder).along/through shore her/him/it.pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√drift.float along (focus)-that its-(3n.P) inside-(open containter).towards her/him/itis what heʼs hollering inside it. (3.O).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√call-out A yíkdei kasiyeidéin at a yík-dei ka-si-√yei-déin Chʼáakw .éexʼi áwé its-(3n.P) inside-(open container).towards hsf.cl-(–d,s,+i).√lively/strange- chʼáakw ∅-∅-√.éexʼ-i á-wé duwa.áx̱ch.» (adverb) Afer hollering a long tme long ago her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√call-out.(relative) (focus).that Strange sounds are coming from inside.” at du-ya√.áx̱-ch something-(4N.O) someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear.(repeatedly) tóo aawanúk yan wulihásh tóo a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√núk yan ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh yú yáay yú yáay. inside her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√feel completion Ách áwé tle aadéi aawa.aat, á-ch á-wé tle aa-déi a-ÿu-ÿa-√.aat her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√drift/float that-(over yonder) whale it-because (focus).that then there.towards someone-(4H.Sm). he felt the whale foat to the beach. ldakát ḵaa jishagóoni een. cl-(–d,∅,+i).√go-(walk, plural) Yá teet du een át x̱ʼawdiyeiḵ. Thatʼs why the people went over there then ldakát ḵaa ji-shagóon-i ee-n yá teet du ee-n á-t x̱ʼa-ÿu-di-√yeiḵ with all their tools. all personʼs-(4H.P) hand.parts/components.(possessed) (empty base).with The lips of the breakers were sliding all this wave her/his-(3s.P) (empty base).with it.arrive mouth.pfv.cl- over it. (+d,∅,+i).√pull-(under/out to sea) Át a.áat áwé sawduwa.áx̱ wé á-t a-∅-√.áat a-ÿu-∅-si-√kóo Yéil. it.arrived someone-(4H.Sm).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√go-(walk, plural) Awsikóo yant áyú wlihásh. her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).√know When they got there they heard the voice of á-wé sa-ÿu-du-ya√.áx̱ wé yéil that Raven. (focus).that voice.someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear that raven He knew he had foated to the beach. yan-t á-yú ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh shore/land.arrive (focus).that-(over yonder) her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(– d,l,+i).√drift/float «Aadoo sgí ḵaa kaanáx̱ kéi aadoo sá-gí ḵaa ká-náx̱ who voice.perhaps-(doubt) personʼs-(4H.P) hsf.along/through á-ch á-wé tle ḵug̱axáash.» it-because (focus).that then “Who could let someone cut above a kéi ḵu-g̱a-∅-∅-√xáash Ách áwé tle tsu a tóodei .éexʼ. person?” up someone-(4H.O).g̱a-mode.s/he/it-(3.S).√cut Thatʼs why he hollered inside it again. tsu a tóo-dei ∅-∅-√.éexʼ again its-(3n.P) inside-(closed container).towards her/him/it-(3.O).cl- Áwé tle a daa wuduwanaaḵ. á-wé tle a daa ÿu-du-ÿa-√naaḵ (–d,∅,–i).√call-out (focus)-that then its-(3n.P) around pfv.someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√stand- Then people stood around it. «Aadóo sgí ḵáa kaanáx̱ kéi (plural) aadóo sá-gí ḵáa ka-náx̱ kéi a-g̱a-∅-∅-√xáash ag̱axáash? who voice.perhaps-(doubt) person on.through up her/him/it-(3.O).g̱a-mode.s/ Tle kakawdudlisʼúw tle tle ka-ka-ÿu-du-dli-√sʼúw tle he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√cut then hsf.hsf.pfv.someone-(4H.S).cl-(+d,l,+i).√chop “Who could let someone cut above a person? wé yáay tlein. wé yáay tlein Aadóo sgí ḵáa kaanáx̱ kéi Then the huge whale was chopped open. that whale big aadóo sá-gí ḵáa ka-náx̱ kéi a-g̱a-∅-∅-√xáash ag̱axáash?» who voice.perhaps-(doubt) person on.through up her/him/it-(3.O).g̱a-mode.s/ Tle, tle du eetée yáx̱ áx̱ tle, tle du eetée yáx̱ á-dáx̱ he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√cut then then her/his-(3s.P) remains/imprint like/correct it.from Who could let someone cut above a person?” ḵukunalgéi, áwé anax̱ kei ḵu-ka-ÿu-na-l-√géi, chʼa yéi x̱ʼa-∅-ÿa-√ḵaa-yí á-wé wdiḵín. areal.hsf.pfv.na-md.cl-(+d,l,–i).√big just thus mouth.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√voice.(relative) (focus).that Chʼa yéi x̱ʼayaḵaayí áwé Then as soon as it was wide enough for á-wé aa-náx̱ kei ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín at yát-xʼ-i-ch á-wé Raven, he few out. (focus).that there.along/through up pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,+i).√fly adátxʼich áwé seiwa.áx̱. its-(4N.P) child.(plural).(possessive).(ergative) (focus).that While he was saying this children heard him. ∅-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ G̱áa! g̱áa her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear “Caw!” caw Át ḵaa loowagooḵ wé áa yéi á-t ḵaa lu-ÿu-ÿa-√gooḵ Tle chʼa kei ndaḵín áwé, chʼa tle chʼa kei na-da-√ḵín á-wé then just up na-md.cl-(+d,∅,-i).√fly (focus).that yateeyi ḵu.oo. it.arrive people-(4H.O).nose/point.pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√run-(plural) kei ndaḵín kindachóon. The people who were living there were wé áa yéi ÿa-√tee-yi ḵu.oo chʼa kei na-da-√ḵín kin-dachóon Then heʼs fying up, fying up and away. just up na-md.cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly up-straight running around. that there thus cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be.(nominalize) people/community Áwé tlei s atʼaawjixéex á-wé tle has a-tʼaawji-√xéex (focus)-that then they someone-(4H.S)-landward.pfv.cl-(+d,sh,+i).√run neildé. neil-dé Then they ran home to tell the news. home.towards

196 197 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Sentence Glossing in Tlingit

Áwé tle ldakát áyú a ḵwáan á-wé tle ldakát á-yú a ḵwáan Áwé tle yéi ḵuyawsiḵaa, «Hó. á-wé tle yéi ḵu-ya-ÿu-∅-si-√ḵaa\ (focus).that then all (focus).there-(over yonder) its-(3n.P) people-of áwé tle yéi s x̱ʼayaḵá: «Chʼa Yáay tlein áyá yeeyjáḵ.» (focus).that then people-(4H.O).vsf.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√say á-wé tle yei has x̱ʼa-∅-ÿa-√ḵá hó. yáay tlein á-yá ∅-ÿu-yee-ÿa-√jáḵ kei gidaḵeen! (focus).that then thus (plural) mouth/opening.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√say Then he said to them, ”Wow! You killed a huge whale.” wow whale big (focus).that her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.yʼall-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√kill Then all of the people of the place said, “Just chʼa kei ga-i-da-√ḵeen fy up! just up CP-ga.you-(2s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly «Tléikʼ, tléikʼ. Hél wutoojaaḵ. tléikʼ, tléikʼ. hél ∅-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√jaaḵ no no not her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√kill Chʼa kei gidaḵeen!» chʼa kei ga-i-da-√ḵeen “No, no. We didnʼt kill it. “Just fy up!” just up CP-ga.you-(2s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly Haa eegáa át woosoo. haa ee-g̱áa át ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√soo ̱ our-(1p.P) (empty base).after thing her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.cl-(– Tle kíndei kei ndaḵín. tle kín-dei kei na-da-√ḵín It was good luck. d,∅,+i).√fortunate/helped-supernaturally Then heʼs fying upwards. then upwards-towards up na-md.cl-(+d,∅,-i).√fly Yáanáx̱ yan wulitidi yáay yá-náx̱ yan ÿu-li-√tit-i yáay á-yá Wáa nanée sáwé, «ḵuyáx̱ áyá.» here.along/through shore pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√afloat-(on waves).(nominalize) wáa nanée sá-wé, ḵu-yáx̱ na-i-da-√ḵeen This is a whale that was carried to shore by whale (focus).this needaḵeen! Ḵuyáx̱ how when voice.that areal.like/correct na-con.you-(2s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly the waves.” needaḵeen!»? ḵu-yáx̱ na-i-da-√ḵeen At some point,”Fly horizontally! Fly areal.like/correct na-con.you-(2s.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly «A tóodei gé at duwa.áx̱ch?» a tóo-dei gé at du-ÿa-√.áx̱-ch? horizontally!” its-(3n.P) inside.towards yes/no? something-(4N.O) someone-(4H.S).cl- “Was anything heard anything inside?” (–d,∅,+i).√hear.(repeatedly) Tle yan tʼéidei wdiḵeen. tle yan tʼéidei ÿu-∅-di-√ḵeen «Aaá, a tóodei x̱á at Then he fies out of sight. then shore/land behind.towards pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,+i).√fly aaa, a tóo-dei x̱á at du-ÿa-√.áx̱-ch duwa.áx̱ch. yes its-(3n.P) inside.towards you-see something-(4N.O) someone-(4H.S). cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear.(repeatedly) yan tʼéit ∅-da-√ḵéen á-wé tle “Yes. Something sure was heard inside. Yan tʼéit daḵéen áwé tle, shore/land behind.arrived s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√fly (focus).that then tle daa— daa da.úsʼkw. tle daa A tóodáx̱ kei át wudiḵín.» a tóo-dáx̱ kei á-t ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín then body its-(3n.P) inside.from up it.arrived pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,+i).√fly When he few out of sight then, then he Something few out of it.” washed his body. daa ∅-∅-da-√.úsʼ-kw body CP-∅.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,–i).√wash.(repeatedly) «Haaw. haaw “Well. well Tláakw yatee daa da.úsʼkw. tláakw ∅-ÿa-√tee daa ∅-∅-da-√.úsʼ-kw fast her/him/it-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be body CP-∅.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,– Haaw. Heʼs quickly washing his body. i).√wash.(repeatedly) haaw Well. well Ldakát yú eex̱, ldakát át áwé ldakát yú eex̱, ldakát át á-wé all that-(over yonder) grease all it (focus).that Yóo áwé duwa.áx̱ch, chʼáakw yóo á-wé ∅-du-ÿa-√.áx̱-ch du daatx̱ a.úsʼkw. du daa-t-x̱ a-∅-∅-∅-.úsʼ-kw along (focus).that her/him/it-(3.O).someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear. tsú yéi at woonei. (repeatedly) All that grease—heʼs washing everything of. her/his-(1s.P) body.arrived.along/repeatedly her/him/it-(3.O).CP-∅.s/he/it- (3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).wash.(repeatedly) It is heard that long ago this also happened. chʼáakw tsú yéi at ÿu-ÿa-√nei long-ago also thus something-(4N.O) pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√happen/do Wáa nanée sáwé wáa nanée sá-wé a-ya-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dlaaḵ Áwé yú aantḵeenéech has á-wé yú aan-t-√ḵeen-ée-ch ayaawadlaaḵ? how when voice.that her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(– (focus).that that-(over yonder) land/village.arrived.√seated-(plural). d,∅,+i).√obtain/succeed aawax̱áa. At some point he was done. (nominalize).(ergative) has ∅-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√x̱áa The people of the village ate it. (plural) her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he/it-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√eat Tle kʼidéin sh wudzinei. tle √kʼéi-déin sh ÿu-∅-dzi-√nei Then he really primped himself. then √good.(adverb) reflexive pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√happen/do Tle ḵútx̱ has shoowaxéex.» tle ḵú-dáx̱ has ∅-shu-ÿu-ÿa-√xéex They all died of.” then too-much (plural) her/him/it-(3.O).end.pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√run Yáaxʼ áwé tle aan yaa uwagút. yá-xʼ á-wé tle aan yaa u-∅-ÿa-√gút here.residing (focus).that then land/village along pfv-(telic).s/he/it-(3.S).√go- Here he went past the village then. Ách áwé yéi ḵuyawaḵaa— á-ch á-wé yéi ḵu-ya-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√ḵaa (walk) it-because (focus).that thus people-(4H.O).vsf.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√say ách uwa.ax̱i ḵu.óoch: Háʼ, ldakat á-wé neil-déi yaa ka-na-du-∅-√jél á-ch ∅-u-∅-ya.√ax̱-i ḵu.óo-ch well all (focus).that home.towards along hsf.na-md.someone-(4H.S). That was why the people—the people who it-because her/him/it-(3.O).pfv-(telic).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear.(nominalize) people/ Háʼ, ldakat áwé neildéi yaa cl-(–d,∅,+i).√carry-(all of something) heard this—said: community-(ergative) kandujél yú yáay daa ideidí yú yáay «Yá yan wulhaashí, yá yan ÿu-ÿa-√haash-í dleey ḵa yú taay, ldakát át. that-(over yonder) whale this shore pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√drift/float.(nominalize) woonaawú. Well, they’re taking home all of the whale, daa it-at-í ÿu-ÿa-√naa-wú all the parts of the whale, the meat and the body part.thing-(possessed) “This carcass that foated ashore was dead. pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√die.(nominalize) blubber, all of it. dleey ḵa yú taay, ldakát át meat and that-(over yonder) fat all thing A tóodáx̱ kei át wudaḵeení. a tóo-dáx̱ kei á-t ÿu-∅-da-√ḵeen-í its-(3n.P) inside-(closed container).from up it.arrived pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl- That thing that few out of it. (+d,∅,–i).√fly-(nominalize)

198 199 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

Hél aadéi x̱duwax̱aayi yé. hél aa-déi ∅-g̱a-du-ÿa-√x̱aa-yi yé not there.towards her/him/it-(3.O).CP-g̱a.someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√eat. No way should people eat any of it. (relative) way Tle anáḵ yóo naligásʼk!» tle aa-náḵ yóo ∅-na-li-√gásʼ-k then it.away-from along her/him/it-(3.O).na-con.cl-(–d,l,+i).√move- Move away from it!” (household) Ách áwé tle tle anáḵ at á-ch á-wé tle it.because (focus).that then wuduwaxoon. tle aa-náḵ at ÿu-du-ya√xoon This was the reason then people prepared then it.away-from something-(4N.O) pfv.someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√prepare- to leave it. (for trip) tle ldakát yóo neil-déi Tle ldakát yóo neildéi then all that-(over yonder) home.towards kawduwajeili yáay daa ideidí ka-ÿu-du-ÿa-√jeil-i yáay hsf.pfv.someone-(4H.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√carry-(all of something).(nominalize) tle anáḵ ḵuwligáasʼ. whale Then all the parts of the whale that were daa it-at-í tle aa-náḵ ḵu-ÿu-li-√gáasʼ brought home were lef behind. body.thing.(possessed) then it.away-from people-(4H.O).pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√move- (household) Áwé Yéil ḵu.aa tle áa yéi á-wé yéil ḵu.aa tle áa yéi ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√tee wootee. (focus)-that raven though then there thus her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be But then Raven stayed there.

Yú yáay tlein a shóoxʼ yéi yú yáay tlein a shú-xʼ yéi ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√tee wootee. (focus)-that-(over yonder) whale big its-(3n.P) end/tip.reside thus her/him/ it-(3.O).pfv.cl-(–d,∅,+i).√be He was in the remains of the huge whale. Tle ldakát á shunaxéex áwé tle ldakát á shu-na-∅-√xéex á-wé then all (focus) end.na-con.cl-(–d,∅,–i).√run (focus).that tsá aax̱ wudiḵeen. tsá aa-dáx̱ ÿu-∅-di-√ḵeen Only when it was fnally all gone did he fy only-then there.from pfv.s/he/it-(3.S).cl-(+d,∅,+i).√fly away.

Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yéi á-wé yan ∅-shu-ÿu-ji-√x̱ín yá-t-aa yáatʼaa. thus (focus).that completion her/him/it.end.pfv.cl-(+d,sh,+i).√end/close this. arrived.one Thatʼs how this one ends.

200 14 Raven & Whale Glossary

Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yáatʼaa. — Yakwx̱waan Tláa

Thatʼs how this one ends. — Katherine Mills, Tʼaḵdeintaan1

Introduction This glossary lists the words used in the Raven & Whale story told by Katherine Mills. Glossaries like this have been developed by Richard & Nora Dauenhauer to give a student a view of the words used within a story. Keep in mind that definitions change dramatically in context, and that the act of translation is highly individual and subject to change over time as the story is continually seen in different ways and by different people. This is the beauty of oratory: it is an act that lasts forever. Parts of speech are included in this glossary, and certain compound nouns and particles are listed here because their meaning changes in combination. Verbs are listed by the root, and then are listed by the theme of the verbs within that root that appear in the story. From there, examples of the verb are listed in the order that they appear for that particular verb. Much of the information here is gathered from the works of Crippen & Eggleston. When we examine stories in this context, we realize the wealth that has been left to us from our speakers. A fairly short recording gives us something we can study for most of our lives. Gunalchéesh Yakwx̱waan Tláa! 1 Mills, Katherine. “Raven and Whale.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript).

201 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary

Glossary • aa- | one, some [object] → partitive object ách ² (particle) | with it; using it | á-ch → it.with- tme; reason; fact; there: that place (part.O) (intstrumental) (object pronoun) | one [object]; some • sh ⁓ ∅- | -self → reflexive object (rflx.O) aa- (subject pronoun) | s/he [subject]; he/she [object] | parttve object (part.O) • in a verb ∅- ¹ • woosh, wooch | each other, together [object] → át ¹ (independent pronoun) | something | 4th [subject] | third person subject (3.S) • in a phrase, the object is impacted by the verb, reciprocal object (recip.O) person nonhuman independent (4n.i) • verb phrase, the subject is the agent in the independent pronouns are not linked to and is not the subject • the standard in Tlingit verb • other subject pronouns are listed a ¹ (possessive pronoun) | its | third person anything grammatcally, and are most ofen is to write all single leter object pronouns below: nonhuman possessive (3N.P) • used to show used in phrases like «yáadu x̱át» (here i am) as part of the verb prefx and all pronouns • x̱a- | i [subject] → first person singular subject a relatonship between things, including and «uháan áyá» (it is us) • used to indicate more than one leter as part of the preverb, (1s.S) ownership («haa aaní» – “our land”), kinship that an unspecifed thing is the pronoun. except for «ḵu-» • open object pronouns • tu- | we [subject] → first person plural subject term originaton («du éesh» – “her/his Like the 4th person human pronoun this one (ending in a vowel) will cause contracton in (1p.S) father”), the link to a relatonal base («ax̱ is ofen used as a placeholder in nouns and the verb prefx • the default form is «∅ -» but • i- | you [subject] → second person singular x̱áni» – “next to me”), and conjugaton of verbs. It alters a lot of words when used in will change to «a-» if the subject is also third subject (2s.S) certain verbs («du toowú sigóo» – “s/he is a variety of forms. Keep an eye out for it as person [∅-] and there is no ergatve marker • yi- | you all [subject] → second person plural happy”) you build vocabulary, and you will see it is in the verb phrase subject (2p.S) one of the most powerful words in Tlingit. (a)sgí (particle) | second-hand informaton √.aa ³ (verb root) | grow; pour forth (of water) | • ∅- | s/he [subject] → third person subject For example: at.óow (sacred clan-owned about something previously unclear (“I hear, classifcaton: plant, water (3.S) item), at daná (s/he is drinking alcohol), and I guess”) • has + ∅- | they [subject] → third person Daḵlʼaweidí [daḵ-lʼéiw-atátdi] (Thing of the ka-(na)-∅-√.aa ³ (act verb – impersonal) pluralizer (3pl) at ¹ (object pronoun) | something [object] | 4th Inland Sand Bar – name of an Eagle-Killer ⑴ | grow (of plant) | for a plant to grow | • du- | someone [subject] → 4th person human person nonhuman object (4n.O) • in a verb Whale Clan) classifcaton: plant, water subject (4h.S) phrase, the object is impacted by the verb, • du yíkt kawu.aayí áwé (determiner, particle) | that there is | this • woosh, wooch | each other, together [subject] and is not the subject • the standard in Tlingit du + yík-t + ka-ÿu-∅.aa-yi partcle is used ofen in Tlingit oratory → reciprocal subject (recip.S) is to write all single leter object pronouns as it was pouring inside her/him and conversaton to signal a pause or that part of the verb prefx and all pronouns more [dependent clause] ∅- ⁓ a- (object pronoun) | her/him [object]; the speaker intends to speak or contnue than one leter as part of the preverb, except him/her [object] | third person object (3.O) | á-wé → [focus-particle].that • aa koo.áaych • speaking • in a verb phrase, the object is impacted for «ḵu-» open object pronouns (ending in aa + ka-ÿu-∅-√.áa-ch by the verb, and is not the subject • the a vowel) will cause contracton in the verb áwu (particle) | at: located at it | á-wu → it was always pouring in it prefx • used to indicate that an unspecifed standard in Tlingit is to write all single leter it.located-at • neil koo.áaych thing is the pronoun, and is best translated object pronouns as part of the verb prefx neil + ka-ÿu-∅-√.áa-ch as “something” • as an object can signal áyá (particle, determiner) | this right here is | and all pronouns more than one leter as it was always pouring inside (building) «at x̱waa.áx̱» á-yá → [focus-particle].this-right-here part of the preverb, except for «ḵu-» • open the unidentfed as in (i hear (particle) | | object pronouns (ending in a vowel) will something), or can create special meanings áyú (particle, determiner) | that way over there aaa, aáa, áaa, aaá yes it is «adaná» cause contracton in the verb prefx • the as an object verbs, such as: (s/he is is | á-yá → [focus-particle].that-way-over-here unclear whether the form used is dialect or «∅-» drinking it) and «at daná» (s/he is drinking personal preference; some forms may be default form is but will change to aa ¹ (independent pronoun) | one of; some of | [∅-] alcohol) infuenced by the English “uh-huh” «a-» if the subject is also third person parttve independent (part.i) • independent and there is no ergatve marker in the verb atyátxʼi (compound noun) variants: adátxʼi, pronouns are not linked to anything aadóo sá, aa sá (question particle) | who | • phrase other object pronouns are listed atyétxʼi (T), adétxʼi (T), edétxʼi (C) | children grammatcally, and are most ofen used when asking who is the subject of a verb,

below | “somethingʼs children” | this could be in phrases like «yáadu x̱át» (here i am) and the ergatve «-ch» ofen ataches to create x̱at | → first person singular • me [object] translated as “somethingʼs children” but «uháan áyá» (it is us) • used to refer to parts «aadóoch» • determiners may be added to object (1s.O) always refers to human children. there has of a group or set, and can cover a wide range «sá» as in «aadóo sáyá» (who is this?), «aadóo haa | → first person plural object • us [object] been debate about whether one «atyátxʼi» of meanings. In some cases, it can mean sáwé?» (who is that?) • queston partcles (1p.O) is human and «adátxʼi» is nonhuman but the some general object, as in aadóo aayí sáyá? combine most commonly to form questons, i- | → second person singular • you [object] consensus is that both were used for human (whose thing is this?). In other cases, it can but can also be used to create statements object (2s.O) children only | at+yát-xʼ-i → [somethingʼs- refer to a separated groups of things, as in like «jánwu alʼóon, sʼaax̱, daa sáyá át wu.aadí» yee | → second person plural • you all [object] (4n.P)+child.pos] daaḵw.aa sá? (which one of a group?). It (he hunts mountain goats, marmots, object (2p.O) ofen means the one or ones that perform a whatever went around there) (David ∅- ⁓ a- | → third person object (3.O) atx̱á (verbal noun) | food; meal | “thing eaten” • her/him verb, and is used to create words in Tlingit. Kadashan 6) has + ∅- ⁓ a- | → third person | át-√x̱á → thing.√eat • them [object] There are many of these, and you will see pluralizer (3pl) √.aak ² (verb root) | fre: build fre á ¹ (particle) | [focus partcle] | this partcle puts more as you study. Here are some examples: ash | → third person • this gal/guy [object] focus on the previous word or phrase. • it is lítaa (knife; literally “the one that slides”), shóo-t⁓ + a-(∅)-S-d+∅-√.aak ² (event proximal object (3prx.O) ofen heard when giving someone a name, xútʼaa̱ (adze; literally “the one that chips out verb – subject intransitve) | fre: build a ḵaa ⁓ ḵu- | → 4th person • someone [object] and the name is said and repeated while wood”), and ḵutlʼídaa (shovel; literally “the fre | for S to build a fre (using wood) | human object (4h.O) “killing money;” the name is said followed one that throws away a space”) classifcaton: wood, fre • at | something [object] → 4th person immediately by «á!» • áxʼ shóot awdi.ák nonhuman object (4n.O) áa ² (noun) | it; place: that place; tme: that á-xʼ + shóo-t + a-ÿu-∅-di-√.ák

202 203 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary

s/he built a fre there ∅-sa-ÿu-du-ÿa√.áx̱ built), and «adulʼeix̱ ax̱áa» (dance paddle) • á-t + ḵaa + lu-ÿu-ÿa-√gooḵ her/his voice was heard will make all ∅ classifers –d and all non-∅ people were running around there (noun) | land; town | town; village; aan ¹ classifers (s,l,sh) +d regardless of verb theme setlement; inhabited or owned land (suffix) | ergatve marker | marks the (verb root) | walk (singular); go (by -ch ² or mode √goot ¹ subject of a transitve verb walking, singular) | classifcaton: singular (verbal noun, compound noun) | aantḵeení √dlaaḵ (verb root) | verb root: obtain; win subject • plural form: √.aat ¹ townspeople; crowd or large group of people chʼa (particle) | very: the very; just | this | “seated on the land” • aan-t+√ḵee-n-i → partcle rarely appears on its own, but O-ya-(na)-S-∅-dlaaḵ (event verb – {∅ preverb} + (∅)-S-∅-√goot ¹ (moton [land-(inhabited).at-(arrived)+√seated/situated. instead ofen interacts with other partcles transitve) | for S to win, gain, get, obtain, verb – subject intransitve) | for (singular) (stem-var).(relational)] acquire O; for S to succeed, accomplish O; S to arrive at N, go to N (by walking or as chʼa aan ¹ (particle) | although; even though; for S to defeat, beat O general term) √.aat ¹ (verb root) | walk (plural); go (by however; nonetheless; yet • aa yakḵwadláaḵ • aan yaa uwagút walking, plural) | classifcaton: plural subject (particle) | however; any way | aa + ya-ga-ÿu-ga-x̱a-ÿa-√dlaaḵ aan + yaa + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√gút • singular form: √goot ¹ chʼa wáa sá ̱ chʼa + wáa + sá → just.how.say i will obtain some of it s/he went to town {na preverb} + (na)-S-∅-√.aat ¹ (moton • ayaawadlaaḵ N-t (na)-S-∅-√goot ¹ (moton verb – verb – subject intransitve) | walk (plural); chʼáakw, chʼákw (adverb) ⑴ | long ago; back a-ya-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dlaaḵ subject intransitve) | for (singular) S to go (plural, by walking or generally) | for then; in the old days || ⑵ | tme: for a long s/he obtained her/him/it walk, go (by walking or as general term) (plural) S to walk, go (by walking or as a tme (noun) | fesh || | meat around at N general term) (particle) | same; even; stll | this dleey ⑴ ⑵ chʼu, chʼoo • át woogoot • aadéi aawa.aat partcle rarely appears on its own, but √gáasʼ (verb root) | migrate (move house post) á-t + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot aa-déi + a-ÿu-ÿa-√.aat instead ofen interacts with other partcles s/he was walking around people went there N-náḵ O-(na)-l-√gáas’ (moton verb – –daa ² (body part) | body: –ʼs body; body: object intransitve) | for O to migrate • át a.áat gáa (particle) | raven caw | sound ofen used around –ʼs body (with future plans unspecifed) and leave ̱ á-t + a-∅-√.áat in oratory N behind people walked around there –daa ideidí ² (body part) | body parts • anáḵ yóo naligásʼk! -g̱aa (relational suffix) | afer: going afer; aatlein (adjective) | much; lots of | prenomial -dáx̱ ⁓ -tx̱ ⁓ -x̱ (relational suffix) | from; out aa-náḵ + yóo + ∅-na-li-√gásʼ-k waitng for; distributed: in the area of; adjectve: appears immediately before the of; since (that tme) | contracton from -dáx ̱ move away from it! about the tme of | closed monosyllable noun that it afects to -tx ̱ is optonal when the sufx ataches • anáḵ ḵuwligáasʼ Tlingit sufxes are high tone, and open to an open noun • closed monosyllable monosyllable sufxes are opposite of the √.aax̱ ¹ (verb root) | hear aa-náḵ + ḵu-ÿu-li-√gáasʼ Tlingit sufxes are high tone, and open the people moved away from it tone of the preceding vowel (event verb – monosyllable sufxes are opposite of the O-(∅)-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ háʼ (interjection) | mild surprise transitve) | for S to hear O tone of the preceding vowel gé (particle) | queston marker | marks a yes or no queston √haash (verb root) | foat; drif • uwa.ax̱i ḵu.óo -de (relational suffix) | to; toward; untl; u-ÿa-√.ax̱-i + ḵu.óo in the manner of | closed monosyllable √geet (verb root) | fall N-t O-(na)-l-haash (moton verb – object the people who had heard it Tlingit sufxes are high tone, and open N-dé O-(na)-d+s-√geet (moton verb – intransitve) | for O to foat, drif around O-(ga)-S-∅-√.áx̱ch˟ ¹ (state verb – monosyllable sufxes are opposite of the object intransitve) | for O (live creature) at N transitve) | for S to be able to hear O tone of the preceding vowel to fall into N • át wulihaash á-t ∅-ÿu-li-√haash • uwa.ax̱i ḵu.óo du (possessive pronoun) | hers/his; his/hers • a yíkdei wdzigeet her/him foated around there at duwa.áx̱ch | third person singular possessive (3s.P) • a + yík-dei + ∅-ÿu-dzi-√geet u-ÿa-√.ax̱-i + ḵu.óo + used to show a relatonship between things, s/he fell inside of it • yakʼéiyi lʼéiwt x̱at g̱alaháash at + du-ÿa-.áx̱-ch including ownership («haa aaní» – “our x̱at + g̱a-la-háash √gei (verb root) | big, large the people who had heard it land”), kinship term originaton («du éesh» – let me foat to a fne sand • yóo áwé duwa.áx̱ch “her/his father”), the link to a relatonal base (yéi) ka-u-(na)-l-√gei (state verb – • yan wulihásh yóo + áwé + ∅-du-ÿa√.áx̱-ch («ax̱ x̱áni» – “next to me”), and conjugaton impersonal) | for a thing (narrow or stck- yan + ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh along it someone heard of certain verbs («du toowú sigóo» – “s/he is like object) to be (so) big her/him fnished drifing O-sa-(ga)-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (event verb – happy”) • áx̱ ḵukunalgéi • yánt áyú wlihásh á-x̱ + ḵu-ka-u-na-li-√géi yán-t + á-yú ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh transitve) | for S to hear O (voice, esp. du- (subject pronoun) | someone [subject] | the narrow space along it was big to the shore, over yonder, her/him had singing) 4th person human subject (4h.S) • in a verb drifed • at yátxʼich áwé seiwa.áx̱ phrase, the subject is the agent in the verb • √gooḵ (verb root) | run (plural) | classifcaton: at + yát-xʼ-i-ch + á-wé + used to indicate an unspecifed person is the plural subject • singular form: √xeex ¹ • yan wulhaashí ∅-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ pronoun, and best translated as “someone” yan + ÿu-l-√haash-i N-t~ O-lu-(na)-∅-√gooḵ (moton verb – the children heard a voice • as a subject in verbs, it translates to “the the thing that fnished drifing object intransitve) | for (plural) O to run verb occurs,” as in «yoo duwasáakw» (it [nominalized] • sawduwa.áx̱ around at N at + yát-xʼ-i-ch + á-wé + is called), «hít wududliyéx̱» (a house was (particle) | well; i see • át ḵaa loowagooḵ haaw

204 205 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary has du ⁓ s du (possessive pronoun) | their | √.éexʼ ² (verb root) | cook • kei aklakélʼch | 4th person human object (4h.O) • in a verb third person plural possessive (3p.P) • used kei + a-ka-∅-la-√kélʼ-ch phrase, the object is impacted by the verb, O-(na)-S-∅-√.éexʼ ² (event verb – to show a relatonship between things, s/he chases them up (repeatedly) and is not the subject • the standard in Tlingit transitve) | for S to call out to, shout to, including ownership («haa aaní» – “our is to write all single leter object pronouns as holler at O kindachóon (relational base) | straight up | land”), kinship term originaton («du éesh» – part of the verb prefx and all pronouns more kin-dachóon → up.straight-forward “her/his father”), the link to a relatonal base • éexʼ than one leter as part of the preverb, except («ax̱ x̱áni» – “next to me”), and conjugaton ∅.éexʼ √koo (verb root) | know; learn for «ḵu-» • open object pronouns (ending of certain verbs («du toowú sigóo» – “s/he is s/he is hollering, shoutng in a vowel) will cause contracton in the O-(∅)-S-s-√koo (event verb – transitve) happy”) • éexʼi verb prefx • used to indicate an unspecifed | for S to know, be acquainted with, make ∅.éexʼ-i person is the pronoun, and best translated known O (esp. people, facts); for S to learn héen (noun) ⑴ | water || ⑵ | river; stream; s/he is hollering, shoutng [relatve as “people” • as an object, it translates O (esp. facts) creek clause] as “the verb happens to people” as in • awsikóo «ḵusix̱án» (love of people) and «ḵusax̱waa. hél (particle) variants: tléil, tlél, lél, téil, tíl, l | not √jaaḵ (verb root) | kill a-ÿu-∅-si-√kóo áx̱» (i heard a person) • learners need to spot hó! (particle) | wow! O-(∅)-S-∅-√jaaḵ (event verb – transitve) s/he knows her/him/it the diference between the contracted form | for S to kill O –ee- (postpositional pronoun) | also known (kw)shé ~ kushéi (particle) | probably | the «ḵu-» and the homonym verb prefx for areal, as the “empty base,” this postpositonal • yeeyjáḵ most common ways to express doubt in which is identcal ∅-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√jáḵ pronoun appears afer a possessive pronouns Tlingit are listed below: ḵáa (independent pronoun) | someone and before a directonal/relatonal sufx. yʼall killed her/him/it particles | 4th person human independent (4h.i) Tlingit does not allow directonal/relatonal • hél wutoojaaḵ • kwshé | probably (hopeful, likely) • independent pronouns are not linked to sufxes on pronouns, so the empty base hél + ∅-ÿu-tu-∅-√jaaḵ anything grammatcally, and are most ofen • gíwé, géwé, gíyú | thatʼs possible exists for that. The following examples used we did not kill her/him/it used in phrases like «yáadu x̱át» (here i am) • shákdéi | perhaps • du een and «uháan áyá» (it is us) • used to indicate √jeil (verb root) | carry all of something; carry • gwál | maybe (doubtul) du + ee-n home in multple trips | classifcaton: all of an unspecifed person is the pronoun. It with her/him one type of thing verb functons as a placeholder in non-verbal • haa eegáa • yéi x̱waajée | i think so; i suspect it to be; pronouns, such as «ḵaa tláa» (a personʼs ̱ N-dé at ka-(na)-S-∅-√jeil (moton verb haa + ee-gáa i guess mother). It can mean any one of these ̱ – subject intransitve) | for S to carry, take for us; afer us things: a person, someone, or people. As a things to N (esp. all of one type of thing to √kʼéetʼ (verb root) | move small parts in mass subject in verbs, it alters the meaning of the √.ee (verb root) | cook one place, making several trips O-(∅)-S-s-√kʼéetʼ (act verb – transitve) | verb to plainly state that the verb occurs. O-(∅)-S-s-√.ee (act verb – transitve) | for • neildéi yaa kandujél for S to eat up O (fnish one whole thing) For example: «yoo duwasáakw» (it is called), neil-déi + yaa + ka-na-du-∅-√jél hít «wududliyéx̱» (a house was built), and S to cook O • ooskʼítch all of it (one type of thing) is being «adulʼeix̱ ax̱áa» (dance paddle) • yax̱ ayagoos.éech ÿu-∅-s-√kʼítʼ-ch taken home yáx̱ + a-ya-ga-u-∅-sa-√.ée-ch s/he eats it all up (every tme) √ḵaa (verb root) | say; tell s/he cooked all of it (every tme) • kawduwajeili yáay daa ideidí ka-ÿu-du-ÿa-√jeil-i + yáay + daa + it-at-í √kʼéi (verb root) | good, fne (yéi) (x̱ʼa)-ya-(na)-S-∅-√ḵaa (act • aadéi at gas.ee yé the parts of the whale people were verb – subject intransitve) | for S to aa-dé + at + ga-sa-√.ee + yé O-(ga)-∅-√kʼéi (state verb – object carrying say (a certain thing); for S to confess, the way s/he cooks something intransitve) | for O to be good, fne, prety acknowledge, declare (a certain thing) (compount noun) | tool(s) | “hand • kéi nakʼéin een (relational base) variants: tin, tín, teen, téen, jishagóon [the imperfectve forms and prohibitve kéi + ∅-na-∅-√kʼéi-n -n | (along) with; by means of; as soon as | components” | ji-shagóon → hand. forms require the thematc prefx xʼa-̱ her/him/it is getng beter it is unclear whether the form of this word components/origin which refers to the mouth. Also note that • Yak’éiyi l’éiwt g̱alaháash yá yáay,» yóo áwé some speakers use yóo instead of yéi, as is determined by grammatcal rules, dialect –ká (relational base) | on –; horizontal: –ʼs a yíkdei éex’ in: yóo yaawaḵaa – s/he said that] preference, or personal preference horizontal surface; on top of –; in – (of. ÿa-√kʼéi-yi lʼéiw-t x̱at g̱a-la-√háash yá yáay • yéi x̱ʼayaḵaayí eex̱ (noun) variants: eix̱ | oil; grease shallow container) | commonly writen as yóo á-wé a yík-dei ∅-∅-√.éexʼ “hsf” in Tlingit glossing yéi + x̱ʼa-∅-ÿa-√ḵaa-yí –eetí (relational base) | in place of –; place I wish this whale would foat to a fne s/he said (a certain thing) [relatve where – was; imprint: –ʼs imprint; afermath: kasiyeidéin (adjective) | strangely | ka-si-√yei- sand," is what he’s hollering inside it. clause] déin → strange-(adverb) –ʼs afermath kʼidéin (adverb) | fnely, well; carefully | √kʼéi- • yéi s x̱ʼayaḵá yéi + has + x̱ʼa-∅-ÿa-√ḵá –éesh (kinship term) | father: –ʼs father | in √kéilʼ (verb root) | chase | classifcaton: plural dein → fine/well-(adverb) objects they say (a certain thing) Tlingit kinship, the term for a father is used (body part) | –ʼs tailbone, botom –kʼóolʼ ⑴ • yéi ḵuyawaḵaa for the birth father and also maleʼs of the N-de~ O-(∅)-l-√keilʼ (moton verb – of –ʼs spine || | –ʼs back end; –ʼs stern (of ⑵ yéi + ḵu-ya-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√ḵaa fatherʼs clan who are in the same generaton object intransitve) | for S to chase O boat) s/he said (a certain thing) to people as the father as an expression of personal (plural) toward N closeness. ḵaa ⁓ ḵu- (object pronoun) | someone [object] (yoo) O-ya-(na)-S-s-√ḵaa (event verb –

206 207 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary

transitve) | for S to tell, say (that) to O; kei + á-t + ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín x̱ʼa-(∅)-S-d+s-√naaḵ ² (event verb – √.óosʼ (verb root) | wash for S to ask O to do (that) s/he few up there subject intransitve) | for S to quit (esp. O-(na)-S-∅-√.óosʼ (act verb – transitve) | eatng) • yéi ḵuyawsiḵaa • a tóodáx̱ kei át wudaḵeení for S to wash O yéi + ḵu-∅-ya-ÿu-∅-si-√ḵaa a + tóodáx̱ + kei + át + ÿu-da-√ḵeen-í • x̱ʼawdzinák • daa da.úsʼkw s/he said (specifcally) to people that thing that few out of it x̱ʼa-ÿu-dzi-√náḵ daa + ∅-da-√.úsʼ-kw [nominalized] s/he quit eatng √ḵeen (verb root) | fy (singular or people in s/he washes her/his own body a plane) | classifcaton: singular subject • N-dáx̱ (na)-S-∅-ḵeen (moton verb – -náx̱ 1 (relational suffix) | through; along; via; • du daatx̱ a.úsʼkw plural form: √yeech subject intransitve) | for (singular) S (bird, including the tme of | closed monosyllable du + daa-t-x̱ a-∅-∅-√.úsʼ-kw or persons in a plane) to fy away from N daak (∅)-S-d+∅-√ḵeen (moton verb – Tlingit sufxes are high tone, and open s/he washes all over her/his own body subject intransitve) | for (singular) S (bird, • aax̱ wudiḵeen monosyllable sufxes are opposite of the sá (particle) | say! | Lingít x̱ʼéináx̱ sá! → or persons in a plane) to fy out to sea or aa-dáx̱ + ÿu-∅-di-√ḵeen tone of the preceding vowel ⑴ say it in Tlingit! || (question particle) into the open s/he few away from it ⑵ √neek (verb root) | tell; inform; narrate | [interrogatve – marks WH-questons in • áa daak ḵukḵwadaḵeen ḵu.aa ~ ḵwa (particle) | however | appears sh ka-(na)-S-d+l-neek (event verb – combinaton with other partcles (see below)] aa + daak + ḵu-ga-ÿu-ga-x̱a-da-√ḵeen as «a ḵu.aa» when beginning a sentence and ̱ subject intransitve) | for S to preach, | queston partcles combine most commonly let it be that i would fy out to sea to «ḵwa» when speaking quickly narrate, tell a story to form questons, but can also be used to the area around it create statements like «jánwu alʼóon, sʼaax̱, ḵut (adverb) | astray, getng lost • has sh kalneek • áa daak wudiḵín daa sáyá át wu.aadí» (he hunts mountain has + sh + ka-∅-l-√neek áa + daak + ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín ḵúnáx̱ (adverb) | very | ḵu-náx̱ → areal.through goats, marmots, whatever went around they told them s/he few out to sea to it ḵu.oo (noun) | people; community | from the there) (David Kadashan) N-de~ (na)-S-d+ ∅-√ḵeen (moton verb verb ḵu-(na)-S-∅-√.oo~ (act verb – subject √nei ~ √nee ² (verb root) | do; work on • daa(t) sá | what • daaḵw.aa sá | which one (of a set) – subject intransitve) | for (singular) S intransitive) – for S to live, live at, dwell (yéi) O-(na)-S-s-√nei ² (event verb – • wáa sá | how (bird, or persons in a plane) to fy to N permanently transitve) | for S to do (that) to O; for S to • aadóo sá, áa sá | who • du yíkdei kḵwadaḵéen fx, cause (that) to happen to O –ḵwáan (relational noun) | person or people • goo sá | where du + yík-dei + ga-ÿu-ga-x̱a-da-√ḵéen ̱ of – • ag̱asnei • xʼoon sá | how much/many i will fy inside her/him (while her/his a-g̱a-∅-sa-√nei • gwátgeen sá, gútgeen sá (Y) | when (in mouth is open) (quantifier) | all; every ldakát let her/him do that to O; let her/him fx future) O; et her/him cause (that) to happen • anax̱ kei wdiḵín ldakát át (particle) | everything | chʼa + ldakát • gwátk sá, gútk sá (Y) | when (in the past) to O aa-náx̱ + kei + ÿu-∅-di-√ḵín + át → all + thing-(4n.i) • daat yís sá | for what (beneft) s/he few up through it yan~ sh (∅)-S-d+s-√nei ² (event verb – • daat g̱áa sá | for what (purpose) • kei ndaḵín lʼéiw (noun) | sand; gravel subject intransitve) | for S to dress up; for • wáanáx̱ sá | why kei + na-∅-da-√ḵín √naa (verb root) | die S to fancy up s/he is fying up √saa ² (verb root) | name; call out (event verb – object • sh wudzinei • kíndei kei ndaḵín O-(na)-∅-√naa O-(na)-S-∅-sáakw ² (state verb – intransitve) | for O (human or animal) sh + ÿu-∅-dzi-√nei kín-dei + kei + na-∅-da-√ḵín transitve) | for S to call O by a certain to die s/he dressed herself/himself fancy; s/he he is fying straight up primped herself/himself name • woonaa • ḵuyáx̱ needaḵeen • yóo duwasáakw ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√naa (yéi) at (na)-∅-√nei ² (event verb – ḵu-yáx̱ na-i-da-√ḵeen yóo + ∅-du-ÿa-√sáa-kw her/him/it died impersonal) | for something to happen fy horizontally! [command] her/him/it is called • woonaawú • yéi at woonei → • yan tʼéidei wdiḵeen ÿu-ÿa-√naa-wu yéi + at + ÿu-∅-√nei √satk (verb root) | fast, quick yan + tʼéi-dei + wu∅-di-√ḵeen dead thing [nominalized] thatʼs what happened s/he few behind the land O-(ga)-∅-√sátk (state verb – object intransitve) | for O to be fast (at doing • yan tʼéit daḵéen √naaḵ ¹ (verb root) | stand (plural); rise (plural) neil ¹ (noun) | home things) yan + tʼéi-t + ∅-da-√ḵéen | classifcaton: singular subject • plural form: neil ² (independent base) | inside, into the • yasátk he fies behind the land √nook ² house (from outside) ∅-ya-√sátk (ga)-S-d+∅-√naaḵ ¹ (event verb – subject kei (ga)-S-d+∅-√ḵeen (moton verb √nook ³ (verb root) | feel her/him/it is fast – subject intransitve) | for (singular) S intransitve) | for (plural) S to stand up, (bird, or persons in a plane) to start fying rise tóo O-(∅)-S-∅-√nook ³ (state verb – √s00 (verb root) | lucky; blessed (by spirits) upward • a daa wuduwanaaḵ transitve) | for S to feel, touch O (esp. N-gáa (?)-∅-√soo (state verb – with thoughts or emotons) ̱ • kei gidaḵeen! a + daa + ÿu-du-ÿa-√naaḵ impersonal) | for N to be be fortunate, kei ga-i-da-√ḵeen someone stood around it • tóo aawanúk lucky, be helped supernaturally, favored you start fying up! [command] tóo + a-ÿu-∅-ya-núk by spirits √naaḵ ² (verb root) | quit; stop s/he felt it (in thoughts or emoton) • kei át wudiḵín • haa eeg̱áa át woosoo

208 209 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary

haa + ee-g̱áa + át + ÿu-∅-√soo • áa yéi wootee | for S to cook O (meat by open fame or used to create statements like «jánwu alʼóon, it was our good fortune áa + yéi + ∅-ÿu-∅-√tee near live coals) sʼaax̱, daa sáyá át wu.aadí» (he hunts mountain her/him was there goats, marmots, whatever went around √soos ¹ (verb root) | drop; let fall • áxʼ áwé agaltʼóosʼ • a shóoxʼ yéi wootee á-xʼ + á-wé + a-ga-∅-la-√tʼóosʼ there) (David Kadashan 6) | wáa sá iyatee? → neil-x̱ O-ka-(∅)-S-l-√soos (moton verb – a + shu-xʼ + yéi + ∅-ÿu-∅-√tee s/he toasts them on open fame there how are you? • wáa sá haa toowú yakʼéi → how transitve) | for S to let O fall, drop inside her/him was at the end of it very good we feel (kinship term) | mother: –ʼs mother | in • neilx̱ kalasóosji –tláa (verb root) | to see Tlingit kinship, this term is also ofen used wáa nanée sáwé (particle) | at what point neil-x̱ + ka-∅-la-sóos-ch-i √teen ² to refer to biological sisters of a mother or was it? | ofen used in oratory as a sort the things that were dropped in the O-(ga)-S-s-√teen (event verb – transitve) | ̱ a same moiety female who steps in as a of riddle to imply that the acton being home (nominalized) for S to see, behold O (usually specifc) mother described went for a long duraton, or • awsiteen √sʼoow (verb root) | chop • has du tláa hás perhaps suddenly changed a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen their mothers O-ka-(na)-S-∅-√sʼóow (act verb – s/he sees/saw her/him/it wé (determiner) | there; tme: can be used to transitve) | for S to chop up O (esp. in tláakw (adverb) | fast refer generally to past, present, or future food preparaton) teen (relational base) variants: téen, tin, tín, een, | distant from the speaker, but in the same -n | (along) with; by means of; as soon as | • kakawdudlisʼúw tle, tlei (particle) | then; tme: at that tme | general space • common sufx combinatons it is unclear whether the form of this word ∅-ka-ka-ÿu-du-dli-√sʼúw used before a verb to create “when {verb}” are listed below. take note of the ways that is determined by grammatcal rules, dialect her/him/it was chopped into pieces or “while {verb}” • will be used ofen to te sufxes afect tone and vowel length: preference, or personal preference a series of actons together • ofen appears • wéidáx̱ / wéitx̱ [wé+-dáx̱] | from there √sháat (verb root) | grab; capture; catch with the partcle «chʼu» and becomes “just teet (noun) | wave; swell • wéide [wé+-dé] | towards there yéi tu-(?)-S-da-√sháat (event verb – then” • use varies from speaker to speaker, • wéináx̱ [wé+-náx̱] | through there transitve) | for S to make up oneʼs mind; √teet (verb root) | swell; drif; waves on water and it can appear multple tmes in one • wéit [wé+-t] | arriving there; at that place sentence, ofen to show the immediacy of a for a thought to grab the mind of S {∅ preverb} O-(∅)-l-√teet (event verb – there string of actons • wéidu [wé+-t+-wu] | there; located at that • yéi tuwdisháat transitve) | for O to be afoat, be carried place right there yéi + tu-ÿu-∅-di-sháat by waves, drif tléil (particle) variants: tlél, hél lél, téil, tíl, l | not • wéixʼ [wé+-xʼ] | residing there; at this place s/he made up her/his/its own mind • wulitidi yáay tléikʼ (particle) variants: tláykʼ | no there ÿu-li-√tit-i + yáay shkʼé (interjection) | letʼs see; hmmm ... • wéix̱ [wé+-x̱] | moving along there; whale that was carried by waves tlein (adjective) | large; big | postnomial repeatedly there -t (relational suffix) | at: arriving at; at: adjectve: appears immediately afer the ⑴ –tú (relational base) | inside – (ofen a closed moving about at; at a point || | around noun that it afects -wu ⁓ -u (relational suffix) | at: is/are at | used ⑵ container) | common sufx combinatons a point in verbless phrases are listed below. take note of the ways that tléixʼ (number) | one taay (noun) | fat; blubber sufxes afect tone and vowel length: √xaash (verb root) | saw; cut • –tóogaa [tú+-gáa] | pleasing; liked; wanted tsá (particle) | then: only then | ofen appears (body part) | heart: –ʼs heart ̱ ̱ O-(na)-S-∅-√xaash (act verb – transitve) –téix̱ʼ • –toodáx̱ / –tootx̱ [tú+-dáx̱] | from the inside between two verb phrases where the frst happens just afer the second, where the | for S to cut O with knife; for S to saw O √teeʰ ¹ (verb root) | be: to be of – • –tóode [tú+-dé] | towards the inside of – second verb required the completon of the • aax̱ aawaxaash (state verb – (yéi) + O-(na)-∅-√teeʰ ¹ • –tóonáx̱ [tú+-náx̱] | through the inside of – frst aa-dáx̱ a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√xaash object intransitve) | be: to be (that way) | • –tóot [tú+-t] | arriving at the inside of –; at s/he cut it out of it for O to be (that way) tsu (particle) | again; more: some more | the inside of – appears before a verb to indicate it occuring • ḵáa ḵaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash → • yateeyi aa • –tóowu [tú+-wu] | located inside of – again ḵáa + ḵá-náx̱ + kéi + a-g̱a-∅-√xáash ∅-ÿa-√tee-yi + aa • –tóoxʼ [tú+-xʼ] | residing on inside of –; let s/he cut someone up out of it the one that is tsú (particle) | also; too; as well | ofen appears located inside of – √xeex ¹ (verb root) | run (singular) | • yatee near the end of sentences • –tóox̱ [tú+-x̱] | moving along on the inside classifcaton: singular subject • singular ∅-ÿa-√tee of –; repeatedly inside of – tsʼas (particle) | merely form: √gooḵ her/him is √tʼaax̱ (verb root) | open wide wáa sá (question particle) | how | fuent N-dé (na)-S-d+sh-√xeex ¹ (moton verb N-xʼ + yéi + O-(na)-∅-√teeʰ ¹ (state speakers ofen translate this as “what” – subject intransitve) | for (singular) S to verb – object intransitve) | be at; stay at; x̱ʼa-(∅)-S-∅-√tʼaax̱ (act verb – subject because the queston partcle “how” run toward N | the classifer sh- combined remain at; dwell at; live at | for O to be or intransitve) | for S to open mouth wide, functons diferently in Tlingit, as in «wáa with the verb stem -√xeex becomes -sheex stay at N; for O to dwell, live at N; for O to keep mouth open sá at woonéi?» (how did it happen?) which remain at N • x̱ʼawutʼaax̱í • s atʼaawjixéex neildé functons more like “what happened?” has a-tʼaa-ÿu-ji-√xéex neil-dé • áa yéi yateeyi x̱ʼa-ÿu-∅-∅-√tʼaax̱-í s/he opened its mouth [relatve clause] • determiners may be added to «sá» as in they ran up to their homes áa + yéi + ÿa-√tee-yi «wáa sáyá» (how is this?), «wáa sáwé?» (how (moton verb the one or ones locaed there √tʼóosʼ (verb root) | toast; roast by fre is that?) • queston partcles combine most ḵutx̱ O-shu-(∅)-∅-√xeex ¹ (nominalized adjectve) – object intransitve) | for O to be killed O-(ga)-S-l-√tʼóosʼ (act verb – transitve) commonly to form questons, but can also be

210 211 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Raven & Whale Glossary

of, all die of | the classifer sh- combined subject is the agent in the verb speaker • common sufx combinatons are ofen with a peg vowel sufx atached at the with the verb stem -√xeex becomes -sheex listed below. take note of the ways that end of the verb—to create: “the way the √x̱aa ¹ (verb root) | saw; cut • ḵutx̱ has shoowaxéex sufxes afect tone and vowel length: verb occurred” | aadé át woogoodi yé → the ḵut-x̱ + has + shu-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√xéex O-(∅)-S-∅-√x̱aa (act verb – transitve) | • yáadáx̱ / yáatx̱ [yá+-dáx̱] | from right here way that s/he walked around • aadé haa ée at they were all killed of; they all died of for S to eat O • yáade [yá+-dé] | towards right here dultoowu yé → the way we were taught (CG) • yáanáx̱ [yá+-náx̱] | through right here • aawax̱áa (adverb) variants: yóo | thus; specifcally shu-(na)-∅-√xeex ¹ (event verb – • yáat [yá+-t] | arriving right here; at this yéi impersonal) | for something to end, a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√x̱aa place right here yéi áwé (particle) | that is how it is | yéi + á-wé come to an end, pass; for something to be s/he ate her/him/it • yáadu [yá+-t+-wu] | right here; located at → thus + (focus).there | used in oratory to used up (of supplies, etc.) | the classifer • yóo ax̱á this place right here confrm what is being said by an opposite sh- combined with the verb stem -√xeex yóo a-∅-∅-√x̱á • yáaxʼ [yá+-xʼ] | residing right here; at this clan member, and to encourage their speech becomes -sheex s/he is eatng it/her/him place right here delivery • á shunaxéex → • has aawax̱áa • yáax̱ [yá+-x̱] | moving along right here; á + ∅-shu-na-∅-√xéex has + a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√x̱áa repeatedly right here –yik.ádi (body part) | organs: –ʼs internal it really is all gone s/he ate them; they ate her/him/it; organs; viscera; guts: –ʼs guts | “–ʼs inner they ate them yán ¹ ⑴ (noun) | shore || ⑵ (independent base) things” | yík-át-i → in-(shallow container). shu-(∅)-S-d+sh-√xeex ¹ (event verb • hél aadéi x̱duwax̱aayi yé | shoreward; landward || ⑶ (preverb) | thing.[relational] – impersonal) | for S to run to its end; hél + aa-déi + ∅-ga-du-ya-√x̱aa-yi + yé complete: to completon for S to be completed | the classifer ̱ –yík (relational base) | in – (a shallow no way anybody should eat it ⑴ sh- combined with the verb stem -√xeex –yáx̱ ⑴ (relational base) | like –; in accordance concave landform or object, open to the becomes -sheex O-(∅)-S-∅-√x̱aa (act verb – transitve) with –; as much as – || ⑵ (relational noun) | above); in (a tree or forest) || ⑵ | in – (a • yan shuwjix̱ín | for S to eat O (small amounts; variety correct: for – to be correct; appropriate: for – body of water) | classifcaton: body of water yan + shu-ÿu-∅-ji-√x̱ín of things) | classifcaton: small pieces; to be appropriate | used for a body of water that is below the variety of things knees, too shallow to submerge in • for water s/he/it is complete; s/he/it has run its yaaw (noun) | herring course • wusx̱á deep enough to submerge in see «–táak» yáatʼaa (particle) | this one | yá-t-aa → (right)- ÿu-∅-sa-√x̱á (determiner) | way over there; over √xoon ³ (verb root) | get ready to go here.at.one(s) yú ⑴ s/he was eatng it (small things) yonder; tme: long tme from now (past or (?)-S-∅-√xoon ³ (act verb – subject • sax̱a yáay (noun) | whale present) | far from the speaker ⒜ | right now intransitve) | for S to prepare, get ∅-sa-√x̱a or recently • common sufx combinatons (noun) | raven || | Raven, the ready (ofen for a trip) (may be either s/he is eatng it (small things) yéil ⑴ ⑵ are listed below. take note of the ways that trickster | when telling stories about the considerable or very small preparatons) • yax̱ awoosx̱áaych sufxes afect tone and vowel length trickster Raven, the word is capitalized when • anáḵ at wuduwaxoon yax̱ + a-ÿu-∅-sa-√x̱áa-y-ch • yóodáx̱ / yóotx̱ [yú+-dáx̱] | from there (over writng in Tlingit. at tmes the trickster Raven aa-náḵ + at + ÿu-du-ÿa-√xoon s/he fnished eatng it (small things, yonder) will be referred to as «yá Yéil» (this Raven) people prepared to go away from it every tme) • yóode [yú+-dé] | from there (over yonder) or «yú Yéil» (that Raven over there), but • yóonáx̱ [yú+-náx̱] | through there (over √xwáasʼ (verb root) | hang; extend | • yax̱ ayawsix̱áa otherwise the use of the word is identcal classifcaton: clusters yax̱ + a-ya-ÿu-si-√x̱áa yonder) s/he fnished eatng it (small things) √yeeḵ ⁴ (verb root) | pull up • yóot [yú+-t] | arriving there (over yonder); O-(∅)-d+∅-√xwáasʼ (state verb – object at that place there (over yonder) (act verb – in transitve) | for O to hang in clusters x̱át (independent pronoun) | me | frst person N-t~ O-x̱ʼa-(∅)-d+∅-√yeeḵ ⁴ • yóodu [yú+-t+-wu] | there (over yonder); object intransitve) | for O to be pulled out • yáay yix̱dixwásʼi singular independent (1s.i) • independent located at that place there (over yonder) to sea; for O to be moved by waves yáay + ∅-yik-x̱-di-√xwásʼ-i pronouns are not linked to anything • yóoxʼ [yú+-xʼ] | residing there (over yonder); the thing dangling inside the whale grammatcally, and are most ofen used • át x̱ʼawdiyeiḵ at that place there (over yonder) (nominalized) in phrases like «yáadu x̱át» (here i am) and áa-t + ∅-x̱ʼa-ÿu-di-√yeiḵ • yóox̱ [yú+-x̱] | moving along there (over «uháan áyá» (it is us) her/him/it was pulled around there by yonder); repeatedly there (over yonder) -xʼ ⁓ -∅ (relational suffix) | at (at rest or waves residing); at the scene of; at the tme of –x̱oo (relational base) | among –; in the midst –yoowú (body part) | stomach: –ʼs stomach; | alternate form -Ø (unmarked) when of – –yee ¹ (relational base) | below – gizzard: –ʼs gizzard (of bird) ataching to a noun ending in a long vowel, –x̱ʼayeex̱ (body part) ⑴ (body part) | along the yeedát (adverb) | now commonly in the case of «áa» (the place) underside of –ʼs mouth | x̱ʼa-yee-x̱ → mouth. (postverb) | place | used at the end of a below.along yé ⑴ -x̱ ¹ (relational suffix) | at: in prolonged contact verb—ofen with a peg vowel sufx atached at; at: moving around at; at: repeatedly –x̱ʼé (body part) ⑴ (body part) | mouth: –ʼs at the end of the verb—to create: “the place arriving at mouth || ⑵ (relational base) | opening: –ʼs where the verb occurred” | át woogoodi x̱á ~ x̱áa (particle) | you see opening yé → the place where s/he walked around • Wudzidugu yé → the cottonwooded place (determiner) | right here; tme: right now ̱ x̱a- (subject pronoun) | i [subject] | frst person yá (Geikie Inlet) (TT) || | way; manner | used or recently | in the immediate space of the ⑵ singular subject (1s.S) • in a verb phrase, the in combinaton with the preverb «aadé»—

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214 15 Verb Practice, Practice, Practice

Chʼa ldakát át, a yakg̱wahéiyagu ḵudzitee. Yéi áyá haa ee wudulitóow. — Ḵaalḵáawu

In everything, a spirit exists. This is how it was taught to us. — Cyril George, Ḵakʼweidí1

After reading through this material, the question might be: what now? There is no shortage of material to study or ways to keep yourself in the language, but many students need focus and energy in order to keep going. Even if you do not understand half the things you are trying to do, if you keep doing them then your brain and spirit will find a way to the ultimate goal: fluency. One of the greatest things to happen for the Tlingit language has been the publication of three texts that include translated texts of substantial length. Nora & Richard Dauen- hauer worked tirelessly on Haa Shuká and Haa Tuwunáagu Yís, and also have translated oratory in Haa Ḵusteeyí and Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká. Elizabeth Nyman and Jeff Leer have the incredible Gágiwduł.àt (Gágiwdul.aat). You can spend your life with these texts, learning more and more about how the language functions. In addition to the texts, there are volumes of recordings available from the Alaska Native Language Center, Sealaska Heritage Institute, University of Alaska Southeast, and www. tlingitlanguage.com. In addition, there are many recordings

1 George, Cyril. “Ḵaalḵáawu X̱ʼéidáx̱ Shkalneek — Daaxʼoon — Ḵákʼw (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DP2EVBtUrc.

215 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Verb Practice, Practice, Practice housed at Sitka Tribe of Alaska, Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, Ket- you insight into how the language is functioning and ways it chikan Indian Community, other organizations, and in per- relates to Tlingit culture and modes of thinking. sonal collections. You should listen to these without trying to think about anything else other than what the speaker is Preparing for the Next Steps communicating. You should also listen to them and try to Keep coming back to the tables in this text and building figure out everything you understand, focusing on staying up your vocabulary. Start looking at verbs in a wide variety of within the incredible moment that occurs when someone contexts and keep asking yourself how they function. If you communicates cultural, spiritual, or personal information in do not have an answer for that, then just keep going. Never the language. quit. Tlingit gets harder and harder as you go, but it allows You should have fun. You should speak to other students you to see the genius of our Ancient Ones, who helped make of the language as much as humanly possible. You should this for us. This language was created for us. I have heard seek out fluent elders and help them, spend time with them, the following phrase on multiple occasions, from elder and thank them for fighting for the survival of our language. teacher Daasdiyaa Ethel Makinen: There are lists upon lists of words and concepts that need haa jíyis wududliyéx̱ haa yoo x̱ʼatángi ḵa haa ḵusteeyí. to be memorized and put to use. Your best bet is to read over these lists, and then go through and find things you can use Internalizing Verbs immediately. Your plan should include a wide variety of the parts of Tlingit language. Keep learning new nouns and asso- Learning how to think in Tlingit is a lifelong journey. Those ciating them with actual real objects and not just the English who grew up with the language and became birth speakers words for them. In addition to nouns, focus on other parts of do this naturally, and they are the ones we are imitating. It is speech and how they function. okay to have humility, to accept the fact that you are start- You will spend the majority of your language learning life ing over again. Ḵaaḵal.aat Florence Sheakley would often tell internalizing new verbs and the patterns that they use. You her students that they are being born again through the lan- should be balancing the hard work and the fun of the language, and that means they will be babies again. guage. As you continue down this journey, keep in mind that You will not break the language by trying, but you might you are connected to everyone in this language. No one is contribute to its death by not trying. There will always be alone and no one is left behind. We are all in the great canoe more to learn, so that means you should always be working paddling, making sure we gain back everything. on your language skills. You can read a story, listen to recorded Tlingit, find another speaker, memorize lists, decorate Sample Sentences & Analysis your spaces with sticky notes, watch videos. You can do these things every day of your life, and then you will be placing Looking back at the Raven & Whale story, think about the language inside yourself, continuing the work of our an- analyzing sentences to see how they are structured. Find cestors, who sacrificed everything to keep this wonderful gift sample sentences in conversations with speakers, published alive for us. texts, and recordings you are listening to. The translated texts Tomorrow is another day, full of language and hope. Even are great places to practice, because the answers are there. if you feel like you have been leaving it behind, it is right This will give you a deeper understanding of the text you are there. Even if you feel like you are not getting anywhere, it working with, and will give you insight into the methods of just means you need a new method and new surroundings to translation. come back to where you were born to be: in the only home You should share your findings and work with other stu- where our ancestors live, the one of our sacred language. dents of the language, and can work with fluent speakers with the areas you may be stuck. Fluent speakers can give

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218 16 Object & Subject Combinations in Perfective, Imperfective, & Future

Ch’a ldakát át a yakg̱wahéiyag̱u ḵudzitee yéi áyá haa ée at wudulitóow. —Ḵaalḵáawu There is a spirit in everything, so we are taught. — Cyril George, Ḵakʼweidí1

Introduction To begin examining ways in which we can become more dynamic with verbs, we are going to explore Object-Subject combinations in three verb modes: perfective, imperfective, and future. Some things to pay close attention to here are the ways verbs contract when different elements are added, and how Object & Subject pronouns affect contractions. There are certain combinations in Tlingit that can have multiple interpretations. These are imperfective verbs with a 2nd person and 3rd person combination. For example, the verb «isix̱án» could be «∅-i-si-√x̱án» (you love her/him/it) or «i-∅-si-√x̱án» (s/he loves you). The meaning is usually drawn from context, or else a specifying noun is present and possibly marked with an ergative suffix. The same is true for 3rd person Object and Subject with the plural marker (has). Using and interpreting this will take time, but for now focus on unpacking the content here, looking at contraction, and practicing some of these combinations with other verbs.

1 George, Cyril. “Ḵákʼw.” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-- 1b1oce-SM.

219 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

Transitivity Object Pronoun Writing Standards The presence of Objects & Subjects in the theme notes the Object pronouns in Tlingit have been standardized with transitivity of the verb. In the Tlingit Verb Dictionary Naish & the following rule: one letter pronouns are in the contrac- Story use the following terms for verb transitivity (365–368): tion part of the prefix, meaning they are attached to the verb, and pronouns with more than one letter are in the precon- transitive (+O,+S) traction part of the prefix, meaning they appear in front of (–O,+S) intransitive the verb as a separate word. The exception is the alternative stative (+O,–S) form of the 4th person «ḵu-». Even though this is how we impersonal (–O,–S) write it, all open object pronouns will affect conjugation in Crippen uses different terminology (“Tlingitology Seminar the preverb. The most confusing of these as far as writing Notes” 20) which we will use in our discussions of transitiv- them is probably forms like this: ity and our documentation of verbs. It is important to note tlél haa ysix̱án tlél + haa + yi-si-√x̱án you all do not love us the transitivity of a verb to conjugate for person. If O is not listed in the theme, then it will not occur, and the same goes The «haa + y-» rhymes with the word «taay» (fat). Because of for S. If O is listed, then it will always be in the verb unless this, there has been discussion in the Tlingit linguistic com- the object transitivity is changed, which kicks the Object out munity about whether open pronouns should be attached and pushes the verb into a +d form. If S is in the theme, then to the verb. The current reason to keep things the way they it will always be there. are is to avoid extremely long verbs, such as the following transitive (+O,+S) conjugation: subject intransitive (–O,+S) you all see us; haa-yee-ÿu-si-√teen haayeeysiteen you all saw us object intransitive (+O,–S) impersonal (–O,–S) The other issue that settles the object pronoun discussion is that contraction does not work the same with object pro- Here are some examples of how transitivity works in verbs. nouns that are more than one letter. You can see this in the Keep in mind that the theme shows the O-S combinations, following examples, which show whether or not the irrealis and that memorizing the Tlingit pronouns will open the is contracting with the object pronoun: door to conjugating for person. Many of these examples irrealis come from Egglestonʼs “575+ Tlingit Verbs: the Paradigms” example segment translation contracted? and discussions with elders John Martin & George Davis. tlél eeshkʼé tlél + u-i-sh-√kʼé yes you are bad ix̱six̱án i-x̱a-si-√x̱án i love you transitve tlél ḵooshkʼé tlél + ḵu-i-sh-√kʼé yes people are bad x̱at yisiteen x̱at + ÿu-i-si-√teen you see me; you saw me transitve tlél haa ushkʼé tlél + haa + u-sh-√kʼé no we are bad aadé yaa nx̱agút aa-dé + yaa + na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am walking over there subject intransitve tlél yee ushkʼé tlél + yee + u-sh-√kʼé no you all are bad x̱wadlisáa ÿu-x̱a-dli-√sáa i rested; iʼm restng subject intransitve x̱at wuliteesh x̱at wuliteesh i am lonely; i was lonely object intransitve aadé haa luwagooḵ haa + lu-ÿu-ÿa-√gook we ran over there object intransitve ḵuligóosʼ ḵu-li-√góosʼ it is cloudy impersonal it is situated there á-t + la-√.áa impersonal át la.áa (a building)

220 221 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

3rd Person Combinations has ḵusix̱án has + ḵu-∅-si-√x̱án they love people has + ∅-du-dzi-√x̱án they are loved Using 3rd person pronouns can be confusing since they has dudzix̱án are neither heard nor visible, except when both O & S are 3rd person, in which case the third person object switches This brings us to the 3–3 combinations, which are easy to to «a-». Second language speakers sometimes try to insert an put together but linguistically impossible to interpret with- audible pronoun for a 3rd person in combinations that are out context. Either we know by context what the subject and not 3-3, and probably do so because English has pronouns object should be, or it is specified outside of the verb phrase when a specifying noun is not present. For example, “she with a noun that may have the ergative marker. loves him” loses the pronoun when changing to “Susie loves s/he loves them him” or “she loves Jimmy”. Mistakes with these combinations has asix̱án has + a-∅-si-√x̱án they love her/him/it may result in ungrammatical use of the «a-» object (marked they love them by an asterisk*), or improper use of the 4th person nonhu- ax̱ tláach has ax̱ + tláa-ch + has + (4n.O) «at» which produces a different meaning. Letʼs my mother loves them man asix̱án a-∅-si-√x̱án start with the following examples: hásch áwé ax̱ tláa hás + á-wé + ax̱ + tláa + it is them, they love my ax̱six̱án* a-x̱a-si-√x̱án* [ungrammatcal] has asix̱án has + a-∅-si-√x̱án mother ∅-x̱a-si-√x̱án i love her/him/it x̱asix̱án ax̱ x̱oonxʼi hásch ax̱ + x̱oon-xʼ-i + hás-ch my clanspeople, they love ax̱ + éesh + hás + á-wé x̱at six̱án x̱at + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves me ax̱ éesh hás áwé my fatherʼs people has + a-∅-si-√x̱án tusix̱án ∅-tu-si-√x̱án we love her/him/it has asix̱án haa six̱án haa + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves us Some of these combinations would be avoided because isix̱án ∅-i-si-√x̱án you love her/him/it the logic is awkward to put together. However, in the con- isix̱án i-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves you text of groups and individuals, there may be occasions to use yisix̱án ∅-yi-si-√x̱án you all love her/him/it similar combinations. Speakers often learn how to use con- yee six̱án yee + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves you all text to avoid awkward combinations that are ambiguous, but asix̱án a-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves her/him/it sometimes there are few ways around it. Generally speaking, ḵusix̱án ḵu-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves people though, the listener is expected to follow the action and un- dudzix̱án ∅-du-dzi-√x̱án s/he is loved derstand what is happening by context and other cues. We are less confused when we can stay in Tlingit and think in at six̱án at + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves something Tlingit. If we are always translating over to English, then we might always notice how different the grammar and logic are These are combinations for the singular forms. 3rd person instead of being in the moment of focusing on the meaning O and S are pluralized with a plural pronoun that 3rd person and importance of communication. appears in the pre-contraction part of the prefix, so to start thinking about those combinations, examine the following plural combinations and see how they differ. has tusix̱án has + ∅-tu-si-√x̱án we love them has haa six̱án has + haa + ∅-si-√x̱án they loves us has yisix̱án has + ∅-yi-si-√x̱án you all love them has yee six̱án has + yee + ∅-si-√x̱án you all love them

222 223 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

Nominal Objects A nominal object can be added to many verbs as well in order to make the recipient of the action more specific. Again, Some verbs conjugate for Object using a , nominal object the selection of depends on what the verb is and these are noted with «N» in the theme. If there is no relational base re- conveying. Here are some examples of conjugated verbs and lational suffix (-xʼ,-de,-náx̱, etc) attached to N in the theme, the addition of an optional nominal object. then the most common conjugation is a nominal object it is snowing heavy; and a . These are conjugated for person and dleit + a-ká-ÿu-ÿa-√dán relational base dleit akaawadán it was snowing heavy number by changing the instead of the possessive pronoun dleit + haa + ká + dleit haa káa akaawadán it is snowing heavy on us; object pronoun. A noun may also be inserted in place of a a-ká-ÿu-ÿa-√dán it was snowing heavy on us pronoun, as in the following: kax̱waaneek ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√neek i told about it ax̱ toowú yakʼéi ax̱ + toowú + ÿa-√kʼéi i feel great i een kax̱waaneek i + ee-n + ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√neek i told you about it du + ee-n + ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√neek + ax̱ éesh toowú yakʼéi ax̱ + éesh + toowú + ÿa-√kʼéi my father feels great i told her/him about you du een kax̱waaneek i daat i + daa-t du daadzix̱áaw du + daa-dzi-√x̱áaw s/he is hairy xʼáant uwanúk xʼáan-t + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√núk s/he is mad wé keitl daadzix̱áaw wé + keitl + daa-dzi-√x̱áaw that dog is hairy ax̱ yís xʼáant uwanúk ax̱ + yís + xʼáan-t + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√núk s/he is mad at me i jeedé x̱ʼakḵwadatáan i + jee-t + x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da-√táan iʼll call you yoo x̱ʼatán! yoo + x̱ʼa-∅-∅-√tán speak! Nora jeedé x̱ʼakḵwadatáan ° Nora + jee-t + x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da-√táan iʼll call Nora ax̱ een yoo x̱ʼatán! ax̱ + ee-n + yoo + x̱ʼa-∅-∅-√tán speak to me! i tuwáa sigóo i + tu-ÿá si-√góo you want it ax̱ tláa tuwáa sigóo ° ax̱ + tláa + tu-ÿá si-√góo my mother wants it Pay attention to how relational suffixes change in different ax̱ x̱ʼéit sa.ín héen! ax̱ + x̱ʼ-é-t + ∅-sa-√.ín + héen give me water! verb modes. If we take the above examples and move them gawdáan x̱ʼéit sa.ín héen! gawdáan + x̱ʼ-é-t + ∅-sa-√.ín + héen give the horse water! into the future mode, this is the result. ax̱ jikaadáx̱ gú! ax̱ + ji-ka-dáx̱ + ∅-∅-√gú get out of my way! dleit akakg̱wadáan dleit + a-ká-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√dáan it will snow heavy Henry jikaadáx̱ gú! Henry + ji-ka-dáx̱ + ∅-∅-√gú get out of Henryʼs way! dleit haa kaadé dleit + haa + ká-dé + it will snow heavy on us ° many speakers would insert a 3rd person possessive pronoun after the name here akakg̱wadáan a-ká-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√dáan If the nominal object has an attached relational suffix in kakḵwanéek ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√néek i will tell about it the theme, then these are conjugated using a combination of i + ee-dé + i eedé kakḵwanéek i will tell you about it possessive pronouns (including the empty base) and rela- ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√néek tional suffixes. We see these nominal object-relational suf- du eedé du + ee-dé + fix combinations mostly in motion verbs, and the possessive kakḵwanéek ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√néek + i will tell her/him about you i daat i + daa-t pronoun and relational base may change to affect meaning, as in the following examples: xʼáande kg̱wanóok xʼáan-de + ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√nóok s/he will be mad ax̱ + yís + xʼáan-t + hít + yaa + na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is walking to the house ax̱ yís xʼáande kgwanóok s/he will be mad at me hítde yaa nagút ̱ ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√nóok ax̱ x̱ánde yaa nagút ax̱ + x̱án-de + yaa + na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is walking towards me yoo x̱ʼakg̱eetáan yoo + x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√tán you will speak ax̱ éet hísʼ! ax̱ + ee-t + ∅-∅-√hísʼ lend it to me! ax̱ + ee-dé + yoo + you will speak to me ax̱ eedé yoo x̱ʼakg̱eetáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-ga-i-∅-√tán du jeedáx̱ wulihásh du + jee-dáx̱ + ∅-ÿu-li-√hásh it drifed away from her/him ̱ i éet ḵuwaháa i + ee-t + ḵu-ÿa-√háa itʼs your turn i am looking at all your faces; yee + yá-t + a-x̱a-dli-√gein yee yát ax̱dlig̱ein ̱ i looked at all your faces

224 225 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

Pronoun Review Object Combinations Letʼs conjugate for person. To begin with, review , Object THEME2 Subject, Possessive, and Postpositional pronouns. Keep these charts, or better yet the “Verbal Structure Handbook” O-l-√chʼéix̱ʼw~ ¹ (∅ event verb – object intransitive) at hand to conjugate Tlingit verbs. You will be able to com- for O to be dirty municate more dynamically once you have internalized the patterns and how they work. Note that the independent perfective (+) nonhuman (4h) and the reflexive (rflx) only appear in the O-ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ O is dirty object pronoun location. 1s x̱at + ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ iʼm dirty x̱at wulichʼéx̱ʼw me-(1s.O) + pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty object subject 2s i-ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ youʼre dirty 1sg x̱at me· x̱a- i iwlichʼéx̱ʼw you-(2s.O).pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty

1pl haa us tu- we 3s ∅-ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ he/she/it is dirty wulichʼéx̱ʼw her/him-(3.O).pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty 2sg i- you i- you haa + ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ 1p haa wlichʼéx̱ʼw weʼre dirty 2pl yee- you all yi- you all us-(1p.O) + pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty her/him she/he 2p yee + ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ you all are dirty 3 ∅- ~ a- ∅- yee wlichʼéx̱ʼw you-all-(2p.O) + pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty 4h ḵaa ~ ḵu- someone; people du- someone has + ∅-ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ 3p has wulichʼéx̱ʼw (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).pfv.cl-(– theyʼre dirty 4n at something — — d,l,+i).√dirty -self — rflx sh ~ ∅- — 4h ḵu-ÿu-li-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ people are dirty ḵoowlichʼéx̱ʼw someone-(4h.O).pfv.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty (3) pl has ~ s them has ~ s they As documented in Crippenʼs “Tlingitology Seminar” (30), Classifier Contraction the following rules need to be internalized for using the 4th There are situations that cause classifier contraction with person human (4h) subject: –d, –i forms of non-∅ classifiers (sa, la, sha). These are doc- • all ∅ classifier verbs will be –d umented in the chart below “Tlingitology” (96). You will see • all s, l, sh classifiers will be +d examples of this on the following page.

possessive postpositional 1sg ax̱ my ax̱ ee- ~ x̱aan (to) me 1pl haa our haa ee- ~ haa(n)- (to) us 2sg i your i ee- (to) you 2pl yee all your yee ee- (to) you all 3h du her/his du ee- ~ u- ~ doon (to) her/him 3n a its a ee- ~ a- ~ aan (to) it 4h ḵaa someoneʼs ḵaa ~ ḵu ee- ~ ḵoon (to) someone 4n at somethingʼs at ee- (to) something rflx chush ~ sh- -selfʼs chush (to) -self 2 verbs & translations in this handout were collected from the following sources: (3) pl has du them has du ee- they • Eggleston, Keri, “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms” • Martin, John. Verb Conjugation Interview. 1 Sep 2013. • Davis, George. Verb Conjugation Interview. 19 Feb 2015.

226 227 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations perfective (–) future (+) tlél + O-u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw O is not dirty O-ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw O will get dirty

1s tlél + x̱at + u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ iʼm not dirty 1s x̱at + ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ i will get dirty tlél x̱at wulchʼéix̱ʼw not + me-(1s.O) + irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty xat gux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw me-(1s.O) + ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty

2s tlél + i-u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ youʼre not dirty 2s i-ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ you will get dirty tlél iwulchʼéix̱ʼw not + you-(2s.O).irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty igux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw you-(2s.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty

3s tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ s/heʼs not dirty 3s ∅-ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ he/she/it will get dirty tlél wulchʼéix̱ʼw not + her/him-(3.O).irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty gux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw her/him-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty

1p tlél + haa + u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ weʼre not dirty 1p haa + ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ we will get dirty tlél haa wulchʼéix̱ʼw not + us-(1p.O) + irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty haa gux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw us-(1p.O) + ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty

2p tlél + yee + u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ you all arenʼt dirty 2p yee + ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ you all will get dirty tlél yee wulchʼéix̱ʼw not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty yee gux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw you-all-(2p.O) + ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty tlél + has + ∅-u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ 3p tlél has wulchʼéix̱ʼw not + (3pl) + her/him-(3.O).irr.pfv.cl- theyʼre not dirty 3p has agux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl- they will get dirty (–d,l,–i).√dirty (–d,l,–i).√dirty tlél + ḵu-u-ÿu-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ ḵu-ga-u-ga-la-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ 4h ḵugux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw ̱ people will get dirty 4h tlél ḵuwulchʼéix̱ʼw not + someone-(4h.O).irr.pfv.cl-(–d,l,– no one is dirty someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,–i).√dirty i).√dirty the the irrealis (u-) creates different contraction patterns than with the perfective (ÿu-) alone; the prefix is less likely to contract. Object Pronouns and Thematic Prefixes progressive imperfective (+) Now we’ll look at examples that include a thematic pre- yaa + O-na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ O is getng dirty fix. For more detailed prefix strings, see “575 Tlingit Verbs: yaa + x̱at + na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms” and the “Tlingit Verbal 1s yaa x̱at nalchʼéx̱ʼw iʼm getng dirty along + me-(1s.O) + na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty Structure Handbook”. yaa + i-na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ 2s yaa inlachʼéx̱ʼw youʼre getng dirty along + you-(2s.O).na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty THEME yaa + ∅-na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ 3s yaa nalchʼéx̱ʼw he/she/it is getng dirty along + her/him-(3.O).na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty O-x̱ʼa-l-√gaaw˟ ¹ (ga state verb – object intransitive)

1p yaa + haa + na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ weʼre getng dirty for O to be loud-voiced, noisy in speech yaa haa nalchʼéx̱ʼw along + us-(1p.O) + na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty

2p yaa + yee + na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ you all are getng dirty yaa yee nalchʼéx̱ʼw along + you-all-(2p.O) + na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty imperfective (+) yaa + has + ∅-na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ O-x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ O is loud-voiced 3p yaa (ha)s nalchʼéx̱ʼw along + (3pl) + her/him-(3.O).na-cj.cl- theyʼre getng dirty (–d,l,+i).√dirty O verb segment & gloss translation 4h yaa + ḵu-na-la-√chʼéx̱ʼw ¹ people are getng dirty x̱at + x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ yaa ḵunalchʼéx̱ʼw along + someone-(4h.O)-na-cj.cl-(–d,l,+i).√dirty 1s iʼm loud-voiced x̱at x̱ʼaligaaw me-(1s.O) +mouth.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

2s i-x̱ʼa-li-x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ youʼre loud-voiced ix̱ʼaligaaw you-(2s.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

3s ∅-x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ he/she/it is loud-voiced x̱ʼaligaaw her/him-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

1p haa + x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ weʼre loud-voiced haa x̱ʼaligaaw us-(1p.O) +mouth.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

2p yee + x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ you all are loud-voiced yee x̱ʼaligaaw you-all-(2p.O) +mouth.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

3p has + ∅-x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ theyʼre loud-voiced has x̱ʼaligaaw (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).mouth.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

4h ḵaa + x̱ʼa-li-√gaaw˟ ¹ people are loud-voiced ḵaa x̱ʼaligaaw someone-(4h.O).mouth.cl-(–d,l,+i).√loud

228 229 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations imperfective (–) Subject Combinations tlél + O-x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ O is not loud-voiced We will start with three different verbs and change the O verb segment & gloss translation subject while leaving the object as third person (∅- ~ a-).

1s tlél + x̱at + x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ iʼm not loud-voiced tlél x̱at x̱ʼeilgaaw me-(1s.O) + mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud THEME

2s tlél + i-x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ youʼre not loud-voiced tlél ix̱ʼeilgaaw you-(2s.O).mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud O-S-s-√.ee~ (∅ act verb – transitive) for S to cook O 3s tlél + ∅-x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ he/she/it is not loud-voiced tlél x̱ʼeilgaaw her/him-(3.O).mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud

1p tlél + haa + x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ weʼre not loud-voiced imperfective (+) tlél haa x̱ʼeilgaaw us-(1p.O) + mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud O-S-sa-√.ée S is cooking O 2p tlél + yee + x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ you all are not loud-voiced tlél yee x̱ʼeilgaaw you-all-(2p.O) + mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud S verb segment & gloss translation 3p tlél + has + ∅-x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ theyʼre not loud-voiced tlél has x̱ʼeilgaaw (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud 1s ∅-x̱a-sa-√.ée i cook it; I am cooking it x̱asa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook 4h tlél + ḵaa + x̱ʼa-u-la-√gaaw˟ ¹ people are not loud-voiced tlél ḵaa x̱ʼeilgaaw someone-(4h.O).mouth.irr.cl-(–d,l,–i).√loud 2s ∅-i-sa-√.ée you cook it; you are cooking it isa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook thematic prefixes sa (voice) & x̱ʼa (mouth/opening) change to their noun forms of sé & x̱ʼé with the addition of the perfective (ÿu-) or irrealis (–u). because they are prefixes, they cannot be high toned, 3s a-∅-sa-√.ée s/he cooks it; s/he is cooking it as.ée her/him/it-(3.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook and the perfective marker (ÿu-) makes them long vowels. 1p ∅-tu-sa-√.ée we cook it; we are cooking it tusa.ée her/him/it-(3.O). we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

2p ∅-yi-sa-√.ée you all cook it; you all are cooking it yisa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

3p has + a-∅-sa-√.ée they cook it; they are cooking it has as.ée (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

4h ∅-du-s-√.ée itʼs cooking dus.ée her/him/it-(3.O).someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√cook

imperfective (–) tlél + O-u-S-sa-√.ée S is not cooking O

S verb segment & gloss translation i donʼt cook it; 1s tlél + ∅-u-x̱a-sa-√.ee tlél ux̱sa.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook I am not cooking it you donʼt cook it; 2s tlél + ∅-u-i-sa-√.ee tlél isa.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook you arenʼt cooking it s/he doesnʼt cook it; 3s tlél + a-∅-u-sa-√.ee tlél oos.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook s/he isnʼt cooking it we donʼt cook it; 1p tlél + ∅-u-tu-sa-√.ee tlél tusa.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook we arenʼt cooking it you all donʼt cook it; 2p tlél + ∅-u-yi-sa-√.ee tlél yisa.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook you all arenʼt cooking it they donʼt cook it; 3p tlél + has + a-∅-u-sa-√.ee tlél has oos.ee not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook they arenʼt cooking it

4h tlél + ∅-u-du-s-√.ee itʼs not to be cooked tlél dus.ee not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√cook

230 231 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations perfective (+) future (+) O-ÿu-S-si-√.ée S cooked O O-ga-u-g̱a-S-sa-√.ée S cooked O S verb segment & gloss translation S verb segment & gloss translation

1s ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si-√.ée i cooked it 1s ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√.ée i will cook it x̱wasi.ée her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook kuḵasa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

2s ∅-ÿu-i-si-√.ée you cooked it 2s ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√.ée you will cook it yisi.ée her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook gag̱isa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

3s a-ÿu-∅-si-√.ée s/he cooked it 3s a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√.ée s/he will cook it awsi.ée her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook agux̱sa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

1p ∅-ÿu-tu-si-√.ée we cooked it 1p ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√.ée we will cook it wutusi.ée her/him/it-(3.O).pfv. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook gax̱tusa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook

2p ∅-ÿu-yi-si-√.ée you all cooked it 2p ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√.ée you all will cook it yeeysi.ée her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook gax̱yisa.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook has + a-ÿu-∅-si-√.ée has + a-ga-u-ga-∅-sa-√.ée 3p has awsi.ée they cooked it ̱ (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√cook 3p has agux̱sa.ée (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,– they will cook it i).√cook ∅-ÿu-du-s-√.ée 4h wududzi.ée it was cooked her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√cook ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√.ée 4h gax̱dus.ée her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,– it will be cooked i).√cook perfective (–) tlél + O-u-ÿu-S-sa-√.í S did not cook O future (–)

S verb segment & gloss translation tlél + O-ga-u-g̱a-S-sa-√.ee S did not cook O

1s tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-x̱a-si-√.í i didnʼt cook it S verb segment & gloss translation tlél x̱wasa.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél + ∅-ga-u-ga-x̱a-sa-√.ee 1s tlél kuḵasa.ee ̱ i will cook it 2s tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-i-si-√.í you didnʼt cook it her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél yisa.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél + ∅-ga-u-ga-i-sa-√.ee 2s tlél gagisa.ee ̱ you will cook it 3s tlél + a-u-ÿu-∅-si-√.í s/he didnʼt cook it ̱ her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél awus.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél + a-ga-u-ga-∅-sa-√.ee 3s tlél agux̱sa.ee ̱ s/he will cook it 1p tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-tu-si-√.í we didnʼt cook it her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook tlél wutusa.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook 1p tlél + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√.ee we will cook it tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-yi-si-√.í tlél gax̱tusa.ee her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√cook 2p tlél yeeysa.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,– you all didnʼt cook it i).√cook tlél + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√.ee 2p tlél gax̱yisa.ee her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,– you all will cook it tlél + has + a-u-ÿu-∅-si-√.í i).√cook 3p tlél has awus.í not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).irr.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,– they didnʼt cook it i).√cook tlél + has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√.ee 3p tlél has agux̱sa.ee (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,– they will cook it tlél + ∅-u-ÿu-du-s-√.í i).√cook 4h tlél wudus.í not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl- it wasnʼt cooked (+d,s,–i).√cook tlél + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√.ee 4h tlél gax̱dus.ee her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.u.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S).cl- it will be cooked (+d,s,–i).√cook

As we did with the object examples, we will now look at a verb that includes a thematic prefix.

232 233 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

THEME perfective (+) O-ka-S-∅-√dóoxʼ (∅ act verb – transitive; CV́Cʼ Hort/Pot) O-ka-ÿu-S-ÿa-√dúxʼ S ted O for S to te O in a knot S verb segment & gloss translation ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√dúxʼ 1s kax̱waadúxʼ i ted it imperfective (+) her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot

2s ∅-ka-ÿu-i-ÿa-√dúxʼ you ted it O-ka-S-∅-√dóoxʼ S is tying O keeyadúxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot

S verb segment & gloss translation 3s a-ka-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dúxʼ he/she/it ted it akaawadúxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot 1s ∅-ka-x̱a-∅-√dóoxʼ iʼm tying it kax̱adóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot 1p ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√dúxʼ we ted it kawtuwadúxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot 2s ∅-ka-i-∅-√dóoxʼ youʼre tying it keedóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot 2p ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√dúxʼ you all ted it kayeeydúxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot 3s a-ka-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ he/she/it is tying it they ted it; akadóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot 3p has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dúxʼ s/he ted them; has akaawadúxʼ (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in-knot they ted them 1p ∅-ka-tu-∅-√dóoxʼ weʼre tying it katoodóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot ∅-ka-ÿu-du-ÿa-√dúxʼ 4h her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie-in- it was ted 2p ∅-ka-yi-∅-√dóoxʼ you all are tying it kawduwadúxʼ kaydóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot knot theyʼre tying it; 3p has + a-ka-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ s/heʼs tying them; has akadóoxʼ (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in-knot theyʼre tying them perfective (–) ∅-ka-du-∅-√dóoxʼ 4h kadudóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.someone-(4h.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in- it is being ted tlél + O-ka-u-ÿu-S-∅-√dóoxʼ S did not te O knot S verb segment & gloss translation tlél + ∅-ka-u-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√dóoxʼ 1s tlél kax̱wadóoxʼ i didnʼt te it imperfective (–) not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie tlél + ∅-ka-u-ÿu-i-∅-√dóoxʼ tlél + O-ka-u-S-∅-√dóoxʼ S is not tying O 2s tlél kayidóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.you-(2s.S).cl- you didnʼt te it (–d,∅,+i).√tie S verb segment & gloss translation tlél + a-ka-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ tlél + ∅-ka-u-x̱a-∅-√dóoxʼ 3s tlél akaawadóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl- s/he didnʼt te it 1s tlél kax̱adóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie-in- iʼm not tying it (–d,∅,+i).√tie knot tlél + ∅-ka-u-ÿu-tu-∅-√dóoxʼ tlél + ∅-ka-u-i-∅-√dóoxʼ 1p tlél kawtoodóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv. we-(1p.S).cl- we didnʼt te it 2s tlél keedóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie- youʼre not tying it (–d,∅,+i).√tie in-knot tlél + ∅-ka-u-ÿu-yi-∅-√dóoxʼ 2p not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl- you all didnʼt te it tlél + a-ka-u-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ he/she/it is not tlél kayeeydóoxʼ 3s not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie- (–d,∅,+i).√tie tlél akoodóoxʼ tying it in-knot they didnʼt te it; tlél + has + a-ka-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ s/he didnʼt te tlél + ∅-ka-u-tu-∅-√dóoxʼ 3p not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl- 1p tlél has akaawadóoxʼ tlél katoodóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie- weʼre not tying it (–d,∅,+i).√tie them; they didnʼt in-knot te them tlél + ∅-ka-u-yi-∅-√dóoxʼ 2p tlél kaydóoxʼ you all are not tying it tlél + ∅-ka-u-ÿu-du-∅-√dóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie 4h tlél kawdudóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.pfv.someone-(4h.S). it wasnʼt ted cl-(–d,∅,+i).√tie theyʼre not tying it; tlél + has + a-ka-u-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ s/heʼs not tying 3p tlél has akoodóoxʼ not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,– them; i).√tie theyʼre not tying them tlél + ∅-ka-u-du-∅-√dóoxʼ 4h tlél kadudóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.irr.someone-(4h.S).cl- it is not being ted (–d,∅,–i).√tie

234 235 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations future (+) THEME O-ka-ga-u-g̱a-S-∅-√dóoxʼ S will te O O-ya-S-∅-√dlaaḵ (na event verb — transitive) S verb segment & gloss translation for S to gain, get, obtain, acquire O; for S to succeed, accomplish O; for S to defeat, beat O 1s ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√dóoxʼ i will te it kakḵwadóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie

2s ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√dóoxʼ you will te it perfective (+) kakg̱eedóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie O-ya-ÿu-S-ÿa-√dlaaḵ S obtained O 3s a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ s/he will te it akakg̱wadóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie S verb segment & gloss translation ∅-ka-ga-u-ga-tu-∅-√dóoxʼ 1p kagax̱toodóoxʼ ̱ we will te it her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie 1s ∅-ÿa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√dlaaḵ i obtained it yax̱waadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/succeed you all will 2p ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅-√dóoxʼ gax̱yidóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie te it ∅-ÿa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√dlaaḵ 2s yeeyadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/ you obtained it they will te it; succeed s/he will te has + a-ka-ga-u-ga-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ 3p has akakgwadóoxʼ ̱ them; a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dlaaḵ ̱ (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie 3s ayaawadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/ he/she/it obtained it they will te succeed them ∅-ÿa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√dlaaḵ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅-√dóoxʼ 1p yawtuwadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/ we obtained it 4h kagax̱dudóoxʼ her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S).cl-(–d,∅,– it will be ted succeed i).√tie ∅-ÿa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√dlaaḵ 2p yayeeydlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/ you all obtained it succeed future (–) has + a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√dlaaḵ they obtained it; s/he 3p (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).vsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain/ obtained them; they S will not te O has ayaawadlaaḵ tlél + O-ka-ga-u-g̱a-S-∅-√dóoxʼ succeed obtained them

S verb segment & gloss translation 4h ∅-ÿa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√dlaaḵ it was obtained yawduwadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√obtain tlél + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√dóoxʼ 1s tlél kakḵwadóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl- i wonʼt te it (–d,∅,–i).√tie perfective (–) tlél + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√dóoxʼ 2s tlél kakg̱eedóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S). you wonʼt te it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie tlél + O-ya-u-ÿu-S-∅-√dlaaḵ S did not obtain O

tlél + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ s/he wonʼt S verb segment & gloss translation 3s tlél akakg̱wadóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S). cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie te it 1s tlél + ∅-ÿa-u-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√dlaaḵ i didnʼt obtain it tlél yax̱wadlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain tlél + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅-√dóoxʼ 1p tlél kagax̱toodóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S). we wonʼt te it 2s tlél + ∅-ÿa-u-ÿu-i-∅-√dlaaḵ you didnʼt obtain it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie tlél yayidlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain tlél + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅-√dóoxʼ you all wonʼt tlél + a-ÿa-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√dlaaḵ he/she/it didnʼt 2p not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.ga-md.you-all-(2p.S). 3s tlél gax̱yidóoxʼ ̱ tlél ayawudlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie te it 1p tlél + ∅-ÿa-u-ÿu-tu-∅-√dlaaḵ we didnʼt obtain it tlél + has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dóoxʼ they wonʼt tlél yawtoodlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain 3p not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.ga-md.s/he-(3.S). tlél has akagax̱toodóoxʼ ̱ te it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie tlél + ∅-ÿa-u-ÿu-yi-∅-√dlaaḵ 2p tlél yayeeydlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,– you all didnʼt obtain it tlél + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅-√dóoxʼ i).√obtain 4h tlél kagax̱dudóoxʼ not + her/him/it-(3.O).hsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S). it wonʼt be ted cl-(–d,∅,–i).√tie tlél + has + a-ÿa-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√dlaaḵ 3p tlél has ayawudlaaḵ (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).vsf.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,– they didnʼt obtain it i).√obtain tlél + ∅-ÿa-u-ÿu-du-∅-√dlaaḵ 4h tlél yawdudlaaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(–d,∅,– it wasnʼt obtained i).√obtain

236 237 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations future (+) Object-Subject Combinations O-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-S-∅-√dlaaḵ S will te O Now that we have seen the effects of changing the sub- S verb segment & gloss translation ject in imperfective (+/–), perfective (+/–), and future (+/–) ∅-ÿa-ga-u-ga-x̱a-∅-√dláaḵ , letʼs see the possible 1s yakḵwadláaḵ ̱ i will obtain it modes object-subject combinations her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain and how those affect conjugation in the prefix and preverb. ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√dláaḵ As you work though these lists, look at the underlying com- 2s yakg̱eedláaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,– you will obtain it i).√obtain ponents, but more importantly continue to internalize how a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dláaḵ the verbs undergo changes in the prefix in order to conjugate 3s ayakg̱wadláaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,– s/he will obtain it i).√obtain for person and number. ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅-√dláaḵ The contraction patterns are regular and predictable. The 1p yagax̱toodláaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,– we will obtain it i).√obtain more things that are packed in, the more they will contract.

∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅-√dláaḵ you all will Take note of which prefixes are more likely to contract and 2p gax̱yidláaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S).cl- (–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain it the common patterns that you notice. Work on using these they will obtain it; combinations and modes to begin making your use of the has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dláaḵ s/he will obtain 3p (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.ga-md.s/he-(3.S).cl- has akakg̱wadláaḵ ̱ them; language more dynamic. These combinations will allow you (–d,∅,–i).√obtain they will obtain them to communicate about things according to a wide variety of ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅-√dláaḵ 4h kagax̱dudláaḵ her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S). it will be obtained situations, which will help with stories, descriptions, activity, cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain and subjects and objects. THEME future (–) O-S-s-√x̱án ˟ (ga state verb – transitive) tlél + O-ka-ga-u-g̱a-S-ÿa-√dóoxʼ S will not te O for S to love O S verb segment & gloss translation tlél + ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√dláaḵ imperfective (+) 1s tlél yakḵwadláaḵ not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S). i wonʼt obtain it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain O-S-si-√x̱án ˟ S loves O tlél + ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√dláaḵ you wonʼt 2s tlél yakg̱eedláaḵ not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S). O S verb gloss translation cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain it ∅-x̱a-si-√x̱án 3s 1s x̱asix̱án i love her/him/it tlél + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dláaḵ s/he wonʼt her/him/it-(3.O).i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 3s not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.ga-md.s/he-(3.S). tlél ayakg̱wadláaḵ ̱ obtain it cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain 3p 1s has + ∅-x̱a-si-√x̱án i love them has x̱asix̱án (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear tlél + ∅-ÿa-ga-u-ga-tu-∅-√dláaḵ ̱ we wonʼt i-x̱a-si-√x̱án 1p tlél yagax̱toodláaḵ not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S). 2s 1s ix̱six̱án i love you cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain it you-(2s.O).i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear yee + x̱a-si-√x̱án tlél + ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅-√dláaḵ you all wonʼt 2p 1s yee x̱six̱án i love you all 2p tlél gax̱yidláaḵ not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S). you-all-(2p.O) + i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain it 4h 1s ḵu-x̱a-si-√x̱án i love people they wonʼt ḵux̱six̱án someone-(4h.O).i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear obtain it; at + x̱a-si-√x̱án tlél + has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√dláaḵ s/he wonʼt 4n 1s at x̱asix̱án i love something 3p tlél has akakg̱wadláaḵ not + (3pl)+ her/him-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S). something-(4n.O) + i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtain them; ∅-tu-si-√x̱án they wonʼt 3s 1p tusix̱án we love her/him/it obtain them her/him/it-(3.O).we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear tlél + ∅-ÿa-ga-u-ga-du-∅-√dláaḵ has + ∅-tu-si-√x̱án ̱ it wonʼt be 3p 1p 4h tlél kagax̱dudláaḵ not + her/him/it-(3.O).vsf.ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S). has tusix̱án (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).we-(1p.S).cl-(– we love them cl-(–d,∅,–i).√obtain obtained d,∅,+i).√hear

238 239 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation O S verb gloss translation

2s 1p i-tu-si-√x̱án we love you 1s 3p has + x̱at + ∅-si-√x̱án they love me itusix̱án you-(2s.O).we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has x̱at six̱án (3pl) + me-(1s.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear

2p 1p yee + tu-si-√x̱án we love you all 1p 3p has + haa + ∅-si-√x̱án they love us yee tusix̱án you-all-(2p.O) + we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has haa six̱án (3pl) + us-(1p.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear

4h 1p ḵu-tu-si-√x̱án we love people 2s 3p has + i-∅-si-√x̱án they love you ḵutusix̱án someone-(4h.O).we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has isix̱án (3pl) + you-(2s.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear

4n 1p at + tu-si-√x̱án we love something has + yee + ∅-si-√x̱án at tusix̱án something-(4n.O) + we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2p 3p has yee six̱án (3pl) + you-all-(2p.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(– they love you all d,∅,+i).√hear 3s 2s ∅-i-si-√x̱án you love her/him/it isix̱án her/him/it-(3.O).i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has + ḵu-∅-si-√x̱án 4h 3p has ḵusix̱án (3pl) + someone-(4h.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(– they love people 3p 2s has + ∅-i-si-√x̱án you love them d,∅,+i).√hear has isix̱án (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has + at + ∅-si-√x̱án 1s 2s x̱at + i-si-√x̱án you love me 4n 3p has at six̱án (3pl) + something-(4n.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl- they love something x̱at isix̱án me-(1s.O) + i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear (–d,∅,+i).√hear haa + i-si-√x̱án 1p 2s you love us 3s 4h ∅-du-dzi-√x̱án s/he/it is loved haa isix̱án you-all-(2p.O) + i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear dudzix̱án her/him/it-(3.O).someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love ḵu-i-si-√x̱án 4h 2s ḵeesix̱án you love people has + ∅-du-dzi-√x̱án someone-(4h.O).i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 3p 4h has dudzix̱án (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).someone-(4h.S). they are loved cl-(+d,s,+i).√love 4n 2s at + i-si-√x̱án you love something at isix̱án something-(4n.O) + i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 1s 4h x̱at + du-dzi-√x̱án i am loved x̱at dudzix̱án me-(1s.O) + someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love 3s 2p ∅-yi-si-√x̱án you all love her/him/it yisix̱án her/him/it-(3.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 1p 4h haa + du-dzi-√x̱án we are loved haa dudzix̱án us-(1p.O).someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love has + ∅-yi-si-√x̱án 3p 2p (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl- you all love them has yisix̱án 2s 4h i-du-dzi-√x̱án you are loved (–d,∅,+i).√hear idudzix̱án you-(2s.O).someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love x̱at + yi-si-√x̱án 1s 2p you all love me 2p 4h yee + du-dzi-√x̱án you all are loved x̱at yisix̱án me-(1s.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear yee dudzix̱án you-all-(2p.O) + someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love haa + yi-si-√x̱án 1p 2p you all love us 4h 4h ḵu-du-dzi-√x̱án people are loved haa yisix̱án us-(1p.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear ḵududzix̱án someone-(4h.O).someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√love ḵu-yi-si-√x̱án 4h 2p ḵuyeesix̱án you all love people at + du-dzi-√x̱án someone-(4h.O).you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 4n 4h at dudzix̱án something-(4n.O) + someone-(4h.S).cl- something is loved (+d,s,+i).√love at + yi-si-√x̱án 4n 2p at yisix̱án something-(4n.O) + you-all-(2p.S).cl-(– you all love something d,∅,+i).√hear imperfective (–) 3s 3s a-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves her/him/it asix̱án her/him/it-(3.O).s/he-(3.O).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear tlél + O-u-S-sa-√x̱án ˟ S does not love O has + a-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves them; they love her/ 3p 3s has asix̱án (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).s/he-(3.S).cl- (–d,∅,+i).√hear him; they love them O S verb gloss translation tlél + ∅-u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án 1s 3s x̱at + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves me 3s 1s tlél ux̱sax̱án i donʼt love her/him/it x̱at six̱án me-(1s.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + ∅-u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án 1p 3s haa + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves us haa six̱án us-(1p.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 3p 1s tlél has ux̱sax̱án not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.i-(1s.S).cl- i donʼt love them (–d,s,–i).√love 2s 3s i-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves you isix̱án you-(2s.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2s 1s tlél + i-u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án i donʼt love you tlél eex̱sax̱án not + you-(2s.O).irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 2p 3s yee + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves you all yee six̱án you-all-(2p.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2p 1s tlél + yee + u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án i donʼt love you all tlél yee wx̱sax̱án not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 4h 3s ḵu-∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves people ḵusix̱án someone-(4h.O).s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 4h 1s tlél + ḵu-u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án i donʼt love people tlél ḵux̱sax̱án not + someone-(4h.O).irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 4n 3s at + ∅-si-√x̱án s/he loves something at six̱án something-(4n.O) + s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear

240 241 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation O S verb gloss translation tlél + at + u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án tlél + has + a-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love 4n 1s tlél at ux̱sax̱án not + something-(4n.O) + irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,– i donʼt love something 3p 3s tlél has oosx̱án not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).s/he-(3.S).cl- them; they donʼt love i).√love (–d,s,–i).√love them tlél + daa + sá + u-x̱a-sa-√x̱án 1s 3s tlél + x̱at + u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love me – 1s tlél daa sá ux̱sax̱án not + what + voice + her/him/it-(3.O) + i donʼt love anything tlél x̱at oosx̱án not + me-(1s.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love irr.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 1p 3s tlél + haa + u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love us tlél + ∅-u-tu-sa-√x̱án we donʼt love tlél haa oosx̱án not + us-(1p.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 3s 1p tlél tusax̱án not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,– i).√love her/him/it 2s 3s tlél + i-u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love you tlél eesx̱án not + you-(2s.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + ∅-u-tu-sa-√x̱án 3p 1p not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.we-(1p.S). we donʼt love them tlél has tusax̱án tlél + yee + u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 2p 3s tlél yee oosx̱án not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,– i).√love you all 2s 1p tlél + i-u-tu-sa-√x̱án we donʼt love you tlél itusax̱án not + you-(2s.O).irr.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + ḵu-u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love 4h 3s tlél ḵoosx̱án not + someone-(4h.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,– tlél + yee + u-tu-sa-√x̱án i).√love people 2p 1p tlél yee tusax̱án not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,– we donʼt love you all i).√love tlél + at + u-∅-sa-√x̱án s/he doesnʼt love 4n 3s tlél at oosx̱án not + something-(4n.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- tlél + ḵu-u-tu-sa-√x̱án (–d,s,–i).√love something 4h 1p tlél ḵutusax̱án not + someone-(4h.O).irr.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,– we donʼt love people i).√love tlél + has + x̱at + u-∅-sa-√x̱án 1s 3p tlél has x̱at oosx̱án not + (3pl) + me-(1s.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they donʼt love me tlél + at + u-tu-sa-√x̱án we donʼt love (–d,s,–i).√love 4n 1p not + something-(4n.O) + irr.we-(1p.S).cl- tlél at tusax̱án something (–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + haa + u-∅-sa-√x̱án 1p 3p not + (3pl) + us-(1p.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they donʼt love us you donʼt love tlél has haa ysax̱án 3s 2s tlél + ∅-u-i-sa-√x̱án (–d,s,–i).√love tlél eesax̱án not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love her/him/it tlél + has + i-u-∅-sa-√x̱án tlél + has + ∅-u-i-sa-√x̱án 2s 3p tlél has eesx̱án not + (3pl) + you-(2s.O).irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they donʼt love you 3p 2s tlél has eesax̱án not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.i-(2s.S).cl- you donʼt love them (–d,s,–i).√love (–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + yee + u-∅-sa-√x̱án 1s 2s tlél + x̱at + u-i-sa-√x̱án you donʼt love me 2p 3p tlél has yee oosx̱án not + (3pl) + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S). they donʼt love you all tlél x̱at eesax̱án not + me-(1s.O) + irr.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + haa + u-i-sa-√x̱án 1p 2s tlél haa eesax̱án you donʼt love us tlél + has + ḵu-u-∅-sa-√x̱án not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 4h 3p tlél has ḵoosx̱án not + (3pl) + someone-(4h.O).irr.s/he-(3.S). they donʼt love people cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 4h 2s tlél + ḵu-u-i-sa-√x̱án you donʼt love people tlél ḵeesax̱án not + someone-(4h.O).irr.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + at + u-∅-sa-√x̱án they donʼt love 4n 3p not + (3pl) + something-(4n.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S). tlél has at oosx̱án something tlél + at + u-i-sa-√x̱án you donʼt love cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 4n 2s not + something-(4n.O) + irr.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,– tlél at eesax̱án something i).√love tlél + ∅-u-du-s-√x̱án 3s 4h tlél dusx̱án not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.someone-(4h.S).cl- he isnʼt loved tlél + ∅-u-yi-sa-√x̱án you all donʼt love (+d,s,–i).√love 3s 2p not + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl- tlél yeesax̱án her/him/it (–d,s,–i).√love tlél + has + ∅-u-du-s-√x̱án 3p 4h tlél has dusx̱án not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.someone-(4h.S). they are not loved tlél + has + ∅-u-yi-sa-√x̱án cl-(+d,s,–i).√love 3p 2p tlél has yeesax̱án not + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S). you all donʼt love them cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + x̱at + u-du-s-√x̱án 1s 4h tlél x̱at dusx̱án not + me-(1s.O) + irr.someone-(4h.S).cl- i am not loved 1s 2p tlél + x̱at + u-yi-sa-√x̱án you all donʼt love me (+d,s,–i).√love tlél x̱at yeesax̱án not + me-(1s.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love tlél + haa + u-du-s-√x̱án tlél + haa + u-yi-sa-√x̱án 1p 2p tlél haa ysax̱án you all donʼt love us 1p 4h tlél haa dusx̱án not + us-(1p.O).irr.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,– we are not loved not + us-(1p.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love i).√love tlél + ḵu-u-yi-sa-√x̱án you all donʼt love 4h 2p tlél ḵeeysax̱án tlél + i-u-du-s-√x̱án someone-(4h.O).irr.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love people 2s 4h tlél idusx̱án not + you-(2s.O).irr.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,– you are not loved i).√love tlél + at + u-yi-sa-√x̱án you all donʼt love 4n 2p not + something-(4n.O) + irr.you-all-(2p.S). tlél at yeesax̱án something tlél + yee + u-du-s-√x̱án cl-(–d,s,–i).√love 2p 4h tlél yee dusx̱án not + you-all-(2p.O) + irr.someone-(4h.S).cl- you all are not loved (+d,s,–i).√love s/he doesnʼt love 3s 3s tlél + a-∅-sa-√x̱án tlél oosx̱án not + her/him/it-(3.O).s/he-(3.O).cl-(–d,s,–i).√love her/him/it

242 243 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation O S verb gloss translation tlél + ḵu-u-du-s-√x̱án has + ∅-sa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4h 4h tlél ḵudusx̱án not + someone-(4h.O).irr.someone-(4h.S).cl- people arenʼt loved 3p 2s has seeya.áx̱ (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.i-(2s.S). you heard them (+d,s,–i).√love cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear

tlél + at + u-du-s-√x̱án 1s 2s x̱at + sa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ you heard me 4n 4h tlél at dusx̱án not + something-(4n.O) + irr.someone-(4h.S). something isnʼt loved x̱at seeya.áx̱ me-(1s.O) + voice.pfv.i-(2s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear cl-(+d,s,–i).√love haa + sa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 1p 2s haa seeya.áx̱ you-all-(2p.O) + voice.pfv.i-(2s.S).cl-(– you heard us d,∅,+i).√hear THEME ḵu-sa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4h 2s ḵuseeya.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.i-(2s.S).cl-(– you heard someone O-sa-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive) d,∅,+i).√hear at + ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ for S to hear O (a voice, singing) 4n 2s at iya.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + voice.pfv.i-(2s.S). you heard something cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear perfective ∅-sa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3s 2p sayeey.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl- you all heard her/him/it O-sa-ÿu-S-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ S heard O (–d,∅,+i).√hear has + ∅-sa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ O S verb gloss translation 3p 2p has sayeey.áx̱ (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all heard them cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear ∅-sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3s 1s sax̱waa.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(– i heard her/him/it x̱at + sa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ d,∅,+i).√hear 1s 2p x̱at sayeey.áx̱ me-(1s.O).voice.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(– you all heard me d,∅,+i).√hear has + ∅-sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3p 1s has sax̱waa.áx̱ (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.i-(1s.S). i heard them haa + sa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 1p 2p haa sayeey.áx̱ us-(1p.O).voice.pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(– you all heard us d,∅,+i).√hear 2s 1s i-sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ i heard you isax̱waa.áx̱ you-(2s.O).voice.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear ḵu-sa-ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4h 2p ḵusayeey.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all heard someone yee + sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2p 1s yee sax̱waa.áx̱ you-all-(2p.O) + voice.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(– i heard you all d,∅,+i).√hear at + ÿu-yi-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4n 2p at yeey.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all heard something ḵu-sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 4h 1s ḵusax̱waa.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(– i heard someone d,∅,+i).√hear a-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3s 3s aseiwa.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.s/he-(3.O).cl- s/he heard her/him/it 4n 1s at + ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ i heard something (–d,∅,+i).√hear at x̱waa.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear has + a-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ s/he heard them; they ∅-sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3p 3s (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S). heard her/him; they heard 3s 1p has seiwa.áx̱ sawtuwa.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.we-(1p.S).cl- we heard her/him/it cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear them (–d,∅,+i).√hear 1s 3s x̱at + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ s/he heard me has + ∅-sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ x̱at seiwa.áx̱ me-(1s.O).voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 3p 1p has sawtuwa.áx̱ (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.we-(1p.S). we heard them cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 1p 3s haa + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ s/he heard us haa seiwa.áx̱ us-(1p.O) + voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2s 1p i-sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ we heard you isawtuwa.áx̱ you-(2s.O).voice.pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2s 3s i-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ s/he heard you iseiwa.áx̱ you-(2s.O).voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear yee + sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 2p 1p yee sawtuwa.áx̱ you-all-(2p.O) + voice.pfv.we-(1p.S).cl- we heard you all yee + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ (–d,∅,+i).√hear 2p 3s yee seiwa.áx̱ you-all-(2p.O) + voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl- s/he heard you all (–d,∅,+i).√hear ḵu-sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4h 1p ḵusawtuwa.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.we-(1p.S).cl- we heard someone ḵu-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ (–d,∅,+i).√hear 4h 3s ḵuseiwa.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.s/he-(3.S). s/he heard someone cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear at + ÿu-tu-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4n 1p at wutuwa.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(– we heard something at + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ d,∅,+i).√hear 4n 3s at uwa.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + pfv.s/he-(3.S). s/he heard something cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear ∅-sa-ÿu-i-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3s 2s seeya.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.i-(2s.S).cl-(– you heard her/him/it d,∅,+i).√hear

244 245 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation THEME has + x̱at + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 1s 3p has x̱at seiwa.áx̱ (3pl) + me-(1s.O) + voice.irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they heard me O-S-s-√teen ² (ga event verb – transitive) (–d,∅,+i).√hear ̱ for S to see, behold O (usually specifc) has + haa + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 1p 3p has haa seiwa.áx̱ (3pl) + us-(1p.O) + voice.irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they heard us (–d,∅,+i).√hear perfective has + i-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 2s 3p has iseiwa.áx̱ (3pl) + you-(2s.O).voice.irr.s/he-(3.S).cl- they heard you O-ÿu-S-si-√teen S saw O; S sees O (–d,∅,+i).√hear O S verb gloss translation has + yee + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 2p 3p has yee seiwa.áx̱ (3pl) + you-all-(2p.O) + voice.irr.s/he-(3.S). they heard you all 3s 1s ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² i saw/see her/him/it cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear x̱wasiteen her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see has + ḵu-sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ has + ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² 4h 3p has ḵuseiwa.áx̱ (3pl) + someone-(4h.O).voice.irr.s/he-(3.S). they heard someone 3p 1s has x̱wasiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.i-(1s.S). i saw/see them cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear cl-(–d,s,+i).√see has + at + ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 2s 1s i-ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² i saw/see you 4n 3p has at uwa.áx̱ (3pl) + something-(4n.O) + irr.s/he-(3.S). they heard something ix̱wsiteen you-(2s.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see cl-(–d,∅,+i).√hear 2p 1s yee + ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² i saw/see you all ∅-sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ yee x̱wsiteen you-all-(2p.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 3s 4h sawduwa.áx̱ her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S). she/he/it was heard cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear 4h 1s ḵu-ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² i saw/see someone ḵux̱wsiteen someone-(4h.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see has + ∅-sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 3p 4h (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S). they were heard has sawduwa.áx̱ 4n 1s at + ÿu-x̱a-si-√teen ² i saw/see something cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear at x̱wasiteen something-(4n.O).pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see x̱at + sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ rflx 1s sh + ÿu-x̱a-dzi-√teen ² i saw/see myself 1s 4h x̱at sawduwa.áx̱ me-(1s.O) + voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S). i was heard sh x̱wadziteen self-(rflx) + pfv.i-(1s.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear 3s 1p ∅-ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² we saw/see her/him/it haa + sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ wutusiteen her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 1p 4h haa sawduwa.áx̱ us-(1p.O).voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl- we were heard (–d,s,+i).√hear has + ∅-ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² 3p 1p has wutusiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.we-(1p.S). we saw/see them i-sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 2s 4h isawduwa.áx̱ you-(2s.O).voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl- you were heard (–d,s,+i).√hear 2s 1p i-ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² we saw/see you iwtusiteen you-(2s.O).pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see yee + sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 2p 4h yee sawduwa.áx̱ you-all-(2p.O) + voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S). you all were heard 2p 1p yee + ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² we saw/see you all cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear yee wtusiteen you-all-(2p.O).pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see

ḵu-sa-ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ 4h 1p ḵu-ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² we saw/see someone 4h 4h ḵusawduwa.áx̱ someone-(4h.O).voice.pfv.someone-(4h.S). people were heard ḵoowtusiteen someone-(4h.O).pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear 4n 1p at + ÿu-tu-si-√teen ² we saw/see something at + ÿu-du-ÿa-√.áx̱ ¹ at wutusiteen something-(4n.O) + pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 4n 4h at wuduwa.áx̱ something-(4n.O) + pfv.someone-(4h.S). something was heard cl-(–d,s,+i).√hear rflx 1p sh + ÿu-tu-dzi-√teen ² we saw/see ourselves sh wutudziteen self-(rflx) + pfv.we-(1p.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see

3s 2s ∅-ÿu-i-si-√teen ² you saw/see her/him/it Now that we have seen a few verbs with a wide variety of yisiteen her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see object and subject combinations, we should have a feel for has + ∅-ÿu-i-si-√teen ² 3p 2s has yisiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-(2s.S). you saw/see them conjugating verbs for person and number. We will close this cl-(–d,s,+i).√see chapter with an examination of a verb in the and perfective 1s 2s x̱at + ÿu-i-si-√teen ² you saw/see me x̱at yisiteen me-(1s.O).pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see future modes, and this will include reflexive and reciprocal 1p 2s haa + ÿu-i-si-√teen ² you saw/see us examples so we can see how this pushes the classifier +d. haa yisiteen us-(1p.O).pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see

4h 2s ḵu-ÿu-i-si-√teen ² you saw/see someone ḵuysiteen someone-(4h.O).pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see

246 247 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation O S verb gloss translation

4n 2s at + ÿu-i-si-√teen ² you saw/see something has + a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² at yisteen something-(4n.O) + pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 4n 3p has at wusiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S). they saw/see something cl-(–d,s,+i).√see rflx 2s sh + ÿu-i-dzi-√teen ² you saw/see yourself sh yidziteen self-(rflx) + pfv.you-(2s.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see has + a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² rflx 3s has sh wudziteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S). they saw/see themselves ∅-ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 3s 2p yeeysiteen her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all saw/see her/him/it cl-(–d,s,+i).√see ∅-ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² 3s 4h wuduziteen her/him/it-(3.0)-pfv.someone-(4h.S). she/he/it was seen has + ∅-ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² cl-(+d,s,+i).√see 3p 2p has yeeysiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all saw/see them cl-(–d,s,+i).√see has + ∅-ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² 3p 4h has wuduziteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.0)-pfv.someone-(4h.S). they were seen 1s 2p x̱at + ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² you all saw/see me cl-(+d,s,+i).√see x̱at yeeysiteen me-(1s.O) + pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see x̱at + ∅-ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² 1s 4h x̱at wuduziteen i was seen 1p 2p haa + ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² you all saw/see us me-(1s.0) + pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see haa yeeysiteen us-(1p.O) + pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see haa + ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² 1p 4h haa wduziteen we were seen 4h 2p ḵu-ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² you all saw/see someone us-(1p.0) + pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see ḵuyeeysiteen someone-(4h.O).pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 2s 4h i-ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² you were seen at + ÿu-yi-si-√teen ² iwduziteen you-(2s.0)-pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see 4n 2p at yeeysiteen something-(4n.O) + pfv.you-all-(2p.S). you all saw/see something cl-(–d,s,+i).√see 2p 4h yee + ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² you all were seen yee wduziteen you-all-(2p.0)-pfv.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see rflx 2p sh + ÿu-yi-dzi-√teen ² you all saw/see yourselves sh yeeydziteen self-(rflx) + pfv.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see ḵu-ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² 4h 4h ḵoowduziteen someone-(4h.0)-pfv.someone-(4h.S). someone was seen 3s 3s a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees her/him/it cl-(+d,s,+i).√see awsiteen her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see at + ÿu-du-dzi-√teen ² has + a-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees them; they 4n 4h at wuduziteen something-(4n.0) + pfv.someone-(4h.S). something was seen 3p 3s has awsiteen (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S). cl-(+d,s,+i).√see cl-(–d,s,+i).√see saw/see them x̱at + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² 1s 3s x̱at wusiteen s/he saw/sees me me-(1s.O) + pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see future haa + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² 1p 3s haa wsiteen s/he saw/sees us us-(1p.O) + pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see yei + O-ga-u-g̱a-S-sa-√téen S will see O 2s 3s i-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees you The future mode contains the preverb «yei» for g̱a-conjugation verbs and «kei» with ga-conjugation iwsiteen you-(2s.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see verbs. These preverbs combine with the prefixes «ga-u-g̱a-» to create the future mode. The preverb 2p 3s yee + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees you all «yei» is assocaited with downward motion, and «kei» with upward motion. yee wsiteen you-all-(2p.O) + pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see

4h 3s ḵu-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees someone O S verb gloss translation ḵoowsiteen someone-(4h.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see yei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√téen ² 4n 3s at + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² s/he saw/sees something 3s 1s yei kḵwasatéen down + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. i will see her/him/it at wusiteen something-(4n.O) + pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see sh + ÿu-yi-dzi-√teen ² s/he saw/sees herself/ rflx 3s sh wudziteen yei + has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√téen ² self-(rflx) + pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(+d,s,+i).√see himself 3p 1s yei has kuḵasatéen down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. i will see them g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see has + x̱at + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² 1s 3p has x̱at wusiteen they saw/see me (3pl) + me-(1s.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see yei + i-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√téen ² 2s 1s yei ikḵwasatéen down + you-(2s.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.i-(1s.S). i will see you 1p 3p has + haa + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² they saw/see us cl-(–d,s,–i).√see has haa wsiteen (3pl) + us-(1p.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see yei + yee + ga-u-ga-x̱a-sa-√téen ² has + i-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² ̱ 2s 3p has iwsiteen they saw/see you 2p 1s yei yee kḵwasatéen down + you-all-(2p.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. i will see you all (3pl) + you-(2s.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,+i).√see i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see has + yee + ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² yei + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√téen ² 2p 3p (3pl) + you-all-(2s.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S). they saw/see you all has yee wsiteen 4h 1s yei ḵukḵwasatéen down + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. i will see someone cl-(–d,s,+i).√see i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see has + ḵu-ÿu-∅-si-√teen ² yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa-√téen ² 4h 3p has ḵoowsiteen (3pl) + someone-(4h.O).pfv.s/he-(3.S). they saw/see someone 4n 1s yei at kuḵasatéen down + something-(4n.O).ga-cj.irr. i will see something cl-(–d,s,+i).√see g̱a-md.i-(1s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see

248 249 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Object & Subject Combinations

O S verb gloss translation O S verb gloss translation yei + sh + ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-s-√téen ² yei + haa + ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√téen ² rflx 1s yei sh kuḵastéen down + self-(rflx) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. i will see myself 1p 2p yei haa gax̱yisatéen down + us-(1p.O) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you all will see us i-(1s.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√téen ² 3s 1p yei gax̱toosatéen down + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we will see her/him/it 4h 2p yei ḵugax̱yisatéen down + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you all will see someone we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see

yei + has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√téen ² you all will see 3p 1p down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. we will see them 4n 2p down + something-(4n.O) + ga-cj.irr.ga- yei has gax̱toosatéen yei at gax̱yisatéen ̱ something g̱a-md.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see md.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see

yei + i-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + sh + ga-u-g̱a-yi-s-√téen ² you all will see 2s 1p yei igax̱toosatéen down + you-(2s.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we will see you rflx 2p yei sh gax̱yistéen down + self-(rflx) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see you-all-(2p.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yourselves yei + yee + ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 2p 1p yei yee gax̱toosatéen down + you-all-(2p.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we will see you all 3s 3s yei agux̱satéen down + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. s/he will see her/him/it we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see

yei + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² s/he will see them; they 4h 1p down + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr.ga-md. we will see someone 3p 3s down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. yei ḵugax̱toosatéen ̱ yei has agux̱satéen will see them we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa-√téen ² yei + x̱at + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 4n 1p yei at gax̱toosatéen down + something-(4n.O) + ga-cj.irr. we will see something 1s 3s yei x̱at gux̱satéen down + me-(1s.O) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. s/he will see me g̱a-md.we-(1p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + sh + ga-u-g̱a-tu-s-√téen ² yei + haa + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² rflx 1p yei sh gax̱toostéen down + self-(rflx) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we will see ourselves 1p 3s yei haa gux̱satéen down + us-(1p.O) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. s/he will see us we-(1p.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√téen ² yei + i-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 3s 2s yei kg̱eesatéen her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you- you will see her/him/it 2s 3s yei igux̱satéen down + you-(2s.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. s/he will see you (2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√téen ² yei + yee + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr.ga-md. 2p 3s down + you-all-(2p.O) + ga-cj.irr.ga-md. s/he will see you all 3p 2s ̱ you will see them yei yee gux̱satéen ̱ yei has gag̱isatéen you-(2s.S). s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + x̱at + ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√téen ² 4h 3s yei ḵugux̱satéen down + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. s/he will see someone 1s 2s yei x̱at gag̱isatéen down + me-(1s.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you will see me s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + haa + ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√téen ² 4n 3s yei at gux̱satéen down + something-(4n.O) + ga-cj.irr. s/he will see something 1p 2s yei haa gag̱isatéen down + us-(1p.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you will see us g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + sh + ga-u-g̱a-yi-s-√téen ² s/he will see herself/ yei + ḵu-ga-u-ga-i-sa-√téen ² rflx 3s down + self-(rflx) + ga-cj.irr.ga-md. ̱ yei sh gug̱astéen ̱ himself 4h 2s yei ḵu gag̱isatéen down + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you will see someone s/he-(3.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + has + x̱at + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-i-sa-√téen ² 1s 3p yei has x̱at gux̱satéen down + (3pl) + me-(1s.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see me 4n 2s yei at gag̱isatéen down + something-(4n.O) + ga-cj.irr. you will see something g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see g̱a-md.you-(2s.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + has + haa + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + sh + ga-u-g̱a-i-s-√téen ² 1p 3p yei has haa gux̱satéen down + (3pl) + us-(1p.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see us rflx 2s yei sh gag̱istéen self-(rflx) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-(2s.S). you will see yourself g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + has + i-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 2s 3p down + (3pl) + you-(2s.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see you yei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√téen ² you all will see her/ yei has igux̱satéen 3s 2p yei gax̱yisatéen down + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see him/it yei + has + yee + ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa-√téen ² 2p 3p yei has yee gux̱satéen down + (3pl) + you-all-(2s.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see you all 3p 2p yei has gax̱yisatéen down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. you all will see them g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see g̱a-md.you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + has + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² yei + x̱at + ga-u-ga-yi-sa-√téen ² 4h 3p yei has ḵugux̱satéen down + (3pl) + someone-(4h.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see someone ̱ ga-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see 1s 2p yei x̱at gax̱yisatéen down + me-(1s.O) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you all will see me ̱ you-all-(2p.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see

250 251 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

O S verb gloss translation yei + has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 4n 3p yei has at gux̱satéen down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see something g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa-√téen ² 3s 3s yei has sh gug̱astéen down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.O).ga-cj.irr. they will see themselves g̱a-md.s/he-(3.S).cl-(–d,s,–i).√see yei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 3s 4h yei gax̱dustéen down + her/him/it-(3.0)-ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. her/him/it will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 3p 4h yei has gax̱dustéen down + (3pl) + her/him/it-(3.0)-ga-cj.irr. they will be seen g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + x̱at + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 1s 4h yei x̱at gax̱dustéen down + me-(1s.0) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. i will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + haa + ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 1p 4h yei haa gax̱dustéen down + us-(1p.0) + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. we will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + i-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 2s 4h yei igax̱dustéen down + you-(2s.0)-ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + yee + ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 2p 4h yei yee gax̱dustéen down + you-all-(2p.0)-ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. you all will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + ḵu-ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 4h 4h yei ḵugax̱dustéen down + someone-(4h.0)-ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md. someone will be seen someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see yei + at + ga-u-g̱a-du-s-√téen ² 4n 4h yei at gax̱dustéen down + something-(4n.0) + ga-cj.irr. something will be seen g̱a-md.someone-(4h.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see woosh + yei + ga-u-g̱a-tu-s-√téen ² recip 1p woosh yei gax̱toostéen recip + down + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.we-(1p.S). we will see each other cl-(+d,s,–i).√see

woosh + yei + ga-u-g̱a-yi-s-√téen ² you all will see each recip 2p woosh yei gax̱yistéen recip + down + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.you-all- (2p.S).cl-(+d,s,–i).√see other woosh + yei + ga-u-g̱a-tu-s-√téen ² recip 3s woosh yei gug̱astéen recip + down + ga-cj.irr.g̱a-md.we-(1p.S). they will see each other cl-(+d,s,–i).√see

252 17 Motion Verbs

Tléix’ yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil áwé át woogoot. — Yakwx̲waan Tláa

There was this tme Raven was walking around. — Katherine Mills, Tʼakdeintaan̲ 1

Introduction This may be the first time that motion verbs are fully dia- grammed for you. The important things to remember about motion verbs is that they do not have an imperfective mode, but instead often use the progressive imperfective mode to describe present-tense actions. More importantly, the conjugation prefix (CP) changes depending on the type of motion, which is determined by the chosen preverb. The «na-» and «∅-» conjugation prefix forms are by far the most common, but a quick look at the «ga-» and «g̲a-» show how those two are linked with upward (ga-) and downward (g̲a-) motions, respectively. The em dash (—) means that no preverb is present, but the motion is identified by some other means. For example, if Raven is flying up out of the whale, then the motion verbs may be «ga-» conjugation until it becomes clear that the motion has changed. To see how some of these works, we will use two very common verbs, which you may have heard as «hítde woogoot»

1 Katzeek, Smitty. “Tánkʼ X̱ʼéidáx̱ Áyá, Ishka Hít Sʼaatí, G̱aanax̱teidí, Tlákw Aan (Tlingit language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnW4bo4lC7A.

253 Understanding Tlingit Verbs II Verb Forms and «neilt uwagút». The reason why the perfective forms motion toward area change have been long thought to be goal oriented, what we preverb meaning call telic (goal achieved) and atelic (goal not achieved), but N-x̲ʼé-xʼ + kei catching up with N linguists working on Tlingit now see it more as a conjugation desiembark, exit boat or other vehicle switch based on the type of motion being described. yei While these switches seem like a lot to deal with, the ad- yeik̲ ⁓ yeek̲ moving down to shore vantage of learning them is that you apply the same preverb héeni + yeik̲ moving down into water to conjugation prefix combinations for every type of motion daak̲ moving up from shore, back from open verbs. The stem variation and other structures become much dáag̲i + daak̲ moving farther up from shore more predictable once the types of motion are memorized. k̲wáak̲x̲ + daak̲ moving by mistake, wrongly The lists of preverbs and conjugation prefixes come from daak seaward, out into open, falling from sky Crippen2 and the verb modes come from Eggleston3. For more on motion verbs and verb modes, see those sources. k̲ux̲ ⁓ k̲ux̲dé [+d] revertng, returning N-xʼ k̲ux̲ [+d] revertng, returning to N ∅- Conjugation Prefix Preverbs «∅-» conjugation is used with the following motion preverbs motion confined to a location preverb meaning motion toward a terminus N-xʼ coming near N preverb meaning N-ÿa coming up to N N-{t,x̲,de) arriving at N, coming to N N + gunaÿa- separatng from N neil(t) ⁓ neilx̲ ⁓ neildé moving inside, coming home N + jishá- getng ahead of N N-xʼ + neil(t) movinginside house at N gági emerging, coming out into open haat ⁓ haax̲ ⁓ haa(n)dé coming here dáagi coming out of water yóo-{t,x̲,de} going away, going of somewhere héeni going into water kux ⁓ kuxx̲ ⁓ kúxde moving aground, into shallow water g̲unayéi ⁓ g̲unéi beginning ÿan ⁓ ÿax̲ ⁓ ÿánde moving ashore, to rest, comlpetng N-x̲ moving in place at N, while stuck at N N-xʼ + ÿan coming to rest at N N-xʼ + ÿax̲ turning over by N N-náx̲ + ÿan moving across N, to the other side of N áa + ÿax̲ tunring over ÿan + kʼi- setng up, erectng shú + ÿax̲ turning over end by end ÿan + sha- setng up, leaning against ÿetx̲ startng, taking of, picking up

motion toward area oscillating motion preverb meaning preverb meaning kei moving up yoo moving back and forth, to and fro ux̲ + kei moving out of control, blindly, amiss ÿan + yoo moving up and down (from surface)

2 Crippen, James. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook.” (Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013), 26–29. 3 Eggleston, Keri. “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms – A Component of ‘575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms’” (Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013), 451–472.

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oblique unbounded motion progressive imperfective (–) preverb meaning O-S tlingit gloss translation N-x̲ + ÿa-oo ⁓ ÿaa moving obliquely, circuitously along N 2s tlél aadé yaa neegút tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-i-∅-√gút you are going there N + daa-x̲ circling around N 3s tlél aadé yaa unagút tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is going there N-dé + ÿa-oo ⁓ ÿaa moving obliquely, circuitously toward N indH [does not occur] — — hé-dé moving over that way, aside, out of the way N-dáx̲ + ÿa-oo ⁓ ÿaa moving obliquely, circuitously away from N perfective (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation N + jikaa-dáx̲ getng out of Nʼs way 1s át x̱waagút aa-t u-x̱a-ÿa-√gút i arrived there N-náx̲ + ÿa-oo ⁓ ÿaa moving obliquely, circuitously along, through N 2s át iyagút aa-t u-i-ÿa-√gút you arrived there N-xʼ + ÿa-oo ⁓ ÿaa moving obliquely, circuitously at N 3s át uwagút aa-t u-∅-ÿa-√gút s/he arrived there N + daséi-xʼ exchanging places with N indH át aawagút aa-t a-u-ÿa-√gút someone arrived there hanging preverb meaning perfective (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation N-x̲ sha-ÿa-oo hanging up at N 1s tlél át x̱wagoot tlél aa-t ÿu-x̱a-∅-√goot i didʼt arrive there ÿax̲ + sha-ÿa-oo hanging up 2s tlél át yigoot tlél aa-t ÿu-i-∅-√goot you didnʼt arrive there revertive motion 3s tlél át wugoot tlél aa-t ÿu-∅-∅-√goot s/he didnʼt arrive there preverb meaning indH [does not occur] — — a-ÿa-oo [+d] revertng, turning back imperative O-S tlingit gloss translation Verb Mode Examples 2s át gú aa-t ∅-√gú go there! √goot¹ N-t⁓ (∅)-S-∅-√goot⁓ perfective habitual (+) moton O-S tlingit gloss translation for (singular) S to arrive at N, go to N (by walking or as general term) 1s át x̱wagootch aa-t ∅-u-x̱a-∅-√goot-ch i go there (every tme) progressive imperfective (+) 2s át eegootch aa-t ∅-u-i-∅-√goot-ch you go there (every tme) O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s át ugootch aa-t ∅-u-∅-∅-√goot-ch s/he goes there (every tme) 1s aadé yaa nx̱agút aa-dé yaa na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am going there someone goes there (every indH aa-t a-∅-u-∅-√goot-ch 2s aadé yaa neegút aa-dé yaa na-i-∅-√gút you are going there át oogootch tme) 3s aadé yaa nagút aa-dé yaa na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is going there indH aadé yaa anagút aa-dé yaa a-na-∅-√gút someone is going there perfective habitual (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation progressive imperfective (–) 1s tlél át x̱wagootch tlél aa-t ∅-u-x̱a-∅-√goot-ch i havenʼt arrived there yet O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s tlél át eegootch tlél aa-t ∅-u-i-∅-√goot-ch you havenʼt arrived there yet 1s tlél aadé yaa nx̱wagút tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am going there 3s tlél át ugootch tlél aa-t ∅-u-∅-∅-√goot-ch is/he hasnʼt arrived there yet

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perfective habitual (–) potential (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation indH — — gwál tlél aa-t [does not occur] 1s gwál tlél át k̲waagoodí i might not go there u-∅-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í gwál tlél future (+) 3s gwál tlél át gwaagoodí s/he might not go there ̲ aa-t u-∅-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í O-S tlingit gloss translation

1s aadé kk̲wagóot aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√góot i will go there potential attributive 2s aadé kg̲eegóot aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√góot you will go there O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s aadé gugagóot aa-dé ga-u-ga-∅-∅-√góot s/he will go there tlél aa-dé aa-t ̲ ̱ 1s tlél aadé át k̲waagoodi yé no way i can get there u-∅-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í yé indH aadé akg̲wagóot aa-dé a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√góot someone will go there tlél aa-dé aa-t 3s tlél aadé át gwaagoodi yé no way s/he can get there ̲ u-∅-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í yé future (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation potential decessive 1s tlél aadé kk̲wagoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot i wonʼt go there O-S tlingit gloss translation

2s tlél aadé kg̲eegoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√goot you wonʼt go there 1s át k̲wagoodín aa-t u-∅-g̲a-x̲a-∅-√goot-ín i would have gone there 3s tlél aadé gug̲agoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot s/he wonʼt go there 3s át g̲wagoodín aa-t u-∅-g̲a-∅-∅-√goot-ín s/he would have gone there indH [does not occur] — — conditional hortative O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s át x̲agútni aa-t ∅-x̲a-∅-√gút-ni if/when i get there 1s át k̲agoot aa-t ∅-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot let me go there 2s át eegútni aa-t ∅-i-∅-√gút-ni if/when you get there 3s át g̲agoot aa-t ∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot let him/her go there 3s át gútni aa-t ∅-∅-∅-√gút-ni if/when s/he gets there

repetitive imperfective O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s áx̲ goot aa-x̱ ∅-∅-√goot s/he goes there (regularly)

prohibitive O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s líl áx̲ eegoodík̲ líl aa-x̱ ∅-i-∅-√goot-íḵ donʼt go there! 2s líl át yigoodík̲ líl aa-t ÿu-i-∅-√goot-íḵ donʼt go there!

potential (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation

1s gwál át k̲waagoodí gwál aa-t u-∅-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í i might go there 3s gwál át g̲waagoodí gwál aa-t u-∅-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í s/he might go there

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Preverbs & na- Conjugation Prefix perfective (+) «na-» conjugation is used with the following motion preverbs O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s aadé x̱waagoot aa-dé ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√gút i arrived there unbounded directed motion 2s aadé yeegoot aa-dé ÿu-i-ÿa-√gút you arrived there preverb meaning 3s aadé woogoot aa-dé ÿu-∅-ÿa-√gút s/he arrived there — moving along, lateral, horizontal N-dé moving toward N perfective (–) N-x̲ moving along N O-S tlingit gloss translation N-dáx̲ moving away from N 1s tlél aadé x̱wagoot tlél aa-dé ÿu-x̱a-∅-√goot i didʼt arrive there N-náx̲ moving by way of, through N 2s tlél aadé yigoot tlél aa-dé ÿu-i-∅-√goot you didnʼt arrive there N-nák̲ leaving N behind 3s tlél aadé wugoot tlél aa-dé ÿu-∅-∅-√goot s/he didnʼt arrive there N-g̲áa going for (to obtain) N yux̲ moving out of house imperative N-xʼ + yux̲ moving out of house at N O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s aadé nagú aa-dé na-√gú go there! unbounded undirected motion preverb meaning perfective habitual (+) N-t moving around N O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s aa-t na-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i go there (every tme) N áa moving around N aadé nx̱agútch 2s aadé neegútch aa-t na-ÿu-i-∅-√gút-ch you go there (every tme) 3s aadé nagútch aa-t na-ÿu-∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he goes there (every tme) Verb Mode Examples perfective habitual (–) √goot ¹ N-dé (na)-S-∅-√goot⁓ O-S tlingit gloss translation moton 1s for (singular) S to walk, go (by walking or as general term) toward N tlél aadé nx̱wagútch tlél aa-t na-u-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i havenʼt arrived there yet 2s tlél aadé neegútch tlél aa-t na-u-i-∅-√gút-ch you havenʼt arrived there yet progressive imperfective (+) 3s tlél aadé unagútch tlél aa-t na-u-∅-∅-√gút-ch is/he hasnʼt arrived there yet O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s aadé yaa nx̱agút aa-dé yaa na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am going there future (+) 2s aadé yaa neegút aa-dé yaa na-i-∅-√gút you are going there O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s aa-dé yaa na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is going there aadé yaa nagút 1s aadé kk̲wagóot aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√góot i will go there 2s aadé kg̲eegóot aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√góot you will go there progressive imperfective (–) 3s aadé gugagóot aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√góot s/he will go there O-S tlingit gloss translation ̲ 1s tlél aadé yaa nx̱wagút tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am going there future (–) 2s tlél aadé yaa neegút tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-i-∅-√gút you are going there O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s tlél aa-dé yaa u-na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is going there tlél aadé yaa unagút 1s tlél aadé kk̲wagoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot i wonʼt go there

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future (–) potential decessive O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s tlél aadé kg̲eegoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√goot you wonʼt go there 1s aadé unk̲aagoodín aa-dé u-na-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-ín i would have gone there 3s tlél aadé gug̲agoot tlél aa-dé ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot s/he wonʼt go there 3s aadé ng̲wagoodín aa-dé u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-ín s/he would have gone there

hortative conditional O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation

1s aadé nk̲agoot aa-t na-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot let me go there 1s aadé nax̲agútni aa-dé na-x̲a-∅-√gút-ni if/when i get there 3s aadé ng̲agoot aa-t na-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot let him/her go there 2s aadé neegútni aa-dé na-i-∅-√gút-ni if/when you get there 3s aadé nagútni aa-dé na-∅-∅-√gút-ni if/when s/he gets there repetitive imperfective O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s aadé yoo yagútk aa-dé yoo ∅-∅-√gút-k s/he goes there (regularly)

prohibitive O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s líl aadé yoo eegútgik̲ líl aa-dé yoo i-∅-√gút-k-iḵ donʼt go there! 2s líl aadé yigoodík̲ líl aa-dé ÿu-i-∅-√goot-íḵ donʼt go there!

potential (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation gwál aa-dé 1s gwál aadé unk̲aagoodí i might go there u-na-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í gwál aa-dé 3s gwál aadé ngwaagoodí s/he might go there ̲ u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í

potential (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation gwál tlél aadé gwál tlél aa-dé 1s i might not go there unk̲aagoodí u-na-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í gwál tlél aadé gwál tlél aa-dé 3s s/he might not go there ng̲waagoodí u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í

potential attributive O-S tlingit gloss translation tlél aadé aadé tlél aa-dé aa-dé 1s no way i can get there unk̲aagoodí yé u-na-g̲a-x̲a-ÿa-√goot-í yé tlél aadé áadé tlél aa-dé aa-dé 3s no way s/he can get there ng̲waagoodí yé u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í yé

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Preverbs & ga- Conjugation Prefix perfective (–) «ga-» conjugation is used with the following motion preverbs O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s tlél k̲ut yigoot tlél k̲ut ÿu-i-∅-√goot you didnʼt get lost initiatory motion 3s tlél k̲ut wugoot tlél k̲ut ÿu-∅-∅-√goot s/he didnʼt get lost preverb meaning — startng of, picking up, upward imperative N-dáx̲ startng of, picking up from N O-S tlingit gloss translation N + ítx̲ folling N — [does not occur] — —

wrongly perfective habitual (+) preverb meaning O-S tlingit gloss translation k̲ut going astray, getng lost 1s k̲ut gax̲agútch k̲ut ga-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i get lost (every tme) 2s k̲ut geegútch k̲ut ga-ÿu-i-∅-√gút-ch you get lost (every tme) Verb Mode Examples 3s k̲ut gagútch k̲ut ga-ÿu-∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he gets lost (every tme)

√goot ¹ k̲ut + (ga)-S-∅-√goot⁓ perfective habitual (–) moton O-S tlingit gloss translation for (singular) S to get lost (on foot) 1s tlél k̲ut goox̲agútch tlél k̲ut ga-u-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i havenʼt goten lost yet 2s tlél k̲ut geegútch tlél k̲ut ga-u-i-∅-√gút-ch you havenʼt goten lost yet progressive imperfective (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s tlél k̲ut googútch tlél k̲ut ga-u-∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he hasnʼt goten lost yet 1s k̲ut kei nx̲agút k̲ut kei na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am getng lost future (+) 2s k̲ut kei neegút k̲ut kei na-i-∅-√gút you are getng lost O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s k̲ut kei nagút k̲ut kei na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is getng lost 1s k̲ut kei kk̲wagóot k̲ut kei ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√góot i will get lost 2s k̲ut kei kgeegóot k̲ut kei ga-u-ga-i-∅-√góot you will get lost progressive imperfective (–) ̲ ̱ O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s k̲ut kei kg̲wagóot k̲ut kei ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√góot s/he will get lost — [does not occur] — — future (–) perfective (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s tlél k̲ut kei kk̲wagoot tlél k̲ut kei ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot i wonʼt get lost 1s k̲ut x̲waagoot k̲ut ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√goot i got lost 2s tlél k̲ut kei kg̲eegoot tlél k̲ut kei ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√goot you wonʼt get lost 2s k̲ut yeegoot k̲ut ÿu-i-ÿa-√goot you got lost 3s tlél k̲ut kei kg̲wagoot tlél k̲ut kei ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot s/he wonʼt get lost 3s k̲ut woogoot k̲ut ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot s/he got lost hortative perfective (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s k̲ut gak̲agoot k̲ut ga-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot let me get lost 1s tlél k̲ut x̲wagoot tlél k̲ut ÿu-x̱a-∅-√goot i didnʼt get lost 3s k̲ut gag̲agoot k̲ut ga-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot let him/her get lost

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repetitive imperfective Preverbs & ga-̲ Conjugation Prefix O-S tlingit gloss translation «g̲a-» conjugation is used with the following motion preverbs 3s k̲ut kei gútch k̲ut kei ∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he gets lost (regularly) downward motion preverb meaning prohibitive O-S tlingit gloss translation — falling (intransitve uncontrolled themes), downward 2s Líl k̲ut kei eegútjik̲! líl k̲ut kei u-i-∅-√gút-ch-iḵ donʼt get lost! ÿaa moving down yaax̲ embarking, getng into boat/vehicle potential (+) ÿanax̲ moving down into ground O-S tlingit gloss translation N-x̲ moving down along N gwál k̲ut 3s gwál k̲ut gagwaagoodi s/he might get lost héen-x̲ moving into water ̲ u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í káx̲ + sha- falling over, prone potential (–) N-náx̲ moving down by way of, through N O-S tlingit gloss translation gwál tlél k̲ut gwál tlél k̲ut 3s s/he might not get lost Verb Mode Examples gag̲waagoodi u-ga-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í

potential attributive √goot ¹ N-x̲ + (g̲a)-S-∅-√goot⁓ (motion) O-S tlingit gloss translation moton for (singular) S to walk, go (by walking or as a general term) down along N tlél aadé k̲ut tlél aa-dé k̲ut 3s no way can s/he get lost gag̲waagoodi yé u-ga-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í yé progressive imperfective (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation potential decessive 1s áx̲ yei nx̲agút aa-x̲ yei na-x̱a-∅-√gút i am walking down along it O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s áx̲ yei neegút aa-x̲ yei na-i-∅-√gút you are walking down along it 3s k̲ut gag̲wagoodín k̲ut u-ga-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-ín s/he would have goten lost 3s áx̲ yei nagút aa-x̲ yei na-∅-∅-√gút s/he is walking down along it conditional progressive imperfective (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s k̲ut gagútni k̲ut ga-∅-∅-√gút-ni if/when s/he gets lost 1s tlél áx̲ yei nx̲wagút tlél aa-x̲ yei na-u-x̱a-∅-√gút iʼm not walking down along it 2s tlél áx̲ yei neegút tlél aa-x̲ yei na-u-i-∅-√gút youʼre not walking down along it 3s tlél áx̲ yei unagút tlél aa-x̲ yei na-u-∅-∅-√gút s/heʼs not walking down along it

perfective (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s áx̲ x̲waagoot aa-x̲ ÿu-x̱a-ÿa-√goot i walked down along it 2s áx̲ yeegoot aa-x̲ ÿu-i-ÿa-√goot you walked down along it 3s áx̲ woogoot aa-x̲ ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot s/he walked down along it

266 267 Understanding Tlingit Verbs II Verb Forms

perfective (–) hortative O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s tlél áx̲ x̲wagoot tlél aa-x̲ ÿu-x̱a-∅-√goot i didnʼt walk down along it 1s áx̲ yaa g̲aak̲agoot aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot let me walk down along it 2s tlél áx̲ yigoot tlél aa-x̲ ÿu-i-∅-√goot you didnʼt walk down along it 3s áx̲ yaa g̲aag̲agoot aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot let him/her walk down along it 3s tlél áx̲ woogoot tlél aa-x̲ ÿu-∅-∅-√goot s/he didnʼt walk down along it repetitive imperfective imperative O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 1s áx̲ yei gútch aa-x̲ yei ∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he walks down along it (regularly) — Áx̲ yaa g̲agú! aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch Walk down along it! prohibitive perfective habitual (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s Líl áx̲ yei eegútjik̲! líl aa-x̲ yei u-i-∅-√gút-ch-iḵ donʼt walk down along it! 1s áx̲ yaa k̲agútch aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-ÿu-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i walk down along it (every tme) potential (+) 2s áx̲ yaa g̲eegútch aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-ÿu-i-∅-√gút-ch you walk down along it (every tme) O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s áx̲ yaa gagútch aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-ÿu-∅-∅-√gút-ch s/he walks down along it (every tme) ̲ gwál aa-x̲ 3s gwál áx̲ gwaagaagoodi s/he might walk down along it ̲ ̲ u-na-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í perfective habitual (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation potential (–) 1s tlél áx̲ yaa k̲wagútch tlél aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-u-x̱a-∅-√gút-ch i havenʼt walked down along it yet O-S tlingit gloss translation you havenʼt walked down along 2s tlél aa-x̲ yaa ga-u-i-∅-√gút-ch gwál tlél áx̲ gwál tlél aa-x̲ tlél áx̲ yaa g̲eegútch ̲ it yet 3s s/he might not walk down along it g̲waag̲aagoodi u-g̲a-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í s/he hasnʼt walked down along 3s tlél aa-x̲ yaa ga-u-∅-∅-√gút-ch tlél áx̲ yaa g̲wagútch ̲ it yet potential attributive O-S tlingit gloss translation future (+) tlél aadé áx̲ yaa tlél aa-dé aa-x̲ yaa O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s no way can s/he walk down along it g̲waag̲aagoodi yé u-g̲a-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í yé 1s áx̲ yei kk̲wagóot aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√góot i will walk down along it 2s áx̲ yei kg̲eegóot aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√góot you will walk down along it potential decessive 3s áx̲ yei kg̲wagóot aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√góot s/he will get lost O-S tlingit gloss translation 3s áx̲ yaa g̲waag̲agoodín aa-x̲ u-g̲a-g̲a-∅-ÿa-√goot-ín s/he would walked down along it future (–) O-S tlingit gloss translation conditional 1s tlél áx̲ yei kk̲wagoot tlél aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅-√goot i wonʼt walk down along it O-S tlingit gloss translation 2s tlél áx̲ yei kg̲eegoot tlél aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-i-∅-√goot you wonʼt walk down along it 3s áx̲ yaa g̲agútni aa-x̲ yaa g̲a-∅-∅-√gút-ni if/when s/he walks down along it 3s tlél áx̲ yei gug̲agoot tlél aa-x̲ yei ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot s/he wonʼt walk down along it perfective attributive (+) O-S tlingit gloss translation wé aa-x̲ yaa ÿu-∅-∅-√goot-i 3s the one who walked down along it wé áx̲ yaa woogoodi aa aa

268 269

18 Verb Modes

Tlél tsu ḵut aa x̱wag̱éexʼ tle a saaxʼóo teen. — Kooxíchxʼ

I didnʼt lose any of the names. — Alex Andrews, Kaagwaantaan1

Introduction The information presented here is collected from Keri Egglestonʼs “575 Tlingit Verbs: a Study of Tlingit Verb Para- digms” and James Crippenʼs “Tlingit Verbal Structure Hand- book” and “Tlingitology Seminar”. See those works for more examples and detailed explanations These tables are intended to be a brief, mostly symbolic overview of the verb forms. To start with, letʼs take a look at verb types in Tlingit. Every verb belongs to one of the following types:

type description special characteristics act for someone to do something no primary imperfectve (use progessive for something to happen event impefectve); ofen uses object pronouns; rarely uses for something to be a certain way state subject pronouns no primary imperfectve (use progessive motion for something to move impefectve); conjugaton prefx changes based on type of moton positional for something to be positoned only occurs in imperfectve

1 Dauenhauer, Nora, Richard Dauenhauer, and Lydia Black. “The Battle at Indian River.” Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká: Russians in Tlingit America. trans. Nora Dauenhauer, et al. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), 329.

271 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

When you think about what the verb is describing, then act you can usually figure out the verb type in Tlingit. There are for S to hold, retain O a couple of verbs that might surprise you, but most of them ∅ O-(g̱a)-S-l-sháat~ in one’s grasp; for S to line up with the type of activity the verb describes. Verb type capture, hold O captve for S to write, draw, or is one characteristic that you need to understand in order to paint a picture of O; for S use Tlingit verbs. Once you know the verb type, then you can ka- O-ka-(∅)-S-sh-√xeet~ to print O by hand; for S to predict components of the verb and how they might change photograph, take pictures, X-rays of O in different conjugations. for S to feel (that way) tu- We have looked at how to conjugate verbs by person, so (yéi) sh + tu-(na)-S-d+∅-√nook~ ³ (esp. physical sensaton) we will begin conjugating them by what they are doing, and ji- yéi + ji-(na)-S-∅-√nei~ ² for S to work; for S to do this is called . In English, we might think of mode as mode state past tense, present tense, and future tense. That is a start, for O to be good, fne, ∅ but then we have to keep in mind that Tlingit has a differ- O-(ga)-∅-√kʼéi prety ent sense of time in the language. Tlingit verbs often focus for O to be awful, terrible, on whether the verb has been completed or not, instead of ka- O-ka-(ga)-(u)-l-√jée ² eerie (in appearance), when it may have happened. When an action is completed, unatractve tu- for O to be kind, gentle it is referred to as perfective form, and while this often aligns O-tu-(ga)-∅-√.aan ² with English past tense (yéi jix̱waanei – I worked), there are ji- — [no verb found for this combination] — Tlingit verbs that are perfective but are used to describe a event present tense action (ix̱wsiteen — I see you; I saw you). ∅ O-(∅)-S-∅-√.aax̱~ ¹ for S to hear O In our discussions of verb mode, much of the information for something to shine, ka- ka-(∅)-d+∅-√gaan~ presented here comes from the following texts: Dictionary of produce light by burning Tlingit & 575+ Tlingit Verbs by Keri Eggleston and “Tlingit Ver- for (singular) S to decide, tu- (yéi) + tu-(na)-S-d+∅-√taan~ ⁵ make up oneʼs mind (that bal Structure” & “Tlingitology Seminar” by James Crippen. way) These texts were developed in partnership with patient and ji- ji-(na)-s-√taan~ ⁴ for the ocean to be rough knowledgeable elders, and build upon the immaculate work motion of Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer, Jeff Leer, and for (singular) S to walk, go Constance Naish & Gillian Story. ∅ N-dé + (na)-S-∅-√goot~ ¹ (by walking or as general We will look at eighteen different verb modes. There are term) toward N several more modes, but these are the most common. To for something (usually a see how these verbs work, we will be using the verbs in the ka- N-t~ + ka-(∅)-∅-xeex~ round object) to fall, drop into N following table as examples. These will be conjugated using tu- — [no verb found for this combination] — third person objects and subjects. Changing the pronouns can affect conjugation and contraction, which can also be ji- N kanax̱ + ji-ya-(∅)-d+s-√taan~ ⁴ for waves to wash over N figured out with time and practice. In the future, watch for positional for (singlular) S to be verb modes while reading translated Tlingit and listening to ∅ S-∅-√.aa ¹ seated fluent speakers, and try to put these together yourself. ka- yóo + ka-∅-√tán ⁸ for something to be bent tu- — [no verb found for this combination] — ji- — [no verb found for this combination] —

272 273 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Imperfective (+) imperfective (+): doing it; does it motion O-S-cl-√root ∅ [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — s/he is doing it; s/he does it ka- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] —

imperfective (+): doing it; does it tu- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — preverb — ji- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — prefixes — positional conjugation prefix — .áa ∅ s/he sits; s/he is sitng act –i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- ∅-∅-√.áa classifier state +i yóo katán ÿa, di, si, dzi, li, dli, shi, ji ka- itʼs bent stem variation unpredictable yóo ka-∅-√tán suffixes — tu- — — ji- — — imperfective (+): doing it; does it act alshát ∅ s/he is holding it a-∅-l-√shát akshaxeet ka- s/he writes it; s/he is writng it a-ka-∅-sha-√xeet (yéi) sh tudinook tu- s/he feels that way (yéi) sh ∅-tu-di-√nook yéi jiné ji- s/he works; s/he is working yéi ji-∅-∅-√né state yakʼéi ∅ he/she/it is good ∅-ÿa-√kʼéi kalijée / kulijée ka- it looks terrible ∅-ka-li-√jée tuli.aan tu- s/he is kind ∅-tu-li-√.aan ji- — — event ∅ [no imperfectve for event verbs] — ka- [no imperfectve for event verbs] — tu- [no imperfectve for event verbs] — ji- [no imperfectve for event verbs] —

274 275 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Imperfective (–) imperfective (–): not doing it; does not do it motion

tlél + O-u-S-cl–i-√root ∅ [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — s/he is not doing it; s/he does not do it ka- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] —

imperfective (–): not doing it; does not do it tu- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — preverb negatve tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl ji- [no imperfectve for moton verbs] — positional prefixes irrealis u- tlél u.aa conjugation prefix — ∅ s/he doesnʼt sit; s/he isnʼt sitng tlél u-∅-∅-√.aa classifier –i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- tlél yóo kootán stem variation unpredictable ka- it isn’t bent tlél yóo ka-u-√tán suffixes — tu- — — imperfective (–): not doing it; does not do it ji- — — act tlél oolshát ∅ s/he isnʼt holding him/her/it tlél a-u-∅-la-√shát

tlél akooshxeet s/he doesn’t write it; s/he’s not ka- tlél a-ka-u-∅-sha-√xeet writng it tlél (yéi) sh toodanook tu- s/he doesn’t feel that way tlél (yéi) sh tu-u-∅-da-√nook

tlél yéi jeené s/he doesn’t work; s/he isn’t ji- tlél yéi ji-u-∅-∅-√né working

state tlél ukʼé ∅ he/she/it is not good tlél ∅-u-∅-√kʼé tlél kooljée ka- it doesn’t look terrible tlél ∅-ka-u-la-√jée tlél tool.aan tu- s/he isn’t kind tlél ∅-tu-u-la-√.aan ji- — — event ∅ [no imperfectve for event verbs] — ka- [no imperfectve for event verbs] — tu- [no imperfectve for event verbs] — ji- [no imperfectve for event verbs] —

276 277 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Perfective (+) prefix combinations (no thematic prefix) d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh O-ÿu-S-cl -√root +i 1s x̱wadi- x̱wadzi- x̱wadli- x̱waji- s/he did it 1p wutudi- wutudzi- wutudli- wutuji- perfective (+): did it 2s yidi- yidzi- yidli- yiji- preverb — 2p yeeydi- yeeydzi- yeeydli- yeeyji- prefixes perfectve ÿu- 3 wudi- wudzi- wudli- wuji- conjugation prefix — 3–3 awdi- awdzi- awdli- awji- classifier +i ÿa, di, si, dzi, li, dli, shi, ji IndH wuduwa- wududzi- wududli- wuduji- ∅ open cp cv́v cvv nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvv prefix combinations (Ca- thematic prefix)

fading ∅cp cv́v ∅ s l sh cvvh na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cvv 1s Cax̱waa- Cax̱wsi- Cax̱wli- Cax̱wshi- ∅ closed low cp cvvc stem variation 1p Cawtuwa- Cawtusi- Cawtuli- Cawtushi- cvvc na , ga , ga cvvc cp cp ̱ cp 2s Ceeya- Caysi- Cayli- Cayshi- ∅ closed high cp cv́vc 2p Cayeey- Cayeeysi- Cayeeyli- Cayeeyshi- cvvć na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cv́vc 3 Caawa- Cawsi- Cawli- Cawshi- ∅ glotalized cp cv́vcʼ 3–3 aCaawa- aCawsi- aCawli- aCawshi- cvvcʼ na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cv́vcʼ IndH Cawduwa- Cawdudzi- Cawdudli- Cawduji- suffixes — prefix combinations (Ca- thematic prefix) prefix combinations (no thematic prefix) d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh ∅ s l sh 1s Cax̱wdi- Cax̱wdzi- Cax̱wdli- Cax̱wji- 1s x̱waa- x̱wasi- x̱wali- x̱washi- 1p Cawtudi- Cawtudzi- Cawtudli- Cawtuji- 1p wutuwa- wutusi- wutuli- wutushi- 2s Caydi- Caydzi- Caydli- Cayji- 2s yee- / iya- yisi- yili- yishi- 2p Cayeeydi- Cayeeydzi- Cayeeydli- Cayeeyji- 2p yeey- yeeysi- yeeyli- yeeyshi- 3 Cawdi- Cawdzi- Cawdli- Cawji- 3 woo- / uwa- wusi- wuli- wushi- 3–3 aCawdi- aCawdzi- aCawdli- aCawji- 3–3 aawa- awsi- awli- awshi- IndH Cawduwa- Cawdudzi- Cawdudli- Cawduji- IndH wuduwa- wududzi- wududli- wuduji-

278 279 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

prefix combinations (Ci- thematic prefix) prefix combinations (Cu- thematic prefix) ∅ s l sh d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh 1s Cix̱waa- Cix̱wsi- Cix̱wli- Cix̱wshi- 1s Cux̱wdi- Cux̱wdzi- Cux̱wdli- Cux̱wji- 1p Ciwtuwa- Ciwtusi- Ciwtuli- Ciwtushi- 1p Cuwtudi- Cuiwtudzi- Cuwtudli- Cuwtuji- 2s Ceeya- Ciysi- Ciyli- Ciyshi- 2s Cuydi- Cuydzi- Cuydli- Cuyji- 2p Ciyeey- Ciyeeysi- Ciyeeyli- Ciyeeyshi- 2p Cuyeeydi- Cuyeeydzi- Cuyeeydli- Cuyeeyji- 3 Ceeya- Ciwsi- Ciwli- Ciwshi- 3 Cuwdi- Cuwdzi- Cuwdli- Cuwji- 3–3 aCeeya- aCiwsi- aCiwli- aCiwshi- 3–3 aCuwdi- aCuwdzi- aCuwdli- aCuwji- IndH Ciwduwa- Ciwdudzi- Ciwdudli- Ciwduji- IndH Cuwduwa- Cuwdudzi- Cuwdudli- Cuwduji-

prefix combinations (Ci- thematic prefix) perfective (+): did it d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh act awlisháat 1s Cix̱wdi- Cix̱wdzi- Cix̱wdli- Cix̱wji- ∅ s/he held him/her/it a-ÿu-∅-li-√sháat 1p Ciwtudi- Ciwtudzi- Ciwtudli- Ciwtuji- akawshixít 2s Ciydi- Ciydzi- Ciydli- Ciyji- ka- s/he wrote it a-ka-ÿu-∅-shi-√xít 2p Ciyeeydi- Ciyeeydzi- Ciyeeydli- Ciyeeyji- (yéi) sh tuwdinook 3 Ciwdi- Ciwdzi- Ciwdli- Ciwji- tu- s/he felt that way (yéi) sh tu-ÿu-∅-di-√nook 3–3 aCiwdi- aCiwdzi- aCiwdli- aCiwji- yéi jeewanéi IndH Ciwduwa- Ciwdudzi- Ciwdudli- Ciwduji- ji- s/he worked yéi ji-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√néi

prefix combinations (Cu- thematic prefix) state wookʼéi ∅ s l sh ∅ he/she/it was good; he/she/it ∅-ÿu-ÿa-√kʼéi got beter 1s Cux̱waa- Cux̱wsi- Cux̱wli- Cux̱wshi- kawlijée 1p Cuwtuwa- Cuwtusi- Cuwtuli- Cuwtushi- ka- it looked terrible ∅-ka-ÿu-li-√jée 2s Ceeya- Cuysi- Cuyli- Cuyshi- tu- [does not occur] — 2p Cuyeey- Cuyeeysi- Cuyeeyli- Cuyeeyshi- ji- — — 3 Cooya- Cuwsi- Cuwli- Cuwshi- event 3–3 aCooya- aCuwsi- aCuwli- aCuwshi- aawa.áx̱ IndH Cuwduwa- Cuwdudzi- Cuwdudli- Cuwduji- ∅ s/he heard it a-ÿu-∅-ÿa-√.áx̱ kawdigán ka- it’s bright; it was bright ka-ÿu-di-√gán (yéi) tuwditaan tu- s/he thought (that way) (yéi) tu-ÿu-∅-di-√taan jiwsitaan ji- it’s rough; it was rough ji-ÿu-si-√taan

280 281 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

perfective (+): did it perfective (–): didnʼt do it motion act aadé woogoot tlél awulsháat s/he went there ∅ s/he didnʼt hold him/her/it á-dé ÿu-∅-ÿa-√goot tlél a-u-ÿu-la-√sháat ∅ át uwagút tlél akawushxeet s/he arrived there ka- s/he didnʼt write it á-t u-∅-ÿa-√gút tlél a-ka-u-ÿu-sha-√xeet át kaawaxíx tlél (yéi) sh tuwdanook ka- it hit it; it fell on it tu- s/he didnʼt feel that way á-t ka-ÿu-ÿa-√xíx tlél (yéi) sh tu-u-ÿu-∅-da-√nook tu- — — tlél yéi jiwunei ji- s/he didnʼt work a kanax̱ jiyawsitán tlél yéi ji-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√nei ji- waves washed over it a ká-náx̱ ji-ya-ÿu-si-√tán state tlél wukʼéi ∅ he/she/it wasnʼt good; he/she/ tlél ∅-u-ÿu-∅-√kʼéi it didn’t get beter Perfective (–) tlél kawuljée ka- it didnʼt look terrible tlél + O-u-ÿu-S-cl -√root tlél ∅-ka-u-ÿu-la-√jee –i tu- [does not occur] — s/he didnʼt do it ji- — — perfective (–): didnʼt do it event preverb negatve tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl tlél awu.aax̱ irrealis u- ∅ s/he didnʼt hear it prefixes tlél a-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√.aax̱ perfectve ÿu- tlél kawdagáan ka- it isn’t bright conjugation prefix — tlél ka-u-ÿu-da-√gáan classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- tlél (yéi) tuwdataan s/he didn’t think (that way) ∅ tu- open cp cv́ tlél (yéi) tu-u-ÿu-∅-da-√taan cvv na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cvv tlél jiwustaan ji- it isn’t rough; it wasn’t rough fading ∅cp cv́ tlél ji-u-ÿu-sa-√taan cvvh nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvv motion ∅ closed low cp cvvc tlél aadé wugoot stem variation cvvc na , ga , ga̱ cvvc tlél á-dé u-ÿu-∅-∅-√goot cp cp cp ∅ s/he didn’t go there ∅ closed high cp cv́vc tlél át wugoot cvvć tlél á-t u-ÿu-∅-∅-√goot nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cv́vc ∅ cv́vcʼ tlél át kawuxeex glotalized cp ka- it didnʼt hit it cvvcʼ tlél á-t ka-u-ÿu-∅-√xeex nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cv́vcʼ suffixes — tu- — — tlél a kanax̱ jiyawstaan ji- waves didnʼt wash over it tlél a ká-náx̱ ji-ya-u-ÿu-sa-√tán

282 283 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Future (+) prefix combinations (no thematic prefix) d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh (kei/yei) + O-ga-u-ga-S-cl -√róot ̱ –i kuḵada- / kuḵas- / kuḵal- / kuḵash- / 1s s/he will do it; it will happen kḵwada- kḵwas- kḵwal- kḵwash-

future (+): will do it; it will happen 1p gax̱tuda- gax̱toos- gax̱tool- gax̱toosh-

gacp ga̱ cp nacp & ∅cp gag̱ida- / gag̱ees- / gag̱eel- / gag̱eesh- / preverb 2s kei yei — kg̱ida- kg̱ees- kg̱eel- kg̱eesh- 2p gax̱yida- gax̱yis- gax̱yil- gax̱yish- ga-mode irrealis ga-mode̱ prefixes gug̱as- / gug̱al- / gug̱ash- / ga- u- g̱a- 3 gux̱da- kg̱was- kg̱wal- kg̱wash- conjugation prefix — (eliminated by ga-conj) 3–3 agux̱da- akg̱was- akg̱wal- akg̱wash- classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- IndH gax̱du- gax̱dus- gax̱dul- gax̱dush- open — cvv cv́v fading — cvvh cv́v prefix combinations (CV- thematic prefix) stem variation closed low — cvvc cv́vc ∅ s l sh closed high — cvvć cv́vc 1s CVkḵwa- CVkḵwasa- CVkḵwala- CVkḵwasha- glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ 1p CVgax̱too- CVgax̱tusa- CVgax̱tula- CVgax̱tusha- suffixes — 2s CVkg̱ee- CVkg̱isa- CVkg̱ila- CVkg̱isha- 2p prefix combinations (no thematic prefix) CVgax̱yee- CVgax̱yisa- CVgax̱yila- CVgax̱yisha- 3 ∅ s l sh CVkg̱wa- CVgux̱sa- CVgux̱la- CVgux̱sha- 3–3 aCVkgwa- aCVgux̱sa- aCVgux̱la- aCVgux̱sha- kuḵa- / kuḵasa- / kuḵala- / kuḵasha- / ̱ 1s kḵwa- kḵwasa- kḵwala- kḵwasha- IndH CVgax̱du- CVgax̱dus- CVgax̱dul- CVgax̱dush- 1p gax̱too- gax̱tusa- gax̱tula- gax̱tusha- prefix combinations (CV- thematic prefix) gagee- / gagisa- / gagila- / gagisha- / 2s ̱ ̱ ̱ ̱ d+∅ d+s d+l d+sh kg̱ee- kg̱isa- kg̱ila- kg̱isha- 1s CVkḵwada- CVkḵwas- CVkḵwal- CVkḵwash- 2p gax̱yi- gax̱yisa- gax̱yila- gax̱yisha- guga- / 1p CVgax̱tuda- CVgax̱toos- CVgax̱tool- CVgax̱toosh- 3 ̱ gux̱sa- gux̱la- gux̱sha- kg̱wa- 2s CVkg̱ida- CVkg̱ees- CVkg̱eel- CVkg̱eesh- 3–3 akg̱wa- agux̱sa- agux̱la- agux̱sha- 2p CVgax̱yida- CVgax̱yees- CVgax̱yeel- CVgax̱yeesh- IndH gax̱du- gax̱dus- gax̱dul- gax̱dush- 3 CVgux̱da- CVkg̱was- CVkg̱wal- CVkg̱wash- 3–3 aCVgux̱da- aCVkg̱was- aCVkg̱wal- aCVkg̱wash- IndH CVgax̱du- CVgax̱dus- CVgax̱dul- CVgax̱dush-

284 285 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

future (+): will do it; it will happen Future (–) act

yei agux̱lasháat tlél + (kei/yei) + O-ga-u-g̱a-S-cl–i-√root s/he will hold it ∅ s/he wonʼt do it; s/he is not going to do it; it wonʼt happen yei a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la-√sháat akagux̱shaxéet future (–): wonʼt do it; it wonʼt happen ka- s/he will write it a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-sha-√xéet negatve preverb 1 (yéi) sh tugux̱danóok tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl tu- s/he will feel that way (yéi) sh tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da-√nóok gacp ga̱ cp nacp & ∅cp preverb 2 yéi jikg̱wanéi kei yei — ji- s/he will work yéi ji-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√néi ga-mode irrealis ga-mode̱ state prefixes ga- u- g̱a- kei kg̱wak’éi he/she/it will be good; he/she/it will conjugation prefix — (eliminated by ga-conj) ∅ get beter kei ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√kʼéi classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- kei kagux̱lajée ka- it will look terrible open — cvv cvv kei ∅-ka-ga-u-ga-la-√jée ̱ fading — cvvh cvv kei tugux̱la.aan tu- s/he will be kind stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc kei ∅-tu-ga-u-ga-la-√.aan ̱ closed high — cvvć cv́vc ji- — — glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ event suffixes — akg̱wa.áax̱ ∅ s/he will hear it a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√.áax̱ prefix combinations kagux̱dagáan same as future (+) ka- it will be bright add tléil/tlél/hél/tl ka-ga-u-g̱a-da-√gáan (yéi) tugux̱datáan tu- s/he will think (that way) future (–): wonʼt do it; it wonʼt happen (yéi) tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da-√táan act kei jigux̱satáan tlél yei agux̱lasháat ji- it will get rough ∅ s/he won’t hold it kei ji-ga-u-g̱a-sa-√táan tlél yei a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la-√sháat motion tlél akagux̱shaxeet ka- s/he won’t write it aadé kg̱wagóot ∅ s/he will go there tlél a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-sha-√xeet á-dé ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√góot tlél (yéi) sh tugux̱danook tu- s/he won’t feel that way aadé kakg̱waxéex ka- it will hit it tlél (yéi) sh tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da-√nook á-dé ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√xéex tlél yéi jikgwanei ̱ s/he won’t work — ji- tu- — tlél yéi ji-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√nei a kanax̱ jiyagux̱satáan ji- waves will wash over it a ká-náx̱ ji-ya-ga-u-g̱a-sa-√táan

286 287 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

future (–): wonʼt do it; it wonʼt happen Progressive Imperfective (+) state yaa/kei/yei + O-na-S-cl -√root-(n) tlél kei kg̱wak’éi he/she/it won’t be good; he/she/it –i ∅ won’t get beter s/he is in the process of doing it tlél kei ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√kʼéi tlél kei kagux̱lajée progressive imperfective (+): in the process of doing it ka- it won’t look terrible tlél kei ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-la-√jée ∅cp & nacp gacp ga̱ cp preverb tlél kei tugux̱la.aan yaa kei yei tu- s/he won’t be kind tlél kei ∅-tu-ga-u-g̱a-la-√.aan prefixes na-mode na- ji- — — conjugation prefix — (eliminated by na-conj) event classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- tlél akg̱wa.aax̱ cv́vn ∅ s/he wonʼt hear it open ∅cp tlél a-ga-u-ga-∅-∅-√.aax̱ (aa/oo~ei) ̱ cvv

tlél kagux̱dagáan nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvć ka- it won’t be bright tlél ka-ga-u-ga-da-√gáan cv́vn ̱ ∅ fading cp (aa/oo~ei) tlél yéi tugux̱dataan h s/he won’t think (that way) cvv tu- na , ga , ga tlél yéi tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da-√taan cp cp ̱ cp cvć stem variation tlél kei jigux̱sataan closed low ∅cp cvvc ji- it wonʼt get rough cvvc na , ga , ga tlél kei ji-ga-u-g̱a-sa-√taan cp cp ̱ cp cvć

motion closed high ∅cp cv́vc cvvć na , ga , ga tlél aadé kg̱wagoot cp cp ̱ cp cvć ∅ s/he won’t go there ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅-√góot ∅ cv́vcʼ glotalized cvvcʼ cp tlél aadé kakg̱waxeex nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvć ʼ ka- it won’t hit it tlél á-dé ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√xeex suffixes — tu- — — progressive imperfective (+): in the process of doing it tlél a kanax̱ jiyagux̱sataan ji- waves wonʼt wash over it act a ká-náx̱ ji-ya-ga-u-g̱a-sa-√táan ∅ [does not occur] — ka- [does not occur] — (yéi) yaa sh tundanúk tu- s/he is beginning to feel that (yéi) yaa sh tu-na-∅-da-√núk way ji- [does not occur] — state kei nakʼéin ∅ s/he/it is getng beter kei ∅-na-∅-√kʼéi-n ka- [does not occur] — tu- [does not occur] — ji- — —

288 289 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

progressive imperfective (+): in the process of doing it imperative: do it! event act ∅ [does not occur] — g̱alsháat! ∅ hold it! ka- [does not occur] — g̱a-la-√sháat tu- [does not occur] — kashaxít! ka- write it! yaa jinastán ka-∅-sha-√xít ji- itʼs getng rough yaa ji-na-sa-√tán tu- [does not occur] — motion yéi jinané! ji- work! aadé yaa nagút yéi ji-na-∅-√né ∅ s/he is going there á-dé yaa na-∅-∅-√gút state ka- [does not occur] — igakʼéi! ∅ be good! tu- — — i-ga-∅-√kʼéi a kanax̱ yaa jiyanastán ka- [does not occur] — ji- waves are washing over it a ká-náx̱ yaa ji-ya-na-sa-√tán tukla.aan! tu- be kind! tu-ga-la-√.aan ji- — — Imperative event .áx̱! CP-(S)-cl -√root ∅ hear it! –i ∅-√.áx̱ do it! ka- [does not occur] — imperative: do it! tu- [does not occur] — preverb — ji- [does not occur] — prefixes — motion conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a aadé nagú! go towards there! classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- á-dé na-√gú ∅ ∅ open cp cv́ * át gú! go (arrive) there! cvv na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cv́ á-t ∅-√gú ∅ fading cp cv́ *́ ka- [does not occur] — cvvh na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cv́ tu- — — ∅ closed low cp cvć * [does not occur] — stem variation ji- cvvc nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvvc ∅ closed high cp cvć * cvvć nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cv́vc ∅ glotalized cp cvć ʼ * cvvcʼ nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cv́vcʼ suffixes — * there are rare exceptons (long and low)

290 291 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Prohibitive prohibitive: donʼt do it! motion líl + O-u-S-cl-√root-ḵ ~ iḵ ~ uḵ líl aadé yigoodíḵ! don’t go there! donʼt do it! líl á-dé ÿu-i-∅-√goot-íḵ prohibitive: donʼt do it! líl át yigoodíḵ! ∅ Preverb líl / (tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl) líl á-t ÿu-i-∅-√goot-íḵ don’t go there! líl áx̱ eegoodíḵ! donʼt (ever) go there! Prefixes — líl aa-x̱ u-i-∅-√goot-íḵ Conjugation Prefix based on the second person negatve ka- [does not occur] — Classifier imperfectve, perfectve, or repettve imperfectve form, depending on verb. tu- — — Stem Variation ji- [does not occur] — Suffixes prohibitve -ḵ ~ -iḵ ~ -uḵ

prohibitive: donʼt do it! act líl ilashádiḵ! ∅ don’t hold it! líl i-la-√shát-iḵ líl eeshaxeedíḵ! ka- donʼt write it! líl i-ka-u-i-sha-√xeet-íḵ tu- [does not occur] — líl yéi jinéiḵ! ji- don’t work! líl yéi ji-∅-∅-√nei-k state líl eekʼeiyíḵ! ∅ don’t be good! líl i-u-∅-kʼei-yíḵ ka- [does not occur] — tu- [does not occur] — ji- — — event ∅ [does not occur] — ka- [does not occur] — tu- [does not occur] — ji- [does not occur] —

292 293 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Repetitive Imperfective repetitive imperfective: s/he does it (regularly) a.áx̱ s/he is hearing it (strange sounds (yoo/kei/yei) + O-S-cl -√root-(-x̱/-k/-ch) ∅ e.g.) –i a-∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√.aax̱ s/he does it (regularly) kadagánx̱ ka- it brightens (regularly) repetitive imperfective: s/he does it (regularly) ka-∅-da-√gán-x̱

∅cp nacp* ga na ga̱ tu- [does not occur] — preverb cp cp cp — kei yoo ~ yóo yei kei jisatánch ji- it gets rough (regularly) prefixes — kei ji-sa-√.tán-ch conjugation prefix — motion classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- aadé yoo yagútk s/he goes there (regularly) open — cvv cv́v á-dé yoo ∅-ÿa-√gút-k ∅ fading — cvvh áx̱ goot cvv let him/her arrive there stem variation closed low — cvvc cvć á-t ∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot ́ áx̱ kaxeex closed high — cvvc cvć ka- it hits it (regularly) glotalized — cvvcʼ cvć ʼ á-x̱ ka-∅-√xeex tu- — — ∅cp nacp* nacp gacp ga̱ cp suffixes repettve -x̱ -k -ch ji- [does not occur] —

repetitive imperfective: s/he does it (regularly) act yei alshátch ∅ s/he holds it (regularly) kei a-∅-la-√shát-ch akshaxítx̱ ka- s/he writes it (regularly) a-ka-∅-sha-√xít-x̱ tu- [does not occur] — yéi yoo jiyaneik ji- s/he works (regularly) yéi yoo ji-∅-ÿa-√nei-k state kei kʼéich ∅ s/he gets beter (regularly) kei ∅-∅-√kʼéi-ch ka- [does not occur] — kei tula.aanch tu- s/he is kind (regularly) kei ∅-tu-la-√.aan-ch ji- — — event

294 295 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Perfective Habitual (+) perfective habitual (+): does it (every tme) ji- — — O-ÿu-CP-S-cl–i-√root-ch event s/he does it (every tme) oo.aax̱ch ∅ s/he hears it (every tme) perfective habitual (+): does it (every tme) a-ÿu-∅-∅-√.aax̱-ch preverb — koodagánch ka- it gets bright (every tme) prefixes ∅cp irrealis -u ka-ÿu-∅-da-√gán-ch conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, ga (yéi) tundatánch ̱ tu- s/he thinks (that way) (every tme) classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- (yéi) tu-ÿu-na-da-√tán-ch

∅cp cv́vy jinastánch open ji- it gets rough (every tme) cv́v ji-na-sa-√tán-ch cvv na , ga , ga̱ cp cp cp (aa/oo~ei) motion

∅cp cv́vy aadé nagútch fading s/he goes there (every tme) h cvv á-dé ÿu-na-∅-√gút-ch cvv na , ga , ga̱ ∅ cp cp cp (aa/oo~ei) át ugútch stem variation s/he arrives there (every tme) ∅ closed low cp unpredictable á-t -ÿu-∅-∅-√gút-ch cvvc nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvć át kooxeexch ka- it hits it (every tme) ∅ closed high cp unpredictable á-t ka-ÿu-∅-∅-√xeex-ch cvvć na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cvć tu- — — ∅ unpredictable glotalized cp a kanax̱ jiyanastánch waves wash over it (every tme) cvvcʼ na , ga , ga ji- cp cp ̱ cp cvć ʼ a ká-náx̱ ji-ya-ÿa-na-sa-√tán-ch suffixes repettve -ch

perfective habitual (+): does it (every tme) act ax̱lashátch ∅ s/he holds him/her/it (every tme) a-ÿu-g̱a-∅-la-√shát-ch akooshxítch ka- s/he writes it (every tme) a-ka-ÿu-∅-∅-sha-√xít-ch (yéi) sh tundanúkch tu- s/he feels that way (every tme) (yéi) sh tu-ÿa-na-∅-da-√núk-ch yéi jinaneich ji- s/he works (every tme) yéi ji-ÿu-na-∅-∅-√nei-ch state gakʼéich ∅ he/she/it gets beter (every tme) ∅-ÿu-ga-∅-√kʼéi-ch ka- [does not occur] — tu- [does not occur] —

296 297 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Perfective Habitual (–) perfective habitual (–): hasnʼt done it yet ka- [does not occur] — tlél + O-u-ÿu-CP-S-cl–i-√root-ch tu- [does not occur] — s/he hasnʼt done it yet ji- — — perfective habitual (–): hasnʼt done it yet event preverb negatve tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl tlél oo.aax̱ch ∅ s/he hasnʼt heard it yet irrealis -u tlél a-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√.aax̱-ch prefixes perfectve -ÿu tlél koodagánch ka- it hasnʼt goten bright yet conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a tlél ka-u-ÿu-∅-da-√gán-ch classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- tlél (yéi) tundatánch tu- s/he hasnʼt thought that way yet tlél (yéi) tu-u-ÿu-na-da-√tán-ch ∅cp cv́vy open cv́v tlél jeenastánch cvv na , ga , ga̱ ji- it hasnʼt goten rough yet cp cp cp (aa/oo~ei) tlél ji-na-u-ÿu-sa-√tán-ch

∅cp cv́vy motion fading tlél aadé nagútch cvvh cvv nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp s/he has not gone there yet (aa/oo~ei) tlél á-dé u-ÿu-na-∅-√gút-ch stem variation ∅ ∅ unpredictable closed low cp tlél át ugútch cvvc s/he has not arrived there yet nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvć tlél á-t -u-ÿu-∅-∅-√gút-ch ∅ unpredictable closed high cp tlél át kooxeexch cvvć ka- it has not hit it yet nacp, gacp, ga̱ cp cvć tlél á-t ka-u-ÿu-∅-∅-√xeex-ch ∅ unpredictable glotalized cp tu- — — cvvcʼ na , ga , ga cp cp ̱ cp cvć ʼ tlél a kanax̱ jeeyanastánch waves have not washed over it suffixes habitual -ch ji- tlél a ka-náx̱ yet ji-ya-u-ÿu-na-sa-√tán-ch perfective habitual (–): hasnʼt done it yet act tlél oog̱alshátch ∅ s/he hasnʼt held it yet tlél a-u-ÿu-g̱a-∅-la-√shát-ch tlél akooshxítch ka- s/he hasnʼt writen it yet tlél a-ka-u-ÿu-∅-∅-sha-√xít-ch tlél (yéi) sh tundanúkch tu- tlél (yéi) s/he doesnʼt feel that way yet sh tu-u-ÿu-na-∅-da-√núk-ch tlél yéi jinaneich ji- s/he hasnʼt worked yet tlél yéi ji-u-ÿu-na-∅-∅-√nei-ch state tlél gakʼéich ∅ he/she/it hasnʼt goten beter yet tlél ∅-ga-u-ÿu-∅-√kʼéi-ch

298 299 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Hortative hortative: let her/him do it; let us do it ag̱a.aax̱ O-C -ga-S-cl -√root-(-yi/-i; -wu/-u) ∅ let her/him hear it P ̱ –i a-∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√.aax̱ st rd let her/him do it; let us do it (1 & 3 person subjects only) kax̱dagáan ka- let it be bright hortative: let her/him do it; let us do it ka-∅-g̱a-da-√gáan preverb — (yéi) tunax̱dataan tu- let him/her think (that way) prefixes ga-mode̱ g̱a- (yéi) tu-na-g̱a-∅-da-√taan — (eliminated by na-conj) ji- [does not occur] — conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a motion classifier -i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- aadé ngagoot ̱ let her/him go there open — cvv cvv * á-dé na-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot ∅ fading — cvvh át gagoot cvv * ̱ let him/her arrive there stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc ** á-t ∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot closed high — cvvć (ch’a) át kag̱axeex (dé) cv́vc ** ka- (just) let it hit it (now) glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ ** (chʼa) á-t ka-∅-g̱a-∅-√xeex (dé) — suffixes (-yi/-i; -wu/-u) – speaker preference tu- — * there are rare exceptons (long and high) ji- [does not occur] — ** there are rare exceptons (short and low)

hortative: let her/him do it; let us do it act ag̱aax̱lasháat ∅ let him/her hold it a-g̱a-g̱a-∅-la-√sháat akax̱shaxít ka- let him/her write it a-ka-∅-g̱a-∅-sha-√xít (yéi) sh tunax̱danook tu- let him/her feel that way (yéi) sh tu-na-g̱a-∅-da-√nook yéi jing̱anei ji- let him/her work yéi ji-na-g̱a-∅-∅-√nei state gag̱ak’éi ∅ let him/her/it be good ∅-ga-g̱a-∅-√kʼéi ka- [does not occur] — tugax̱la.aan tu- let him/her be kind ∅-tu-ga-g̱a-la-√.aan ji- — — event

300 301 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Potential (+) * often used with relative clause potential (+): s/he might do it event

gwál + O-u-CP-g̱a-S-cl+i-√root gwál oogaa.aax̱ ̱ s/he might hear her/him/it s/he might do it ∅ gwál a-u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√aax̱ potential (+): s/he might do it gwál koox̱digáan ka- it might get bright preverb — gwál ka-u-∅-g̱a-di-√gáan prefixes irrealis -u ga-mode̱ g̱a- gwál (yéi) toonax̱ditaan tu- s/he might think that way conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a gwál ka-u-na-g̱a-di-√taan classifier +i ÿa, di, si, dzi, li, dli, shi, ji ji- [does not occur] — open — cvv cvv motion fading — cvvh cvv gwál aadé ngwaagoot ̱ s/he might go there stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc gwál á-dé u-na-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot ∅ closed high — cvvć gwál át gwaagoot cv́vc ̱ s/he might arrive there glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ gwál á-t u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot suffixes — gwál kag̱waaxeex ka- s/he might hit her/him/it gwál ka-u-∅-g̱a-ÿa-√xeex potential (+): s/he might do it tu- — — act ji- [does not occur] — gwál ag̱aax̱wlisháat ∅ s/he might hold her/him/it gwál a-u-g̱a-g̱a-∅-li-√sháat gwál akoox̱shixít ka- s/he might write it gwál a-ka-u-∅-g̱a-∅-shi-√xít gwál (yéi) sh toonax̱dinook tu- s/he might feel that way gwál (yéi) sh tu-u-na-g̱a-∅-di-√nook gwál yéi jing̱waanei ji- s/he might work gwál yéi ji-u-na-g̱a-ÿa-√nei state gwál kg̱waakʼéi ∅ s/he might be good gwál ∅-ga-u-g̱a-ÿa-√kʼéi gwál kugaax̱lijée ka- s/he might look terrible gwál ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-li-√jée tu- [does not occur] — ji- — —

302 303 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Potential (–) * often used with relative clause potential (–): s/he might not do it event

gwál + tlél + O-u-CP-g̱a-S-cl+i-√root gwál tlél oogaa.aax̱ ̱ s/he might not hear her/him/it s/he might not do it ∅ gwál tlél a-u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√aax̱ potential (–): s/he might not do it gwál tlél koox̱digáan ka- no way it can get bright preverb gwál + tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl gwál tlél ka-u-∅-g̱a-di-√gáan prefixes irrealis -u ga-mode̱ g̱a- gwál tlél (yéi) toonax̱ditaan conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a tu- s/he might not think that way classifier +i ÿa, di, si, dzi, li, dli, shi, ji gwál tlél (yéi) tu-u-na-g̱a-di-√taan open — cvv cvv ji- [does not occur] — fading — cvvh cvv motion stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc gwál tlél aadé ng̱waagoot closed high — cvvć cv́vc gwál tlél á-dé s/he might not go there glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ ∅ u-na-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot suffixes — gwál tlél át gwaagoot ̱ s/he might not arrive there gwál tlél á-t u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot potential (–): s/he might not do it gwál tlél kag̱waaxeex act ka- s/he might not hit her/him/it gwál tlél ka-u-∅-g̱a-ÿa-√xeex gwál tlél ag̱aax̱wlisháat ∅ s/he might not hold her/him/it tu- — — gwál tlél a-u-g̱a-g̱a-∅-li-√sháat ji- [does not occur] — gwál tlél akoox̱shixít ka- s/he might not write it gwál tlél a-ka-u-∅-g̱a-∅-shi-√xít gwál tlél (yéi) sh toonax̱dinook tu- s/he might not feel that way gwál tlél (yéi) sh tu-u-na-g̱a-∅-di-√nook gwál tlél yéi jing̱waanei ji- s/he might not work gwál tlél yéi ji-u-na-g̱a-ÿa-√nei state gwál tlél kg̱waakʼéi ∅ s/he might not be good gwál tlél ∅-ga-u-g̱a-ÿa-√kʼéi gwál tlél kugaax̱lijée ka- s/he might not look terrible gwál tlél ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-li-√jée tu- [does not occur] — ji- — —

304 305 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Potential Attributive potential attributive: no way s/he can do it tu- [does not occur] — tlél + aadé + O-u-CP-g̱a-S-cl+i-√root-yi/-i/-wu/-u + yé ji- — — no way s/he can do it event potential attributive: no way s/he can do it tlél aadé oog̱aa.aax̱í yé preverb tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ lél ~ tíl + aadé ∅ tlél á-dé no way s/he can hear her/him/it a-u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√aax̱-í yé prefixes irrealis -u ga-mode̱ g̱a- tlél aadé koox̱digáani yé conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a ka- tlél á-dé no way it can get bright classifier +i ÿa, di, si, dzi, li, dli, shi, ji ka-u-∅-g̱a-di-√gáan-i yé open — cvv cvv tlél aadé fading — cvvh cvv (yéi) toonax̱ditaaní yé tu- no way s/he can think that way stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc tlél á-dé (yéi) tu-u-na-ga-di-√taan-i yé closed high — cvvć cv́vc ̱ ji- [does not occur] — glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ motion suffixes relatve -yi/-i/-wu/-u tlél aadé postverb way/place yé aadé ngwaagoodí yé ̱ no way s/he can go there tlél á-dé potential attributive: no way s/he can do it ∅ á-dé u-na-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot-í yé act tlél aadé át g̱waagoodi yé tlél aadé no way s/he can get there tlél á-dé á-t u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot ∅ ag̱aax̱wlisháadi yé no way s/he can hold her/him/it tlél aadé át kagwaaxeexí yé tlél á-dé a-u-g̱a-g̱a-∅-li-√sháat-i ̱ ka- tlél á-dé no way s/he can hit her/him/it tlél aadé akoox̱shixídi yé áa-t ka-u-∅-g̱a-ÿa-√xeex-í yé ka- tlél á-dé no way s/he can write it tu- — — a-ka-u-∅-g̱a-∅-shi-√xít-i yé tlél aadé ji- [does not occur] — sh toonax̱dinoogú yé tu- no way s/he can feel that way tlél á-dé sh tu-u-na-g̱a-∅-di-√nook-ú yé tlél aadé yéi jingwaaneiyí yé ji- ̱ no way s/he can work tlél á-dé yéi ji-u-na-g̱a-ÿa-√nei-yí yé state tlél aadé kg̱waakʼéiyi yé ∅ no way s/he can be good tlél á-dé ∅-ga-u-g̱a-ÿa-√kʼéi-yi yé tlél aadé kugaax̱lijéeyi yé ka- tlél á-dé no way s/he can look terrible ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-li-√jée-yi yé

306 307 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Modifying Nouns

Potential Decessive* usually used as depdendent clause potential decessive: s/he would have done it event

O-u-CP-g̱a-S-cl–i-√root-in/un ooga.aax̱ín ̱ s/he would have heard her/him/it s/he would have done it ∅ a-u-∅-g̱a-∅-∅-√aax̱-ín potential decessive: s/he would have done it koox̱dagáanin ka- it would have goten bright preverb — ka-u-∅-g̱a-da-√gáan-in prefixes irrealis -u ga-mode̱ ga- (yéi) toonax̱dataanín ̱ tu- s/he would have thought that way conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a (yéi) tu-u-na-g̱a-da-√taan-in classifier –i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- ji- [does not occur] — open — cvv cvv motion fading — cvvh aadé ng̱wagoodín cvv ∅ s/he would have gone there stem variation closed low — cvvc cvvc á-dé u-na-g̱a-∅-∅-√goot-ín át gwaagoot closed high — cvvć cv́vc ̱ s/he would have arrived there glotalized — cvvcʼ cv́vcʼ á-t u-∅-g̱a-∅-ÿa-√goot át kag̱waxeexín suffixes decessive -in/-un ka- s/he would have hit her/him/it áa-t ka-u-∅-g̱a-∅-√xeex-ín potential decessive: s/he would have done it tu- — — act ji- [does not occur] — ag̱aax̱wlasháadin ∅ s/he would have held her/him/it a-u-g̱a-g̱a-∅-la-√sháat-in akoox̱shaxídin ka- s/he would have writen it a-ka-u-∅-g̱a-∅-sha-√xít-in yéi sh toonax̱danoogún tu- s/he would have felt that way yéi sh tu-u-na-g̱a-∅-da-√nook-ún yéi jing̱waneiyín ji- s/he would have worked yéi ji-u-na-g̱a-∅-√nei-yín state gug̱akʼéiyin ∅ s/he would have been good ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-√kʼéi-yin kugaax̱lajéeyin ka- s/he would have looked terrible ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-la-√jée-yin tu- [does not occur] — ji- — —

308 309 Modifying Nouns Conditional* ofted used in relative clause conditional: if/when s/he does it O-C -S-cl -√root-n+-i P –i kadagánni if/when s/he does it ka- if/when itʼs bright ka-∅-∅-da-√gán-ni conditional: if/when s/he does it (yéi) tudatánni preverb tu- if/when shʼe thinks (that way) — (yéi) tu-da-√tán-ni prefixes — jinastánni ji- if/when it gets rough conjugation prefix yes ∅, na, ga, g̱a ji-na-sa-√.tán-ni classifier –i ∅-, da-, sa-, s-, la-, l-, sha-, sh- motion cv́vn aadé nagútni open — cvv if/when s/he goes there (aa/oo~ei) á-dé na-∅-∅-√gút-ni cv́vn ∅ fading — cvvh át gútni (aa/oo~ei) if/when s/he arrives there stem variation á-t ∅-∅-√gút-ni closed low — cvvc cvć át kaxíxni closed high — cvvć cvć ka- if/when s/he hits her/him/it áa-t ka-∅-∅-∅-√xíx-ni glotalized — cvvcʼ cvć ʼ tu- — — suffixes conditonal + relatve -n + -i ji- [does not occur] —

conditional: if/when s/he does it act ag̱alshátni ∅ when/if s/he holds her/him/it a-∅-g̱a-∅-la-√shát-ni akshaxítni ka- if/when s/he writes it a-ka-∅-∅-sha-√xít-ni yéi sh tundanúkni tu- sif/when /he would feels that way yéi sh tu-na-∅-da-√núk-ni yéi jinanéini ji- if/when s/he works yéi ji-na-∅-√néi-ni state gakʼéini ∅ if/when s/he is good ∅-ga-∅-√kʼéi-ni kagaljéeni ka- if/when s/he looks terrible ∅-ka-ga-la-√jée-ni tukla.aanní tu- it/when s/he is kind ∅-tu-ga-la-√aan-ní ji- — — event a.áx̱ni ∅ if/when s/he hears it a-∅-∅-∅-√áx̱-ni

311 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

Stem Variation

open roots cvv cvvh

∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a progressive imperfectives cv́v-n cv́v-n cv́v-n cv́v-n perfective (+) cv́v cvv cv́v cvv perfective (–) cv́ cvv cv́ cv imperative cv́ / cv́v cv́ cv́ / cv́v cv́ perfective habituals cv́v-ych cv́v-ch cv́v-ych cvv-ch future (+) cv́v cv́v cv́v cv́v future (–) cvv cvv cvv cvv hortative cv́v / cvv cvv cv́v / cvv cvv repetitive imperfective cv́v-x̱ cv́v-{k,ch} cvv-x̱ cvv-{k,ch} potentials cv́v / cvv cvv cv́v / cvv cvv conditional cv́v-ni cv́v-ni cv́v-ni cv́v-ni

closed roots cvvc cv́vc cv́vcʼ

∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a ∅ na, ga, g̱a progressive imperfectives cvć cvć cvć cvć cvć ʼ cvć ʼ perfective (+) cvć cvvc cvć cv́vc cvć ʼ cv́vcʼ perfective (–) cvvc cvvc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ imperative cvć cvvc cvć cv́vc cvć ʼ cv́vcʼ perfective cvc-ch́ / cvc-ch́ / cvć ʼ-ch / cvc-ch́ cvc-ch́ cvć ʼ-ch habituals cvvc-ch cv́vc-ch cv́vcʼ-ch future (+) cv́vc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ future (–) cvvc cvvc cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ cvć ʼ / hortative cvć / cvvc cvvc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc cv́vcʼ cv́vcʼ repetitive cvc-́ cvc-́ cvć ʼ- cvc-x́ ̱ cvc-x́ ̱ cvć ʼ-x̱ imperfective {k,ch} {k,ch} {k,ch} potentials cvć / cvvc cvvc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc cvć / cv́vc cv́vc conditional cvc-ní cvc-ní cvc-ní cvć ʼ-ni cvć ʼ-ni cvć ʼ-ni

312 19 Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa

Ḵaa x̱ʼéidé áwé ḵaa g̱isa.áx̱ a sháade hánix̱ i wusteeyí. — Kingeistí

One would listen to people when you were a leader. — David Katzeek, Shangukeidí1

Introduction In the winter of 2011 there was a storytelling event at the University of Alaska Southeast, and at that event Kingeistí David Katzeek told the story of Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa (Sea Lion & Ptarmigan). It was an amazing event because many of the language students had studied the speech by Ḵaajeeg̱uxeex (Thomas Young, G̱aanax̱teidí) which references this story in relation to language learning and how that helps. The story is listed here in two forms, one with only the Tlingit so students can practice translation, and one with the translation included. The speech by Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex is included here as a reference, and was transcribed & translated by Nora & Richard Dauenhauer in Haa Tuwunáagu Yís. What makes this story so special, in addition to the beautiful metaphors and messages within it, is that Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex used to tell this story to Kingeistí, who is G̱aanax̱teidí Yádi (Child of the G̱aanax̱teidí), and Kingeistí is telling it to students of the Tlingit language to encourage them to continue their studies.

1 Katzeek, David. “Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa – Sea Lion & Ptarmigan.” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/A9FO6S3GTb.

313 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa

The speech by Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex speech comes from the text Wáa nanéi s dágáawé yú.á At what point was it, they say, Haa Tuwunáagu Yís: For Our Healing Spirit and was pub- chʼa áa ngwaanaawu yéidei kát áwé he began climbing lished by the Sealaska Heritage Institute and the Universi- ̱ to the face of that mountain ty of Washington Press. It is reprinted here with some slight yayát uwagút, changes in word order to prepare us for looking closely at the yá shaa yá daadéi. to a place he could just die. grammar and concepts within the Tlingit. Wáa nanéi sáwé At what point was it 30 a yáa uwagút wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa. he came across a ptarmigan. Ḵaajeetguxeex – Tlákw.aan, 19722 ̱ Aag̱áa áwé This is when Ax̱ tuwáa sigóo I would like ash x̱ʼeiwawóosʼ the ptarmigan asked him, x̱át tsú x̱ʼanḵadataaní to speak too, «goodéi sáyá yaa neegút?» “where are you going?” ax̱ húnx̱u hás. my older brothers. «Chʼa áa x̱at nag̱waanaayí yéidei áyá “Iʼm going 35 Aaa Yes, yaa nx̱agút.» to a place where I can just die.” ldakát yáat yinág̱i, all of you standing here, 5 X̱ach du léelkʼw áwé wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa. Here, the ptarmigan was his grandparent. yá yées ḵáaxʼwx̱ siteeyí aa you who are young men, «Yóo ax̱ tláa káak hás eejí “I keep falling of into the sea áwé a kaax̱ ax̱ toowú klig̱éi are the ones I too tle a kaax̱ héent x̱at usgeetch. from my motherʼs maternal unclesʼ reef. x̱át tsú am proud of Yá ḵutí ax̱ kayáanáx̱ yatee.» The weather is stronger than I am.” 40 yáa yeedát. right now. «Haagú! Chx̱ánkʼ! Haagú!» “Come here! Grandson! Come here!” Yá yee jeet wuduwateeyi át These things that were given to you, 10 Aag̱áa áwé ash yík aawaxóo yú.á. That was when he put rocks inside of him, they say. a daadéi yee yagax̱sataag̱í, that you will care for, X̱ʼeisʼawáach áwé yík uwaxóo yú taan. Ptarmigan put rocks inside the sea lion. yá yee tláa káak hás at.óowu these at.óow of your motherʼs maternal uncles Aag̱áa áwé yux̱ ash kaawanáa. This was when he told the sea lion to try again. ax̱ éesh hás yáat yinág̱i you my fathers who are standing here, Goosá wé aax̱ héenx̱ latéedi yéeyi Where he used to get washed into the sea, 45 áwé a kaax̱ ax̱ toowú klig̱éi. this is what I am proud of. tle tléixʼ áwé át uwagút he went up just once Tlei dahéen áyú My fathers, 15 yú du tláa káak hás onto the reef dutláakw, a story is told; eejí kaadéi. of his motherʼs maternal uncles. yéi sh kalneek they tell Yú x̱ʼeisʼawáa yík wuxoowóoch áwé Because the ptarmigan put rocks inside the ax̱ éesh hás. about a certain tme. sea lion, Áwé yéi kdunéek They tell about tlél a kaax̱ héent wusgeet. he didnʼt fall of into the sea. 50 yú taan. the sea lion. 20 Ách áwé This is why Du déinx̱ áyá ḵuyawdudlijáḵ. His relatves were all killed of. chʼu yaa yeedátdei you can see it Aag̱áa áwé This was while, yeeytéen aan. even today. teet jinax̱satánin áwé yú.á. they say, the waves were rolling. Ḵushtuyáx̱ wáa sá teet jiwestaaní No mater how the waves pound Tle akaax̱ héent usgéetch He would fall into the sea, a káa g̱anúkch. they sit there. 55 wé du káak hás eejí. from his motherʼs maternal unclesʼ reef. 25 Yéi yá yee kg̱watée This is how you will be yá yee léelkʼw hás yá diyeet ḵin aa. with your grandparents sitng in the back. 2 Dauenhauer, Nora Marks, and Richard Dauenhauer. Haa Tuwunáagu Yís, for Healing Our Spirit: Tlingit Their speeches will be Oratory. © 1990. Reprinted with permission of the University of Washington Press and the Sealaska Has du yoo x̱ʼatángeech áwé oowayaa Heritage Institute.

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3 yee yík has aawaxúwu yáx̱ gug̱atee. as if they are putng rocks inside you. Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa – Kingeistí x̱ʼéidáx̱ 60 Ách áwé This is why Aan yátx’u sáani. tlél xʼwán donʼt ever let Aan yátx’u sáani, a kaax̱ héent aa wusgeedéeḵ any of you fall of into the sea King̱eestí ax̱ saayíx̱ sitee. yá yee tláa kaak hás toowú. away from the wishes of your mothersʼ maternal uncles. Shangukeidí naax̱ x̱at sitee. Xeitl Hítdáx̱, 5 This speech on its own is wonderful, and students of Tlingit Kaawdliyaayi Hít, should spend time looking at speeches like this for content, ḵa Shís’g̱i Hít in terms of use of metaphor, imagery, repetition, kinship, and Yoo áwé koogéi haa hítx’i grammar. A useful exercise with a text like this is to try and Jilḵáatx’, Tlákw Aan. see how you might move between the Tlingit and the English by glossing sentences and analyzing how the grammar is Ax̱ éesh has, áwé G̱aanax̱teidíx̱ has sitee, 10 functioning. The more often you can gloss Tlingit, the easier ách áwé G̱aanax̱teidí yádix̱ x̱at sitee. it can become. More important is to read it out loud so you Ax̱ tláa, can feel how these speeches become one with the audience has du éesh has, and have spiritual and medicinal qualities. Lukaax̱.ádix̱ has woositee, We will now look at a story recorded in 2011 at the Univer- Lḵóotdáx̱, 15 sity of Alaska Southeast. This is the story that Ḵaajeetg̱uxe- ex refers to in his speech, told by Kingeistí David Katzeek, a ḵa Jilḵáat. child of the G̱aanax̱teidí, who gives a thorough introduction Ách áwé, Lukaax̱.ádi dachx̱ánx̱ x̱at sitee. to honor his father’s people. You can find the audio for this Ax̱ tláa du léelk’u has ḵu.aa s ... story on www.tlingitlanguage.com under the “audio” tab, and T’aḵdeintaan has woositee. you can find the video on YouTube at www.youtube.com/ Xúnaadáx̱, 20 UASANLS. Táax̱ʼ Hítdáx̱. If you want to challenge yourself, then photocopy this first part with only the Tlingit and see how much of the Tlingit Ax̱ daakanóox’u áwé you can break down and understand. Or make notes here Kiks.ádix̱ has sitee, while listening and find the parts you want to learn how to Shee At’ikádáx̱. say on your own. There are many methods to internalizing Ḵa yéi áwé ax̱ een akaawaneek, 25 language, and if you see Kingeistí around, thank him for ax̱ éesh, sharing this wonderful story with us. ax̱ sáni has áwé, Deisheetaanx̱ has sitee, This story closes this book. It is a strong way to end because it talks about inner strength, but also addresses reach- Taakw.aaneidí ḵa G̱aanax̱.ádi. ing such a difficult point that you might want to quit. When Gwál, "1972" áwé ... we look back to the metaphors Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex gave us, we Ax̱ káak, 30 see that the story is about language and the power it has to Xeitl Hít awliyéx̱, root us in place, where we are supposed to be. Never give up, ḵa Shís’g̱i Hít, and remember that you are a gift to us all. Gunalchéesh. 3 Katzeek, David. “Taan ḵa X̱ʼeisʼawáa – Sea Lion & Ptarmigan.” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/A9FO6S3GTb.

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Kaawdliyaayi Hít, Ḵúnáx̱ áwé ... awliyéx̱. a daa yéi jeewanéi, Ḵu.éex’ tlein áwé yaawaxeex, 35 yá ḵu.éexʼ daat. 70 Jilḵáatx’, Tlákw Aan. Gwál tléixʼ táakw ḵa a shoowú áwé, Yá keijín dis yoowaxéexi. haa x̱ʼashéexʼi, Áwé, nás’k yaakyee kaanáx̱ áwé. haa tlaagú, Yá ḵu.éex’ yaawaxeex. haa saaxʼú, Ldakát ḵáa áwé, 40 ḵa sagú 75 ldakát yéidáx̱ aa yéi has wootee. ldakát yéil ḵa Ax̱ éesh has G̱aanax̱teidí, yá chʼáakʼx̱ has siteeyí aa tsu, aax’ yéi has wootee. Shangukeidíx̱ Ax̱ léelk’u has, ḵux̱ kaadé kawdujixít. Lukaax̱.ádi, 45 Áwé, 80 Lḵóotdáx̱, yaa nshuxéexni áyá G̱éisándáx̱, i een kakḵwanéek aadé wooteeyí yé. has tsu aá yéi has wootee. Yá tlaagú. Ax̱ tláa du léelk’u has Yéi áwé. T’aḵdeintaan tsu, 50 Yá ḵáa, 85 áa yéi has wootee. G̱aanax̱teidíx̱ sitee Ḵa ax̱ daakanóox’u, Kiks.ádi, Ishká Hítdáx̱. áa yéi has wootee. Yéi áwé dusáakw du hídi, hú. Ḵaasgú áwé yoo duwasáakw. Ishká Hít Ax̱ ... 55 Ḵaajaḵwtí 90 káak, yéi áwé wuduwasáa. Ḵaasgú. Tléik! Á áwé hít awliyéx̱. Tlél Ḵaajaḵwtí. Tlél a yáx̱ áwé. Du een yéi jix̱wané. Ḵaajeetguxéex Wé hít wudulyeix̱í, 60 yoo duwasáa du saayí. 95 du een yaa nx̱wahán, áx̱ káak. Ax̱ sáni, ax̱ éesh hás. Ḵudu.éexʼi áwé. Áwé, ax̱ éet, haa éet x̱ʼeiwatán Aaa, yóotʼaa, has tsú; yaa nshuwaxéexi áa yéi has wootee, Deisheetaan. yá Aa yéi has wootee, 65 X̱éitl Hít wudulyeix̱. 100 wé ḵu.éexʼ. Wudiháan. Shaawahík wé Xéitl Hít. Wudiháan.

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Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa: Áwé yaa a naskwéini «Ax̱ yéet, King̱eestí. wé taan ḵusteeyí. ḵa ldakát yeewháan, 105 Aadé a sháade háni ḵusteeyí yé chʼáakw. 140 Shangukeidíx̱, Ḵaa x̱ʼéidé áwé ḵaa g̱isa.áx̱ Gunalchéesh. a sháade hánix̱ i wusteeyí. X̱át tsu, ax̱ tuwáa sigóo Ḵá yee éet x̱ʼakḵwataaní, yaa ḵeedzigéi yéi áwé. aanyátxʼi, 110 Du éetxʼ aa x̱ʼeiwatán, du káalkʼw eedé. 145 gunalchéesh.» Ḵaa yáa at wooné Wé g̱unéi x̱ʼeiwatán. haa wooch.een yéi jeewaneiyi. Taan daat áwé g̱unéi x̱ʼeiwatán Aadé yateeyí yé haa yoo x̱ʼatángi. ḵa yá Haa ḵusteeyí xʼéig̱aa Lingít á. x̱ʼeisʼawáa 115 Xʼéig̱aa Lingít á. 150 yoo duwasáakw á. Has awusikóowu Yéi áwé akaawaneek. ḵaa at yéi has ḵuwusteeyí. Taan tlein áwé. Ách áwé «xʼéig̱aa Lingít» yoo duwasáakw. Du káalkʼw, Áwé, wé taan tlein aadé has du 120 chʼa yákʼw dé áwé woonaa. 155 ḵudziteeyí yé áwé. Wé taan tlein. Du een, akanéek, du káalkʼw een. Tlá! Yéi áwé toowditáan. Yandé wé yaa nanéeyin, du káalkʼw Tláʼ! a sháade hánix̱ gux̱satée. Tlaagú tlein á. Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee wé 125 Tlaagú tlein á. 160 wé taan tlein, Wáa sá kukg̱askeet? a sháade háni á. Ax̱ sháadi háni áwé woonaa. Áwé tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱ áwé yaa a naskwéin, Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee. taan ḵusteeyí. Wé du káalkʼw, wé taan. Yéi áwé. 130 Háw! 165 Yéi áwé akaawaneek. Ax̱ x̱ʼéi x̱á awlitoow ax̱ káak, Tsu ax̱ leéelkʼw aadé ḵukḵwanóogu yé. Gunx̱áa G̱uwakaan. Aadé x̱at kaawajaayí yé yáx̱. Ax̱ eesh ḵu.aa ḵoo nag̱áasʼ, Ḵukg̱asgeet. has du x̱ʼéidáx̱ áyá tsu. 135 Gwál yakḵwadláaḵ. 170 I een kax̱anéek, tlél chʼas yá tléixʼ Áwé akawaa.aaḵw. ḵáa, tléíxʼ ḵaa. Wé tléixʼ aa teen áwé,

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ḵuligaaw Yéi áwé nateech. a shakéede. Haa ḵusteeyí Áyá wudlaag̱í áwé yan kawdinook wé 175 chʼa oowayáa teet yaa jinastáni yáx̱ áwé nateech 210 wé taan tlein. haa kaadé. Yan kawdinoogú áwé. Yaa naxíxi, Óoxjaa aawa.áx̱. tuwunéekw, Yaa jinastán. ḵa wáa sá. Yaa jinastán. Yá teetlein yaa jinastán. 180 Áwé. 215 Du kaadé yaa jinastán. Yan taawdunóogu áwé tsú. Áwé aawayíḵ. Yéi áwé, Aawayíḵ. wuduwa.áx̱ Du kát jiwsitaani ḵu.aa, tle áx̱ wé teet yan jiwustaaní. aawa.óosʼi yáx̱ wootee. 185 Yan jiwsitán. 220 Yéi áwé has .éexʼ. Tsu aadáx̱ Chʼa oowayáa has ashóog̱u yáx̱ áwé wootee. kei wdlig̱ít. Wé du káalkʼw ḵu.aa: Aadáx̱ áwé kei wdlig̱ít. toowú néekw Wé eech kát áa, aadé has 190 tsu yéi áwé 225 x̱at dushoog̱u yé. Yáa, Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee. chʼu hú, du aani ḵwáani áwé, Ha! Tlél wáa sá x̱at kg̱watee. ashooḵ. Tsu kakḵwa.aaḵw. Wáanáx̱ sáwé? Ax̱ káak jiyís áyá. 195 Ḵúnáx̱ áwé 230 Ax̱ káak jiyís ḵa chʼa ldakát has ashooḵ. ax̱ naax̱ satee jíyis x̱áyá, Tuwunéekw tlein áwé. kakḵwa.aaḵw. Tuwunéekw tlein. Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa. Tlél yaa naaléi yan wulteeg̱í, Sh tóot g̱áa tin áwé yoo x̱ʼayatánk. 200 wé eech kaadáx̱. 235 Sh tóot g̱áa tin. Geesh áwé áa yéi yatee, Áwé tsu akaawa.aaḵw. wé éilʼ. Daa x̱á áwé akakḵwa.aaḵw. Geesh. Ayaawadlaag̱í wé a shakéexʼ Áwé, aa x̱oot wudzigít. Yan tuwunóogú áwé. 205 A tóonáx̱ 240 Ḵúnáx̱ áwé wudlisʼées. teet yaa jinastán. Chʼa kakḵwa.aaḵw.

322 323 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa

Tsu kakḵwa.aaḵw yéi yaawaḵaa. Áxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. Ax̱ káak x̱áawé Áxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. ax̱ ée awlitóow. 245 Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa. 280 Tlél kei kḵwadaleet. G̱unéi wdig̱wátʼ. Tlél kei kḵwadaleet. Ḵúnáx̱ wooyáatʼ aadé yaa ndag̱waatʼi yé. Yéi áwé sh tóot g̱aa tín, yoo x̱ʼayatánk. Yú shaa shakée. Aadé kei wdlisʼís tsu. Waa nanée sáwé ayaawadlaaḵ? Akaawa.aaḵw. 250 Ayaawadlaaḵ. 285 Wé tléixʼ aa taan teen Áwé, wé ḵuligaaw. du x̱ánt uwagút wé x̱ʼeisʼawáakʼ. Ayaawadlaaḵ. Tlél tlax̱ koogéiyi át áwé, Áyá, ayaawadlaaḵ. wé x̱ʼeisʼawáakʼ. Wé eech káxʼ 255 Gwál tléixʼ dáali. 290 yan kawdinook. Tléixʼ a dáali yáx̱ áwé. Tle yan kawdinoogú, héen áwé. wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa. tsu wé teet tlein We taan tlein ḵu.aa, kaadé jiwsitaan. yéi áwé, Teet tlein áwé, 260 déix̱ "thousand pounds" yoo duwasáakw a daalí. 295 yaa jinastánch wé Wé taan. wé eech kaadé. Áwé, Aadáx̱ kei dlig̱ít tle. wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa áwé, Yandé wé éil kax̱ áwé. x̱ʼaduwaḵaa: Yan wulitít wé, 265 Chx̱ánkʼ á! 300 wé taan tlein. Chx̱ánkʼ á! Áwé yéi toowditaan yeedát. Daat yís sáwé yáade kei iwdig̱wátʼ? Ḵúnáx̱ xʼaant uwanúk. Daat yís sáwé? Chʼa kḵwadanaaḵ. Áwé. Chʼa kḵwadanaaḵ. 270 Wé taan tlein yéi yaawaḵaa: 305 Yéi áwé Ha! Yéi yatéen ágé wé du tundatáani yateeyín wé eech tlein? Aadáx̱ has du shooḵ yé. Yá ax̱ káak áwé áx̱ ée awlitóow Aadáx̱ has du shooḵ yé. aadé a sháade hánix̱ x̱at gux̱satéeyi. Chʼa ḵwadanaaḵ. 275 Nasʼgidahéen áwé, 310 Yóo shaa yaa daadé áwé nasʼgidahéen, kḵwadag̱wáatʼ. kax̱wa.aaḵw.

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Áa x̱wanoogú. Tléixʼ g̱aa. Tle yan káxʼ dunoogú áwé, tóode yéi adaané. teet tlein a kaadé jinastánch. 315 Yéi du tundatáani wooteeyí, 350 A kaadáx̱ áwé yagéi áwé, yá, yaandé yá téixʼi sáani x̱at woolitít yaa nashuwaxéexi áwé. wé eech kaadáx̱ Yéi yaawaḵaa, yá x̱ʼeisʼawáa: wé yán. 320 haagúkʼ chx̱ánkʼ á! 355 Ách áwé kei x̱wdlilít. Góok, chx̱ánkʼ á! Kei x̱wdlilít. I du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! I du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! Yáaxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. Tsu kana.aaḵw! Wé ... Tsu kana.aaḵw! wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa ... 325 Gwál yakg̱éedlaaḵ. 360 wé taan tlein daat áwé Gwál yakg̱éedlaaḵ. eeshaandéin Áwé, tle du daa tuwatee. g̱unéi wdig̱wáatʼ. Háw! Wé taan tlein. Háw! Chx̱ánkʼ á! 330 Yá shaa yoo daadáx̱ g̱unéi wdig̱wátʼ. 365 Chx̱ánkʼ á! Wooyáatʼ. I tuwáa sig̱óo gé i éet ḵwadashéeyi? Ayawadlaag̱i áwé. Tlél gé wáa sá kg̱watée i éet ḵwadashéeyi? Gwál wé ḵéesʼ áwé, Haaw! ḵux̱dé yaa kanadéin. Wáa sáwé ax̱ eedé kg̱idashée? 335 Héende wudileet. 370 Wáa sáwé ax̱ eedé kg̱idashée? Héénde wudleet. Yéi x̱ʼaawawóosʼ. Yéi áwé tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱ Haaw! yaa naxʼák. Héide. Aadé litseení yé áwé. Héide i x̱ʼé. 340 Ḵa wé téixʼi sáani do tóo 375 Héide i x̱ʼéi na.óo. woosht áwé, I x̱ʼé. woosh … Áwé, tle yéi wdzigeet. A kát x̱at seiwaxʼáḵw aadé kḵwaḵáayi yé. Áwé, taan tlein. Du tóo yéi wootee ḵu.aa wé té. Té, téixʼi sáani áwé. 345 Áwé, 380 Du x̱ʼéide yéi adaané. teet tlein yeedát awsiteen. Téixʼi sáani. A kaadé kei uwaxʼák.

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A kát wooxʼaagi áwé wootee, yéi yaawaḵaa: tle yaa jinastáni, Yéi xʼwán nag̱atee. a káxʼ áwé, 385 Yéi xʼwán nag̱atee. 420 oowayáa Yei xʼwán nag̱atee i jéexʼ. woonoogú yáx̱ wootee, Ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi. wé teet tlein. Ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi, Tle wé eech tlein kaadé, wé téixʼi sáani yáx̱ xʼwán woonook ayaawadlaaḵ. 390 nag̱atee i tooxʼ. 425 Tlél ḵulagaaw teen ayaawadlaaḵ wé Wé téixʼi sáani. wé ... Yáx̱ nag̱atee Áa yéi kwanoogú yé. ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi, Tle yan kawdinoogú ḵu.aa áwé ax̱ yéet. tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱, 395 Sháade hánix̱ 430 ḵúnáx̱ yeedát: gux̱satee, ḵúnáx̱ yaa jinastán wé teet. ách áwé yéi yaawaḵaa. Yaa jinastán. Yá Kaadé yaa jinastán. ax̱ sáni. X̱eil áwé áa yéi yatee. 400 Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex, 435 X̱eil áwé áa yéi yatee wé teet yoo duwasáakw wé ḵáa. du kaadé yaa jinastán. Téixʼi sáani yáx̱ nag̱atee, Du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán, yéi áwé yaa ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi. tóot g̱aa tín yoo x̱ʼalay.át. Yées, chʼa yeisú yées ḵáax̱ sitee. Du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. 405 Gunalchéesh i een kax̱waneegí yá yagyeeyí. 440 Gwál yakḵwadlaaḵ yeedát. Ax̱ éesh hás, Du kát jiwustaaní áwé. G̱aanax̱teidí shkalneek áyá. Chʼas kadánjaa áwé Aadé latseení yé haa ḵusteeyí. du daa yéi wootee. Aadé latseení yé. Kadánjaa du daa yéi wootee. 410 Yéi áwé daayaḵáa: 445 Át aa, yee du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! wé Yee du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! taan tlein. Ḵusti ladzee nooch. Yéi áwé koogéí Ḵusti ladzee nooch. yá shkalneek. 415 Tlél kei kg̱idaleet. 450 Yan sh kawulneegí ḵu.aa Tlél kei kg̱idaleet. Áwé, Gunalchéesh

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Gunalchéesh. Sea Lion & Ptarmigan by David Katzeek Yéi áwé ḵukg̱wagéi Aan yátx’u sáani. Litle Children of the Land (Honorable Ho ho, ho ho. 455 People), Yéi áwé ax̱ tundatáani yatee yáa yagyeeyí. Aan yátx’u sáani, Litle Children of the Land (Honorable People), Kax̱waneegí King̱eestí ax̱ saayíx̱ sitee. King̱eest (David Katzeek) is one of my chʼu oowayáa yáa names. uháan ée chʼu oowayáa hú yá Shangukeidí naax̱ x̱at sitee. I am of the Shangukeidí (Eeagle- Thunderbird) clan. ax̱ een, 460 Xeitl Hítdáx̱, From Xeitl Hít (the Thurderbird House), 5 yoo x̱ʼaawataaní yáx̱ áwé yatee. Kaawdliyaayi Hít, Kaawdliyaayi Hít (House Lowered from the Aaadé latseení yé haa ḵusteeyí. Sun), Yéi áwé. ḵa Shís’g̱i Hít and the Shís’g̱i Hít (Sapling House) Yoo áwé koogéi haa hítx’i That is the amount of houses we have Jilḵáatx’, Tlákw Aan. on the Chilkat (Fish Cache) area, the Eternal Village (Klukwan). Ax̱ éesh has, áwé G̱aanax̱teidíx̱ has My fathers are the G̱aanaxteidí̱ (Raven- 10 sitee, Woodworm), ách áwé G̱aanax̱teidí yádix̱ x̱at sitee. because of this I am a child of the G̱aanaxteidí.̱ Ax̱ tláa, My mother, has du éesh has, thier fathers, Lukaax̱.ádix̱ has woositee, they were Lukaax.ádi̱ (Raven-Sockeye), Lḵóotdáx̱, from Chilkoot (Lake that Threw Up), 15 ḵa Jilḵáat. and Chilkat. Ách áwé, Lukaax̱.ádi dachx̱ánx̱ x̱at Because of this, I am a grandchild of the sitee. Lukaax.ádi.̱ Ax̱ tláa du léelk’u has ḵu.aa s ... My mother’s grandparents, however, they ... T’aḵdeintaan has woositee. they were T’aḵdeintaan (Raven-Kitwake). Xúnaadáx̱, from Hoonah, 20 Táax̱ʼ Hítdáx̱. From the Táaxʼ̱ Hít (Snail House). Ax̱ daakanóox’u áwé My outer shell Kiks.ádix̱ has sitee, are the Kiks.ádi (Raven-Frog), Shee At’ikádáx̱. from Sitka. Ḵa yéi áwé ax̱ een akaawaneek, And this is how it is, I was told, 25 ax̱ éesh, by my father, ax̱ sáni has áwé, Deisheetaanx̱ has my paternal uncles are Deisheetaan (Raven- sitee, Beaver),

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Taakw.aaneidí ḵa G̱aanax̱.ádi. and also Taakw.aaneidí (Raven-Strong Man) du een yaa nx̱wahán, áx̱ káak. I stood with my maternal uncle. and G̱aanax.ádi̱ (Raven-Starfsh). Ḵudu.éexʼi áwé. People were invited. Gwál, "1972" áwé ... Maybe in 1972 ... Aaa, yóotʼaa, has tsú; Yes, those ones over yonder, too, Ax̱ káak, My maternal uncle, 30 áa yéi has wootee, Deisheetaan. they were there too, the Deisheetaan. Xeitl Hít awliyéx̱, he built Xeitl Hít (Thunderbird House), Aa yéi has wootee, They were there, 65 ḵa Shís’g̱i Hít, and Shís’g̱i Hít (Sapling House), wé ḵu.éexʼ. that ḵu.éexʼ Kaawdliyaayi Hít, and Kaawdliyaayi Hít (House Lowered Down from the Sun), Shaawahík wé Xéitl Hít. The Xeitl Hít was full. awliyéx̱. he made them. Ḵúnáx̱ áwé ... Very much, Ḵu.éex’ tlein áwé yaawaxeex, There was a big ḵu.éex’, 35 a daa yéi jeewanéi, you worked around it, Jilḵáatx’, Tlákw Aan. in the Chilkat area, at the Eternal Village yá ḵu.éexʼ daat. around this ḵu.éexʼ. 70 (Klukwan). Gwál tléixʼ táakw ḵa a shoowú áwé, Maybe it was a year and a half, Yá keijín dis yoowaxéexi. It happened in the ffh month. haa x̱ʼashéexʼi, our songs, Áwé, nás’k yaakyee kaanáx̱ áwé. Yes, it lasted three days. haa tlaagú, our legends, Yá ḵu.éex’ yaawaxeex. This ḵu.éex’ occurred. haa saaxʼú, our names, Ldakát ḵáa áwé, All the people, 40 ḵa sagú and happiness (for fun tmes) 75 ldakát yéidáx̱ aa yéi has wootee. they came from all over. ldakát yéil ḵa all the Ravens and Ax̱ éesh has G̱aanax̱teidí, My fathers, the G̱aanaxteidí,̱ yá chʼáakʼx̱ has siteeyí aa tsu, those who are Eagles, aax’ yéi has wootee. they were there. Shangukeidíx̱ the Shangukeidí Ax̱ léelk’u has, My grandparents, ḵux̱ kaadé kawdujixít. went over it and it was writen. Lukaax̱.ádi, Lukaax.ádi,̱ 45 Áwé, That is, 80 Lḵóotdáx̱, from Chilkoot, yaa nshuxéexni áyá it came to pass, G̱éisándáx̱, from G̱eisán (Land at Top of the Bay), i een kakḵwanéek aadé wooteeyí yé. I will tell you about the way it was. has tsu aá yéi has wootee. they too were there. Yá tlaagú. This legend. Ax̱ tláa du léelk’u has My mother’s grandparents, Yéi áwé. That is how it is. T’aḵdeintaan tsu, the T’aḵdeintaan, as well, 50 Yá ḵáa, This man, 85 áa yéi has wootee. they were there. G̱aanax̱teidíx̱ sitee he is G̱aanaxteidí̱ Ḵa ax̱ daakanóox’u, Kiks.ádi, And my outer shell, the Kiks.ádi, Ishká Hítdáx̱. From Ishká Hít (House on the Fishing Hole) áa yéi has wootee. they were there. Yéi áwé dusáakw du hídi, hú. This is what his house is called, that one. Ḵaasgú áwé yoo duwasáakw. He is called Ḵaasgú. Ishká Hít Ishká Hít. Ax̱ ... My ... 55 Ḵaajaḵwtí Ḵaajaḵwt (Walter Sobolef) 90 káak, maternal uncle yéi áwé wuduwasáa. that is what he is called. Ḵaasgú. Ḵaasgú. Tléik! No! Á áwé hít awliyéx̱. That is, he built the house. Tlél Ḵaajaḵwtí. Tlél a yáx̱ áwé. Not Ḵaajaḵwt (Walter Sobolef). That is not Du een yéi jix̱wané. I was working with him. right. Wé hít wudulyeix̱í, When the house was built, 60 Ḵaajeetguxéex Ḵaajeetguxéex (Thomas Young)

332 333 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa yoo duwasáa du saayí. is how they say his name. 95 Yéi áwé. That is how it was. 130 Ax̱ sáni, ax̱ éesh hás. My paternal uncle, my fathers. Yéi áwé akaawaneek. That is what he told him. Áwé, ax̱ éet, haa éet x̱ʼeiwatán Yes, he told me, he told us, Tsu ax̱ leéelkʼw And my grandfather yaa nshuwaxéexi it was coming to and end Gunx̱áa G̱uwakaan. Gunxáa̱ G̱uwakaan (James Klanot). yá this Ax̱ eesh ḵu.aa ḵoo nag̱áasʼ, My father, though, moved along, X̱éitl Hít wudulyeix̱. X̱éitl Hít was built. 100 has du x̱ʼéidáx̱ áyá tsu. through their mouths as well. 135 Wudiháan. He stood. I een kax̱anéek, tlél chʼas yá tléixʼ I am telling you, not just one Wudiháan. He stood. ḵáa, tléíxʼ ḵaa. man, one man. Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa: He said it like this: Áwé yaa a naskwéini That is, he a student of «Ax̱ yéet, King̱eestí. “My son, King̱eest. wé taan ḵusteeyí. that sea lion way of life. ḵa ldakát yeewháan, and all of you, 105 Aadé a sháade háni ḵusteeyí yé The way of a leader long ago. 140 Shangukeidíx̱, Shangukeidí, chʼáakw. Gunalchéesh. Thank you. Ḵaa x̱ʼéidé áwé ḵaa g̱isa.áx̱ One would listen to people X̱át tsu, ax̱ tuwáa sigóo Me too, I want a sháade hánix̱ i wusteeyí. when you were a leader. yee éet x̱ʼakḵwataaní, to speak to you all, Ḵá And aanyátxʼi, noble people, 110 yaa ḵeedzigéi yéi áwé. you are intelligent, that is how it is. gunalchéesh.» thank you.” Du éetxʼ aa x̱ʼeiwatán, du káalkʼw To him, he told this to his nephew. 145 eedé. Wé g̱unéi x̱ʼeiwatán. He began to speak. Ḵaa yáa at wooné Respectng people, Taan daat áwé g̱unéi x̱ʼeiwatán He began to speak about the sea lion haa wooch.een yéi jeewaneiyi. working together. ḵa yá and this Aadé yateeyí yé haa yoo x̱ʼatángi. This is the way of our language. x̱ʼeisʼawáa ptarmigan 115 Haa ḵusteeyí xʼéigaa Lingít á. Our way of life, true human beings, indeed. yoo duwasáakw á. it really is called. ̱ Xʼéigaa Lingít á. True human beings. 150 Yéi áwé akaawaneek. That is how he told it. ̱ Has awusikóowu They knew Taan tlein áwé. There was a giant sea lion. ḵaa at yéi has ḵuwusteeyí. the ways people used to live. Du káalkʼw, His paternal nephew, Ách áwé «xʼéigaa Lingít» yoo Because of that it is called "true human aadé has du the way they 120 ̱ duwasáakw. beings.” ḵudziteeyí yé áwé. were living there. Áwé, wé taan tlein That is, the giant sea lion Du een, akanéek, du káalkʼw een. With him, he tells it to his nephew. chʼa yákʼw dé áwé woonaa. suddenly died. 155 Yandé wé yaa nanéeyin, du káalkʼw It is going to happen, the nephew Wé taan tlein. That giant sea lion. a sháade hánix̱ gux̱satée. will become a leader. Tlá! Yéi áwé toowditáan. Oh no! That is how he was thinking. Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee wé This was the thoughts of that 125 Tláʼ! Oh no! wé taan tlein, giant sea lion, Tlaagú tlein á. It is a big legend. a sháade háni á. the true leader of them. Tlaagú tlein á. A big legend. 160 Áwé tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱ áwé yaa a naskwéin, That is, the nephew was really learning, Wáa sá kukg̱askeet? How is it going to go? taan ḵusteeyí. the sea lion way of life.

334 335 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa

Ax̱ sháadi háni áwé woonaa. My leader has died. Tsu kakḵwa.aaḵw. I will try again. Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee. This is how he was thinking. Ax̱ káak jiyís áyá. For my uncle. 195 Wé du káalkʼw, wé taan. His nephew, that sea lion. Ax̱ káak jiyís ḵa chʼa ldakát For my uncle and all Háw! Oh my! 165 ax̱ naax̱ satee jíyis x̱áyá, my people this is, you see, Ax̱ x̱ʼéi x̱á awlitoow ax̱ káak, I will speak the way my uncle taught it, you kakḵwa.aaḵw. I am going to try. see, Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa. That is what he said. aadé ḵukḵwanóogu yé. I will be that way. Sh tóot g̱áa tin áwé yoo x̱ʼayatánk. He was comforted with those words. 200 Aadé x̱at kaawajaayí yé yáx̱. Like the way I was instructed. Sh tóot g̱áa tin. He was comforted. Ḵukg̱asgeet. How it will go. Áwé tsu akaawa.aaḵw. That is, he tried again. Gwál yakḵwadláaḵ. Maybe I will succeed. 170 Daa x̱á áwé akakḵwa.aaḵw. I will try it again, you see. Áwé akawaa.aaḵw. That is, he tried. Ayaawadlaag̱í wé a shakéexʼ He succeeded, and made it to the top. Wé tléixʼ aa teen áwé, With this one, Yan tuwunóogú áwé. His inner sadness rested. 205 ḵuligaaw fghtng Ḵúnáx̱ áwé Really, that is, a shakéede. towards the top. teet yaa jinastán. waves were getng rough. Áyá wudlaag̱í áwé yan kawdinook wé And he succeeded, he got up there, 175 Yéi áwé nateech. That is how it always is. wé taan tlein. that giant sea lion. Haa ḵusteeyí Our way of life Yan kawdinoogú áwé. He rose up, that is. chʼa oowayáa teet yaa jinastáni yáx̱ it is just like the waves getng rough, always 210 Óoxjaa aawa.áx̱. He heard the wind. áwé nateech Yaa jinastán. Itʼs getng rough. haa kaadé. over us Yaa jinastán. Yá teetlein yaa jinastán. Itʼs getng rough. This huge wave is getng 180 Yaa naxíxi, It is happening, rough. sadness, Du kaadé yaa jinastán. It washes over him. tuwunéekw, and how so. Áwé aawayíḵ. Well, he bit down. ḵa wáa sá. That is. 215 Aawayíḵ. He bit down. Áwé. It can be felt too. Du kát jiwsitaani ḵu.aa, tle áx̱ It washed over him, though, then along it Yan taawdunóogu áwé tsú. That is how it is, aawa.óosʼi yáx̱ wootee. like it washed him of of it. [laughs like a 185 Yéi áwé, sea lion] wuduwa.áx̱ it is heard Yéi áwé has .éexʼ. That is how they (the other sea lions) called wé teet yan jiwustaaní. when the waves got rough. out. Yan jiwsitán. It got rough. 220 Chʼa oowayáa has ashóog̱u yáx̱ áwé It is as if there laughter was like that. wootee. Tsu aadáx̱ Again, from it Wé du káalkʼw ḵu.aa: His nephew there, however: kei wdlig̱ít. he was thrown. toowú néekw sadness Aadáx̱ áwé kei wdlig̱ít. He was thrown of of it. aadé has by the way they 190 Wé eech kát áa, Sitng on the reef, x̱at dushoogu yé. laughed at me. tsu yéi áwé thatʼs how it was again, [laughs like a sea 225 ̱ lion]. Yéi áwé du tundatáani wootee. That is how he thought about it. Yáa, This, Ha! Tlél wáa sá x̱at kg̱watee. Well! I will be okay.

336 337 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa chʼu hú, du aani ḵwáani áwé, just him, the ones from the land, yaa jinastánch wé its roughness ashooḵ. laugh. wé eech kaadé. goes over the reef. Wáanáx̱ sáwé? Why? Aadáx̱ kei dlig̱ít tle. He was thrown from it then. Ḵúnáx̱ áwé Really, that is, 230 Yandé wé éil kax̱ áwé. Out over the ocean, that is. has ashooḵ. they laughed. Yan wulitít wé, He was adrif, 265 Tuwunéekw tlein áwé. There was tremendous sadness. wé taan tlein. that giant sea lion. Tuwunéekw tlein. Tremendous sadness. Áwé yéi toowditaan yeedát. That is, he made a decision now. Tlél yaa naaléi yan wulteeg̱í, He did not drif that far from the shore, Ḵúnáx̱ xʼaant uwanúk. He was really sitng with anger. wé eech kaadáx̱. from that reef. 235 Chʼa kḵwadanaaḵ. Iʼm just going to quit. Geesh áwé áa yéi yatee, There are bull kelp there, Chʼa kḵwadanaaḵ. Iʼm just going to quit. 270 wé éilʼ. that ocean. Yéi áwé That is how Geesh. Bull kelp. du tundatáani yateeyín his thinking became. Áwé, aa x̱oot wudzigít. That is, he fell among those ones. Aadáx̱ has du shooḵ yé. Away from the place where they are laughing. A tóonáx̱ Through it 240 Aadáx̱ has du shooḵ yé. Away from that place where they are wudlisʼées. he was blown. laughing. Chʼa kakḵwa.aaḵw. I will just try. Chʼa ḵwadanaaḵ. I will just quit. 275 Tsu kakḵwa.aaḵw yéi yaawaḵaa. "I will try again," he said. Yóo shaa yaa daadé áwé Towards that mountain over yonder Ax̱ káak x̱áawé My uncle, that is, you see kḵwadag̱wáatʼ. I will crawl (like a child). ax̱ ée awlitóow. taught me. 245 Áxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. There I will die. Tlél kei kḵwadaleet. I will not quit. Áxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. There I will die. Tlél kei kḵwadaleet. I will not quit. Yéi áwé yaawaḵaa. That is how he said it. 280 Yéi áwé sh tóot g̱aa tín, yoo x̱ʼayatánk. That is how it is, those words comforted G̱unéi wdig̱wátʼ. He began to crawl. him. Ḵúnáx̱ wooyáatʼ aadé yaa ndagwaatʼi It was a real long ways that he crawled that He was blown up towards it, too. ̱ Aadé kei wdlisʼís tsu. yé. way. He tried. 250 Akaawa.aaḵw. Yú shaa shakée. The top of that mountain. This one, with sea lions Wé tléixʼ aa taan teen Waa nanée sáwé ayaawadlaaḵ? When was it he succeeded? he fought. wé ḵuligaaw. Ayaawadlaaḵ. He made it. 285 He succeeded. Ayaawadlaaḵ. Áwé, That is, This is, he succeeded. Áyá, ayaawadlaaḵ. du x̱ánt uwagút wé x̱ʼeisʼawáakʼ. it came up next to him, that litle ptarmigan. On that reef 255 Wé eech káxʼ Tlél tlax̱ koogéiyi át áwé, It was not very big, he rose up. yan kawdinook. wé x̱ʼeisʼawáakʼ. that litle ptarmigan. When he rose up, the water Tle yan kawdinoogú, héen áwé. Gwál tléixʼ dáali. Perhaps one pound (weight). 290 also this huge wave tsu wé teet tlein Tléixʼ a dáali yáx̱ áwé. Like one pound, that is. washed over it. kaadé jiwsitaan. wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa. that ptarmigan. This huge wave, 260 Teet tlein áwé, We taan tlein ḵu.aa, That giant sea lion, however,

338 339 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa yéi áwé, that is how it is, du daa tuwatee. he felt inside. déix̱ "thousand pounds" yoo it is called two thousand pounds, its weight. 295 Háw! My! duwasáakw a daalí. Háw! Chx̱ánkʼ á! My! Dear grandson! 330 Wé taan. That sea lion. Chx̱ánkʼ á! Dear grandson! Áwé, That is, I tuwáa sig̱óo gé i éet ḵwadashéeyi? Do you want me to help you? wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa áwé, that ptarmigan, Tlél gé wáa sá kg̱watée i éet Will it be okay if i help you? x̱ʼaduwaḵaa: said: ḵwadashéeyi? Chx̱ánkʼ á! Oh, grandson! 300 Haaw! Well! Chx̱ánkʼ á! Oh, grandson! Wáa sáwé ax̱ eedé kg̱idashée? How are you going to help me? 335 Daat yís sáwé yáade kei iwdig̱wátʼ? What did you crawl up here for? Wáa sáwé ax̱ eedé kg̱idashée? How are you going to help me? Daat yís sáwé? What for? Yéi x̱ʼaawawóosʼ. Thus he asked. Áwé. That is. Haaw! Well! Wé taan tlein yéi yaawaḵaa: That giant sea lion said: 305 Héide. Towards there. Ha! Yéi yatéen ágé wé Well! Do you see Héide i x̱ʼé. Towards there, your mouth. 340 wé eech tlein? that big reef? Héide i x̱ʼéi na.óo. Put them there, your mouth. Yá ax̱ káak áwé áx̱ ée awlitóow This uncle of mine, he taught me I x̱ʼé. Your mouth. aadé a sháade hánix̱ x̱at gux̱satéeyi. so that I would became a leader. Áwé, tle yéi wdzigeet. That is, then he was instructed. Nasʼgidahéen áwé, Three tmes, 310 Áwé, taan tlein. That is, that sea lion. nasʼgidahéen, three tmes, Té, téixʼi sáani áwé. Rock, pebbles, that is. 345 kax̱wa.aaḵw. I tried. Du x̱ʼéide yéi adaané. The mouth, he does it. Áa x̱wanoogú. I sat there. Téixʼi sáani. Pebbles. Tle yan káxʼ dunoogú áwé, When it was sat upon, that is, Tléixʼ g̱aa. One afer another, teet tlein a kaadé jinastánch. a huge wave would always get rough over it. 315 tóode yéi adaané. he puts them inside. A kaadáx̱ áwé Away from it, that is, Yéi du tundatáani wooteeyí, That is how his thinking was, 350 yaandé to sea yagéi áwé, yá, there were many, these, x̱at woolitít I would roll on the swell yá téixʼi sáani these pebbles wé eech kaadáx̱ away from the reef yaa nashuwaxéexi áwé. were all gone, that is. wé yán. the shore. 320 Yéi yaawaḵaa, yá x̱ʼeisʼawáa: This is what he said, this ptarmigan: Ách áwé kei x̱wdlilít. Because of that, I quit. haagúkʼ chx̱ánkʼ á! come here, dear grandson! 355 Kei x̱wdlilít. I quit. Góok, chx̱ánkʼ á! Do it, dear grandson! Yáaxʼ áwé ḵukḵwanáa. It is here I will die. I du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! I du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! Be strong and courageous! Be strong and courageous! Wé ... That ... Tsu kana.aaḵw! Try again! wé x̱ʼeisʼawáa ... that ptarmigan ... 325 Tsu kana.aaḵw! Try again! wé taan tlein daat áwé around that giant sea lion, that is, Gwál yakg̱éedlaaḵ. Perhaps you will succeed. 360 eeshaandéin so pitfully

340 341 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa

Gwál yakg̱éedlaaḵ. Perhaps you will succeed. Tle yan kawdinoogú ḵu.aa áwé At the tme he rose up, though, Áwé, tle That is, then tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱, tremendously, 395 g̱unéi wdig̱wáatʼ. he began to crawl. ḵúnáx̱ yeedát: really now: Wé taan tlein. That giant sea lion. ḵúnáx̱ yaa jinastán wé teet. those waves really were getng rough. Yá shaa yoo daadáx̱ g̱unéi wdig̱wátʼ. Along this mountain, he began to crawl 365 Yaa jinastán. Getng rough. away from it. Kaadé yaa jinastán. Itʼs washing over it. Wooyáatʼ. It was long. X̱eil áwé áa yéi yatee. There is foam on it. 400 Ayawadlaag̱i áwé. He succeeded, that is. X̱eil áwé áa yéi yatee wé teet There is foam on the enormous wave Gwál wé ḵéesʼ áwé, Maybe the food tde, that is, du kaadé yaa jinastán. that crashes over him. ḵux̱dé yaa kanadéin. it was coming back in. Du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán, yéi áwé yaa Strong and courageous, thatʼs how it is, Héende wudileet. He slid into the water. 370 tóot g̱aa tín yoo x̱ʼalay.át. those words comforted him. Héénde wudleet. He slid into the water. Du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán. Strong and courageous. 405 Yéi áwé tlax̱ ḵúnáx̱ That is how it is, he really Gwál yakḵwadlaaḵ yeedát. Maybe I will succeed now. yaa naxʼák. was swimming hard. Du kát jiwustaaní áwé. It washed over him. Aadé litseení yé áwé. In that way, he was strong. Chʼas kadánjaa áwé Just spray from the water, like dust, Ḵa wé téixʼi sáani do tóo And those pebbles inside him 375 du daa yéi wootee. it was all around him. woosht áwé, together, that is, Kadánjaa du daa yéi wootee. The spray from the water was all around 410 woosh … together … him. A kát x̱at seiwaxʼáḵw aadé kḵwaḵáayi I forgot how to say it. Át aa, He is sitng there, yé. wé that Du tóo yéi wootee ḵu.aa wé té. Inside him, however, that rock. taan tlein. giant sea lion. Áwé, That is, 380 Yéi áwé koogéí That is how big teet tlein yeedát awsiteen. he saw the huge wave now. yá shkalneek. this story is. 415 He swam up over it. A kaadé kei uwaxʼák. Yan sh kawulneegí ḵu.aa He (Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex) told it completely, A kát wooxʼaagi áwé wootee, As he was swimming on it, though. tle yaa jinastáni, then it gets rough, Áwé, That is, a káxʼ áwé, washes over it, that is, 385 yéi yaawaḵaa: thus he said: oowayáa it was as if Yéi xʼwán nag̱atee. Be sure to carry it. woonoogú yáx̱ wootee, he was sitng on it, Yéi xʼwán nag̱atee. Be sure to carry it. 420 wé teet tlein. that huge wave. Yei xʼwán nag̱atee i jéexʼ. Be sure to carry it in your possession. Tle wé eech tlein kaadé, When he went over the big reef Ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi. My words. woonook ayaawadlaaḵ. he succeeded in sitng there. 390 Ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi, My words, Tlél ḵulagaaw teen ayaawadlaaḵ wé Without fghtng, he won that, wé téixʼi sáani yáx̱ xʼwán they are like the pebbles, be sure to wé ... that ... nag̱atee i tooxʼ. put them inside you. 425 Áa yéi kwanoogú yé. He was situated in that place. Wé téixʼi sáani. Those pebbles. Yáx̱ nag̱atee Let it be like

342 343 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi Taan k̲a X̲ʼeisʼawáa ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi, my words, yoo x̱ʼaawataaní yáx̱ áwé yatee. it is like the words from his mouth. ax̱ yéet. my son. Aaadé latseení yé haa ḵusteeyí. The way of gaining strength in our way of life. Sháade hánix̱ A leader, 430 Yéi áwé. That is how it is. gux̱satee, he becomes, ách áwé yéi yaawaḵaa. because of that he said it. Yá This ax̱ sáni. my paternal uncle. Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex, Ḵaajeetg̱uxeex (Thomas Young), 435 yoo duwasáakw wé ḵáa. is what he is called, that man. Téixʼi sáani yáx̱ nag̱atee, Like pebbles, carry it, ax̱ yoo x̱ʼatángi. my words. Yées, chʼa yeisú yées ḵáax̱ sitee. New, stll just a young man. Gunalchéesh i een kax̱waneegí yá I am thankful to have told this to you today. 440 yagyeeyí. Ax̱ éesh hás, My fathers, G̱aanax̱teidí shkalneek áyá. this is a G̱aanaxteidí̱ story. Aadé latseení yé haa ḵusteeyí. How we gain strength with our culture. Aadé latseení yé. The way to strength. Yéi áwé daayaḵáa: This is how it is said about it: 445 yee du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! You all be strong and courageous! Yee du.aa yáx̱ xʼwán! You all be strong and courageous! Ḵusti ladzee nooch. Life is always hard. Ḵusti ladzee nooch. Life is always hard. Tlél kei kg̱idaleet. You will not quit. 450 Tlél kei kg̱idaleet. You will not quit. Gunalchéesh Thank you. Gunalchéesh. Thank you. Yéi áwé ḵukg̱wagéi That is how it will be understood. Ho ho, ho ho. Thank you, thank you. 455 Yéi áwé ax̱ tundatáani yatee yáa That is how my thinking is today. yagyeeyí. Kax̱waneegí I told it chʼu oowayáa yáa just like this, uháan ée chʼu oowayáa hú yá to us, just like he did, this ax̱ een, to me 460

344 345 Haa Wsineix̲ Haa Yoo X̲ ʼatángi

346 Bibliography

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----. “Segmenting and glossing Tlingit.” Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013.

Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. “Because We Cherish You ...” Sealaska Elders Speak to the Future. Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Foundation Press, 1981.

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Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard. Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá – Say It in Tlingit: A Tlingit Phrasebook. Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2002.

Dauenhauer, Nora, Richard Dauenhauer, and Keri Eggleston. Raven Stories. Unpublished Manuscript. Updated 2013.

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Davis, George. Verb Conjugation Interview. 19 Feb 2015.

Edwards (Eggleston), Keri. Dictionary of Tlingit. Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2009.

----. “575+ Tlingit Verbs.” Goldbelt Heritage Foundation. 2009. Retrieved from http://www.goldbeltheritage.org/verbs

Eggleston, Keri. “575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms” Ph.D. thesis., University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013.

----. “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms – A Component of ‘575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms’” Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013.

347 Bibliography

George, Cyril. “Ḵaalḵáawu X̱ʼéidáx̱ Lingít Yoo X̱ʼatángi Daat (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=4DP2EVBtUrc.

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348 Tlingit is a language indigenous to Southeast Alaska, Northwestern British Columbia, and Southwestern Yukon. It is one branch of the massive Na-Dene language family, the other being Eyak-Athabascan. Recent studies estimate there are approximately 200 speakers of the language today, and this text is part of a larger movement dedicated to increasing that number. The Tlingit language is undoubtedly complex, from the sound system to the ways that things relate to one other within the language. Without a doubt, though, the most complicated part of the language is the ways that verbs function. The verbs are the heart of the language, and most Tlingit second-language learners find themselves stuck trying to figure out how to properly interpret and use verbs in their language. When we figure that part out, then we are truly speakers—imitators of a collection of incredible people who lived long ago and carried this language forward for us to reclaim.