Technological University Dublin ARROW@TU Dublin Dissertations School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology 2021-05-17 A Critical Analysis of Gender Inequality in the Chef Profession in Ireland Mary M. Farrell PhD TU Dublin, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/tfschcafdis Part of the Higher Education Commons, Hospitality Administration and Management Commons, Human Resources Management Commons, Other Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, and the Tourism and Travel Commons Recommended Citation Farrell, M. (2020). A Critical Analysis of Gender Inequality in the Chef Profession in Ireland (unpublished PhD), School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, Technological University Dublin. This Theses, Ph.D is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology at ARROW@TU Dublin. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ARROW@TU Dublin. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License A Critical Analysis of Gender Inequality in the Chef Profession in Ireland Submitted by Mary Farrell To School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology Technological University Dublin For the Award of a PhD. Supervisor: Dr Máirtín Mac Con Iomaire, Technological University Dublin September 2020 1 Declaration I declare that this thesis which is now submitted for examination for the award of PhD, is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others, save and to the extent that that work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. This thesis was prepared according to the regulations for graduate study by research of the Technological University Dublin and has not been submitted in whole or in part for any award in any other third level institution. The work reported on in this thesis conforms to the principles and requirement of the Technological University Dublin’s guidelines for ethics in research. 2 Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my supervisor Dr. Máirtín Mac Con Iomaire for his continued assistance, support and supervision throughout the evolution of this dissertation. Special thanks to Professor Emeritus John Baker whose expertise on inequality and social justice was invaluable, Dr. Deirdre Nuttall for support, advice and guidance along the journey and Dr. Elaine Mahon for her invaluable assistance with editing. Many thanks to my doctoral examiners, Professor Pat O’Connor and Dr. Ziene Mottiar, for their close reading and engaging discussion at the Viva, which helped strengthen the final thesis. I would like to thank Gary and Claire Morton of C. Morton & Sons, who, as my employers were generous of spirit throughout this process. Finally, I would like to thank Richard, steadfastly patient and supportive always. Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the most important women in my life, past and present, my two grandmothers, my mother and my five sisters. 3 Abstract As an original piece of research, this dissertation investigates the factors that contribute to gender inequality in the chef profession in Ireland. The aims of the study sought to establish the extent of gender inequality and the factors that contribute to it in the chef profession in Ireland. The first national gender inequality survey was designed to collect empirical and qualitative data of the chef profession. Joan Acker’s (1990) original theory of gendered organisations and Connell’s (1995) concept of hegemonic masculinity were employed to undertake a systematic gender analysis of the data emanating the survey. This analysis reveals, for the first time, the extent of gender inequality in the roles and work environments in which men and women chefs work and suggests reasons why this occurs. A critical gender analysis of the qualitative data revealed the factors that women chefs identify as barriers to gender equality and those that need to be addressed to advance gender equality. The gender analysis of both the empirical and qualitative data in this study suggests that Acker’s (1990) theory remains relevant for assessing gender inequality in twenty first century work organizations with caveats. The findings suggest that education should be considered as a possible site of inequality in addition to Acker’s (1990) five interconnecting practises and processes of the division of labour, individual identities, workplace interactions, cultural symbols and images and the organisation logic of gendered organisations. 4 Glossary of Terms Brigade de Cuisine: A French hierarchical management system to ensure kitchen operations run smoothly. It is known as the kitchen brigade or sometimes referred to as the simply the brigade. Chef de Cuisine: The leadership role of executive head or head chef in the professional kitchen who is responsible for overall management of kitchen. They supervise and manage staff, control costs and make purchases, and liaise with the restaurant manager and suppliers to create new menus. Sous Chef: The deputy chef who shares many of the same responsibilities as the head chef, however they are much more involved in the day-to-day operations in the kitchen. The sous chef also fills in for the head chef when they are not present. Chef de Partie: The station chef. This role is split into many different roles. There is more than one chef de partie and each one is responsible for a different section of the kitchen. Chef de Tournant: The relief chef. This person does not have a specific job, but rather fills in as and when needed at different stations. Entremetier: A vegetable chef who prepares vegetables, soups, starches, and eggs. In larger kitchens, this role may split into two. Potager: A entremetier or vegetable chef who is in charge of making soups Legumier: A entremetier or vegetable chef who is in charge of preparing any vegetable Commis Chef: Is the apprentice chef and the junior chef who has usually recently completed, or is still partaking in, formal training. Stage: An internship 5 Abbreviations BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics CERT The Council for Education, Recruitment and Training for the Hotel Industry CIC Construction Industry Council’s Diversity Report CSO Central Statistics Office DIT Dublin Institute of Technology EC European Commission EU European Union EGFSN The Expert Group and Future Skills Need EIGE European Institute of Gender Inequality ESRI Economic and Social Research Institute HOTREC Umbrella Group for Hotel Career Hospitality Europe LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender NCCCB The National Craft Curriculum Certification Board (NCCCB) NWCI National Women’s Council of Ireland OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ONS Office of National Statistics RAI Restaurant Association of Ireland UK United Kingdom USA United States of America 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ________________________________________________________________ 2 Acknowledgements _________________________________________________________ 3 Abstract __________________________________________________________________ 4 Glossary of Terms ___________________________________________________________ 5 Abbreviations ______________________________________________________________ 6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION _________________________________________________ 13 Significance of the Research _____________________________________________________ 13 Background __________________________________________________________________ 14 Positioning within the Research __________________________________________________ 17 Aims and Objectives ___________________________________________________________ 19 Theoretical Framework _________________________________________________________ 20 Methodology _________________________________________________________________ 22 Summary ____________________________________________________________________ 23 CHAPTER 2. CONTEXTUALISING THE CHEF PROFESSION ___________________________ 25 The Historical Development of the Chef Profession ___________________________________ 25 The Hierarchical Brigade de Cuisine _______________________________________________ 30 The Ideal Chef_________________________________________________________________ 32 Women and Work in Early 20th Century Ireland ______________________________________ 34 The Development of the Chef Profession in Ireland ___________________________________ 35 Contemporary Professional Kitchens and Roles ______________________________________ 41 Summary ____________________________________________________________________ 43 CHAPTER 3. GENDER INEQUALITY _____________________________________________ 47 Gender: Beyond Binary Definitions ________________________________________________ 47 Gender Inequality: The Shifting Sands of Feminism ___________________________________ 49 First Wave Feminists _________________________________________________________________ 50 Second Wave Feminists ______________________________________________________________ 51 Third Wave Feminists ________________________________________________________________ 55 Gender Inequality: Progress and Stagnation in Work Organizations _____________________ 57 Pay Discrimination __________________________________________________________________ 59 Unequal Access to Power – Leadership __________________________________________________ 60 Occupational Segregation _____________________________________________________________