6 CALCULATING LATE CLASSIC LOWLAND MAYA POPULATION FOR THE UPPER RIVER AREA

Anabel Ford, Keith C. Clarke, and Sebastian Morlet

The problem ofestimating ancient Maya populations has vexed archaeologists since the first temples were discovered, and existing best estimates range considerably. Using a probability map of Maya settlement patterns derived fro m predictive Bayesian modeling ofthe Upper Belize River Area, we have developed a means of estimating populations in the unknown areas.Using the ancient land use patterns ofresidential units revealed in surveyed areas, we expanded our model across a greater area, creating a probability map ofall Maya sites of the area, discovered or not. Based on a classification of the sites and demographic assumptions about the average fa mily, we derive estimates and their ranges ofpopulationfo r the Late Classic Maya that reveal an intensive land use system.

Introduction Estimating Maya population numbers throughout their settlement history in .A.DziNnc:he Central America has been a preoccupation of Maya archaeologists for nearly a century. Contemplating the abandoned, forest­ covered temples and the numerous smaller platforms that appeared to be everywhere, gave rise to a rich variety of interpretations. Yet it was the focused attention on the major architecture and the abundance of the smaller structures that led researchers to envision a dense and widespread system of Maya settlement. As first noted by Bullard, as one looks beyond the temples and plazas variation in Maya settlement forms and configurations can be recognized (1960; see also Fedick 1995; Fedick and Ford 1990; Ford 1991; Iannone and Connell 2003; Isendahl 2002; Sabloff 1992; Smyth et al 1995; Webster Figure 1. The Central Maya Lowlands with Sites 2008). Still, the perception remains of vast indicated. cities surrounded by their sustaining rural hinterland habitations (Rice and Culbert obstructed by the density and isolation ofthe 1990 following Redfield 1967). Estimates Maya forest itself. Centers ranging in size for Late Classic settlement densities also from the large site of to the residential appear to reflect this division (Rice and community of Barton Ramie (Figure I) Culbert 1990:30-31). Yet this distinction is relied on the landscape for their subsistence possibly more structured by our own needs. In this research we sought answers to experiences of contemporary urbanization, questions of how the Maya used their land, and not by actual evidence from the ancient and consequently, how they chose to settle Maya landscape, where the perceived and farm the landscape. With answers to urban/rural dichotomy falls short of these questions, estimates of ancient describing the diversity of Maya settlement populations become feasible. (Ford 1991; Levi 2002). It is hard to The nature of settlement patterns and evaluate the efficacy of the dichotomy, densities suggests nuances that can only be however, since archaeological surveys are revealed by a more detailed examination of

Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology, Vol. 8, 2011, pp. 75-87. Copyright © 2011 by the Institute of Archaeology, NICH, Belize. Late Classic Lowland Maya Population

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Figure 2. The Upper Belize River Area with Study area indicated.

Figure 3. Comparison of the Original Model (L) with the New Model (R).

76 Ana bel Ford et. al.

the Maya landscape. In prior work, we to appreciate from the perspective offered created an assessment for Maya sites of the via a survey transect, but Geographic Upper Belize River Area with the Information Systems (GIS) offers a means to development of a predictive model using identify patterns and produce maps based on geographic variables (Ford and Clarke 2006 ; samples of identified settlements and Ford et al. 2009). This research involved patterns. This is how we constructed a extensive data correlation, building a model predictive model of Maya settlement for the based on Weight-of-Evidence (Bayesian) Upper Belize River Area (Ford and Clarke predictive methods , appl ication of the 2006, Ford et al 2009) . The results of the model, and its validation through field GIS research forms the basis of this further testing. The model proved highly successful effort to calculate Maya population density in predicting both the greater and lesser and distribution. presence of Maya settlements (Ford, Clarke, We begin with an assessment of the and Raines 2009). predictive model of Maya settlements as a Our work with Maya settlement patterns basis for the extrapolation of settlement and offers a new perspective that builds on the residential patterns. Refining our predictive constellation of environmental model to build the population estimates, we characteristics commonly associated with used the transect surveys for the Belize ancient patterns of settlement (Campbell et River Archaeological Settlement Survey aI. 2006). Put simply and in local terms, (BRASS), along with additional surveys of well-drained ridges within the tall canopy Barton Ramie , to characterize residential forests had high settlement densities (Ford configurations and settlement patterns across 1986:68-69, 88, 1991); poor-drained the wider Upper Belize River Area. The lowlands with short forest had low recognized patterns are then propagated settlement densities; and seasonally from the actual surveys to the broader map, inundated and perennial wetlands had no based on the predictive model using the GIS. settlement (Fedick and Ford 1990). Given Populations were estimated on the basis that the Maya civic centers are perched of defined residenti al units plotted with the within well-drained areas and that the GIS to create the broader settlement map. general non-central surveys incorporate the To calculate population, we develop a variety .of landforms, it may be that the strategy to first determine primary and proportions of varied environmental secondary residence derived from characteristics explain the differences in ethnohistoric and ethnographic cases. The densities. High densities around major results provide both a view of how centers such as Tikal were located in areas settlement and population vary across the with a high proportion of well-drained landscape and also present a picture of high terrain ; archaeological surveys that surround population levels and intense land use for such centers will therefore represent well­ the Late Classic Maya . drained ridges and high settlement densities. Broader estimates based on these densities if Predictive Model Map of Ancient Maya extended will overestimate populations. Settlement Patterns Intersite areas , such as those located Over the past several years, we have between Tikal · and , incorporate been working with the results ofa predictive different' environmental zones ranging from model of Maya sites drawing on data ridges to wetlands (Ford 1986; 2003) and gathered in the GIS (Ford and Clarke 2006 , yield average settlement densities lower than Ford et aI. 2009; Merlet 2009, 2010). that ofTikal, for example. Focused on the data gathered by the BRASS When the environmental characteristics research , where three basic transects in the are taken into account, there is a wide western portion and targeted quadrants to variation. These variations may be difficult the east were designed to gain an

77 Late Classic Lowland Maya Population

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appreciation for the variation of settlements presence of sites but also the absence of in the alluvial valley, the rolling marl sites . foothills and the well-drained ridges to the In the final model refinements, north. Before the BRASS study, Maya experiment results were compared with and studies concentrated in the valley suggested without the coverage of rivers. We found that sett lement was a ribbon line pattern that the interaction of the river coverage was only along the river (Coe and Coe 1956; clouding patterns of land use, especially Thompson 1942; Willey et al. 1965). This where there was a low probabili ty of view is now altered and we have a more settlement (Ford et al. 2009: 12-13). The complex understanding of settlem ent relation between rivers and sites was found patterns today. Thu s we can compensate for to be compl ex, positive at some distances the sampling bias of prior sites selected too and negative at others. Evaluating the close together. relia bility of the models with and without Based on the BRASS research, we have the river coverage, we determined that we developed a predi cted map of the c. 1300 sq had better predictive results without the km of the Upper Belize River Area that rivers. predicts sites and their density at a 96% The validation of the predictive model confide nce level (Figure 2 and 3). Based on used successive fie ld tests based on the the known sites and their relationship to the initial mode ls (Monthus 2004; Ford and geographic variables of soil fertili ty, soil Clarke 2006; Ford et al. 2009). Unsurveyed drainage, distance from rivers, and areas were field visited and site locations topographic slope, we constructed a were plotted with a Global Pos itioning predictive map based on the steps outl ined System (GPS) rece iver and mobile GIS. in Table I. These site validat ions were used to refine a The original tests (Fo rd et al. 2009) final model and provide the new probability applied a model training mask that bounded map (Figure 3). Our curre nt mode l resu lts all the transect areas (Ford et al 2009:8) for use the detailed mask of the actual survey the Upper Belize River Area and included areas and only three geographic varia bles: rivers as a geographic theme. In our present soil fertility, soil drainage, and topographic mode l, we have refined the focus by slope. With these, our predictive map is recreating the train ing mask coverage to statist ically both highly explanatory and bound precisely around only those areas rob ust. with survey coverage, thus we control for locations with sites as we ll as for those areas Domestic Architecture and Residential witho ut sites (Merlet 2009: 16-17). The Units in the Upper Belize River Area results prov ide a more powerful model with From the outset, anc ient structures have the quality of predicting not only the been used as a proxy for houses and their

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Figure 4. Results of the Predictive Model for Low Priority Zones on the BRASS River (Pilar (L) and Yaxox Transect (R)).

Figure 5. Results of the Predictive Model for High Priority Zones on the BRAa Transect: Valley and Ridges (Bacab Na (L) and Transect (R)). inhabitants, linking to the obvious fundamental starting point, and are both relationship of residential structures and valid and comparable (Relay et al. 2007). families. The move from domestic At present, we do not concern ourselves architecture to homes and people has vexed with the invisible remains for precisely that archeologists and caused much discussion in reason, they are invisible. This does not the archaeological literature (see Culbert and discount the many issues raised about such a Rice for a bibliography). Any estimation problem (see Johnston 1992, 2002), but does system . is fraught with problems and emphasize that we are basing the estimates assumptions that influence the results on visible remains only. Indeed, we see the (Turner 1990). Our attempt here is to variety of visible residential configurations incorporate the standard system of and their spatial distribution as important, calculation based on a new strategy of considering groups as distinct from solitary defining permanent residential units. We structures a critical point and considered in feel that the traditional survey data are a our definition ofprimary residential units

79 Late Classic Lowland Maya Population

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Figure 6. The Residential Unit Distribution for the Upper Belize River Study area.

(Willey 1956; Ashmore 1981; Levi 2002, understanding of composition, and the 2003). location based on the predictive model. For We set up an approach to classify the our map, we consider the site locations nature of the domestic architecture based on based on the BRASS surveys of the 1980s, the requisites of a basic house of the Maya including the three transects as well as the area (see Wachope 1938 as an example). We ancillary surveys conducted in peripheral take the position that the recorded surface areas (Fedick 1988) and the Barton Ramie remains provide a foundation for estimations map (Willey et al. 1965). Based on these of land use intensity and population density site locations and their association with the in and of themselves. Weare comparing predictive values generated by our GIS similar features when we discuss visible model, we have been able to propagate architectural remains, as surface remains predicted patterns of settlement across the provide a common comparative base. landscape . These patterns have been We use the recorded remains of validated at the 96% confidence level (Ford domestic architecture from the et al. 2009: 13). archaeological surveys of the BRASS With the BRASS residential database, program (Ford 1985, 1990; Ford and Fedick we used recorded data on structure size 1992), along with the Barton Ramie map (diagonal length in m), residential unit (Willey et al. 1965) to generalize over the composition (number of structures and whole Upper Belize River Area. This evidence of plaza) , labor investment required the identification of residential (calculated based on Arnold and Ford 1980), sites, the consideration of SIze, the and the location to compute the weights of

80 - iT

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I I , Total Population Distribution of BRASS Transects

WofEClass Residential Area (km") Population Density % Population % Area Units o 2.01 0 0 0% 22% 11 o.51 64 124 3% 06%

28 .20 154 129 8% 13% I 53 .57 298 190 15% 17% I 259 3.72 1452 390 74% 41% 352 9.01 1968 218 100% 100% , II Table 2. Population Distribution ofBRASS Transects.

Total Population for the Study Area II Late Classic Area (km-) Population Density % Population % Area Residences 0 485 0 0 0% 38%

2 5403 243 30255 124 17% 19% 3 1753 76 9818 129 5% 6%

4 7643 225 42800 190 23% 18%

17808 256 99727 390 55% 20%

32607 284 182600 142 100% 100%

Table 3. Total estimated Population for the Study area. 'I evidence statistic. These resident!'al unit evoke varied strategies that typically variables were then used to propagate the involved several residences (Farris 1984; I patterns on the map. Fedick 1992, 1996; Zetina and Faust In I Using the labor investment calculation Press; Netting 1977; Redfield and Villa I (LI) originally developed for the Tikal map Rojasl962; Steggerda 1941; Villa Rojas (Arnold and Ford 1980), sites were ranked 1945; Zetina 2007). In fact, recent from 1-5 based on a calculation that takes ethnographies of the Maya suggest an into account the size and number of average of three residences per family based structures and the presence or absence of a on the seasonal round of agricultural plaza. This provides the basis for activities (Zetina and Faust In Press; Zetina distributing sites and considering their 2007), thus creating a pattern of multiple overall impact on the landscape. residence based on agricultural demands in While the presumed house sites have the field. been accepted as such, how to use the house Based on the ethnographic studies, we " sites as a proxy for population has been consider that the very small structures would fraught with problems. Patterns of have served secondary domestic services subsistence agriculture have demonstrated and should be excluded from the estimation that families that occupy residential units of population. Thus, solitary structures with II .. 81

. ~ "X IX ,- , '< _ I~ _, n .- V J U _. ...-- Late Classic Lowland Maya Population an LI less than 500 with diagonals averaging or Weights of Evidence model predictive c. 10m, were designated as secondary probabilities) to create a table of the residences. These secondary residential units population distribution (Table 2). To composed 41% of the BRASS sample, but generate our population estimation for the only c. 26% of mapped structures. The Upper Belize River Area, we use the residential units with LI greater than 500 generally accepted standard of 5.6 persons and an average unit diagonal of c. 24 m were per residential unit (Narroll 1962; Puleston designated as primary residential units and 1973; Turner 1990; Healy et al. 2007). provided the basis for our population Turner (1990) argued that this is a calculation. The primary residential units conservative estimation for "paleotechnic composed 59% of the domestic architecture . agrarian economies" (Turner 1990:305). ofthe BRASS surveys. The result of this process produced a map that provides a picture of the Propagating Maya Settlements Across the distribution and a view of the concentrations Upper Belize River Area of settlements and populations in the Belize The identification of primary and River Area (Figure 6). Distributions are secondary residential units in the BRASS diverse and we can see how areas of and Barton Ramie surveys were used to concentrated settlements in the east, south , propagate patterns of residential settlements and the northwest demonstrate where elite proportionally across the entire Upper controls should be manifest. Belize River Area. The propagation used Using the tools of the GIS and the the probabilities of our predictive model as predictive model , we were able to use the the foundation. We used the residential site distribution map (Figure 6) to develop a classification by labor investment rank (LI; table of residential distribution for the entire Ford and Arnold 1980) as they patterned in study area of the Upper Belize River area the surveys. Figures 4 and 5 provide a (Table 3). The distributions of the BRASS sample of the relationship of the predictive surveys are the basis of the new map that is model and the Maya settlement in the Upper the foundation ofthe population estimations. Belize River area. The first pair of images This new map provides the probability (Figure 4) shows the low priority areas and distribution of Maya sites at the 96% the nature of settlement in those areas . The confidence level. The landforms and second pair of images (Figure 5) shows the predictive zones are of different proportions high priority areas and the patterns of those in the whole study area when comparee}with areas. The variations in the densities, the the BRASS transects. . The predictive zones , composition of the residential units , and however, are represented in the BRASS their size and configurations, were transects and the validation of the model categorized and schematically coded for the includes the Upper Belize River Area (see propagation to the larger mapped area. Ford et al. 2009 :14-15) . Based on the nature of residential settlement The population estimates for the Upper in these surveyed areas , we propagated Belize River Area are substantial. The range residential sites to the larger map of the is extreme: 0 persons per sq km in areas of Belize River Area using random simulation. lowest probability (38% of the area) to 390 Based on the predictive map , we tallied persons per sq km in the highest probability residential sites that qualified as primary zones (55% ofthe area) . The overall average residential units and then used the standard is 142 persons per sq km, a density that is proportion of occupation in the Late Classic significantly greater than the early estimates period of 95% to build the map. This is (Turner 1990:317) but within the range that consistent with the BRASS data (Ford 1985; has been estimated for the Late Classic Ford et al. 2009 :14). From this we were period (Culbert and Rice 1990). This is able to associate the residential units with relatively dense by Boserup's (1981:9-11) the predictive zones (classed from the WofE reckoning. The density estimated for Ming

82 1 / T T. Anabel Ford et. at.

Dynasty China at 1500 AD? is estimated at Summary only 64 persons per sq km and pre-modern There have been many strategies used to Japan at 1750 AD is roughl y 128 persons develop popu lation estimates for prehistoric per sq km. Rosenberg (2010) summarizes societies . The Maya have presented one of our world 's current popu lation density by the more difficult cases as the tropical forest continent: cover limits surveys. New satellite and geospatial tech nologies have soug ht to North America - 83 peop le per square kilometer overcome these obstacles (e.g. Garrison et South America - 189 people per square kilomet er Europe - 347 peopl e per square kilomet er al. 2008), and in the future we may have an Asia - 525 people per square kilometer opportunity to test our land use mode l wit h Africa - 168 peopl e per square kilometer these more sophisticated capabi lities. Our Austra lia - 17 peop le per square kilometer pred ictive mode l prov ides one way to address land use based on statistical Boserup (1981 :9), in her synthetic probabilities (Ford and Clarke 2006 ; Ford et treatise on population and technology, al. 2009). evaluated population dens ities worldwide With the new population densi ty map and determined that density greater than 64 based on our predictive mode l, we are dense and over 256 very dense. She demonstrate in this paper a means to create a presented a table of continental densities sett lement map using archaeological surveys based on the conditions in 1975. The dense and their pattern s against a predictive model and very dense categories are only found in map that may have used beyond our conte xt. Europe and Asia (Boserup 1981: 11). Whi le it has been recognized that Reviewing our population estimates for sett lements are not evenly distributed, our the Late Classic Maya of the Upper Belize map is based on geographic variables on River Area suggests a very intensive use of which the settlements are depe ndent. By the landscape. In the c. 1300 sq km that was enumerating the proportions of residential stud ied, ] 82, 600 people must have lived units and propagating their distribution and farmed. Yet while areas of the greatest across the landscape from the known areas density reach 390 per sq km, very dense by to the predicted areas , we have derived the Boserup's calcu lations (1981 :9), this patterns of primary and secondary encompasses only 20% of the area . residential sites. Our total estimates project Consequently the most intense land use 142 persons per sq km for the whole study takes in only one-fifth of the terrain. This area, with a range of 0-390 persons per sq small percentage would be a complex km. The est imates we have come up with mosaic of houses, varied open sunlit area s of are approximately ten times the population maize field s and home orchard gardens, as density of Belize today. described in the ethnographic literature These popu lation estimates are founded (Redfield and Villa Rojas 1962; Zetina on a series of assumptions. We recognize 2007). These dense settlement zones found the subsistence farmer ' s strategy of using throughout the study area are both near and primary and secondary residences, and have far from major and minor centers. They made our calc ulations based on the primary contrast with the virtually unoccupied areas residential units alone. We use 95% of low settlement priority making up 38% of occupation commonly used for the Maya thestudy area. These extensive unoccupied area in the Late Classic period , comparable zones , encom pass ing nearly two -fifths ofthe to Late Classic occupation in the area. With study area, wou ld have been wood lands, all these considerations taken into accou nt, thus supporting the natural reso urce needs of we have discovered that the density of the Maya. occupation of the Upper Belize River Area was potentially very high. We believe the results of our research provide an understanding of how the landscape was

83 Late Classic Lowland Maya Population

used. We present a mosaic of intensity Billie Lee Turner, II based on the geographic variables of the 1976 Population Density in the Classic Maya Upper Belize River Area. We show areas of Low lands: New Evide nce for Old Approaches. The Geographical Review intense use and areas that are largely 66( 1):73-82. unoccupied. This variation is acknowledged but had not been well appreciated. Our Boserup, Ester model demonstrates that high settlement and 1981 Population and Technological Change: A Study 0/Long-Term Trends. Universi ty of population densitie s are not something Chicago Press, Chicago . confined to the urban civic centers, but occur where the constellation of geographic Brow n, Clifford T. and Walter R.T.Witschey variables coincide: well drained fertile soil 2003 The fracta l geometry of ancient Maya areas with moderate slope (Ford et al. 2009). sett lement30 :1619-1 632. Access to natural water sources was only a Chase, Arlen F. and Diane Z. Chase minor factor (Merlet 2009). Settlements 1998 Scale and Intensity in Classic Period with high predicti ve values would be good Maya Agriculture: Terracing and Sett lement candidates for civic center presence. This at the "Garden City" of Caraco l, Belize. Culture & Agriculture 20(2/3). could be tested by further field surveys. To support an estimated population of Cowgi ll, Ursula M. 142 persons per sq km, a 'successful 1960 Soil fertility, popul ation, and the subsistence economy was required . The ancient Maya. Proceedings 0/ the National investments that began to take shape in the Academy ofSciences 46 :1009-1011. Preclassic before 1000 BC and grew over Culbert, T. Patrick and Don S. Rice (ed itors) two millennia must be able to account for 1990 Precolumbian Population History in this intense land use pattern. We propose the Maya Lowlands. University of New that the fo rest garden milpa cycle (Ford and Mex ico Press, Albuque rque. Nigh 2009) was the subsistence base that Fedick, Scott L. could provide a long-term sustainable 1988 Prehis toric Maya Settlement and Land subsistence base for the Upper Belize River Use Patterns in the Upper Belize River Area Maya. Our next step will be to build a Area, Belize, Central America. Ph. D. model of Maya land use based on the Forest Dissertation, Arizo na State University. Garden Milpa cycle and the food and Fedick, Scott L resources it could supply. 1989 The Econo mics of Agricultural Land Use and Sett lement in the Upper Belize Acknowledgements We thank UCSBs River Valley. In Prehistor ic Maya Economies 0/ Belize, edited by P. A. Research Across Disciplines program for McAnany and B. L. Isaac, pp. 215-254. funding aspects of our research and our Research in Economic Anthropology, collaboration with spatial engineering inters Supp lement no. 4. JAI Press, Greenwich. form the Ecole Superieure des Geometres et Fedick, Scott L. Topographes in Le Mans. 1992 An Agricu ltural Perspective on Prehistor ic Maya Household Locat ion and References Cited Sett lement Density. ln Memorias Del Primer Congreso fnternacional de Arnold, Jeanne E. and Anabel Ford Mayistas; Mesas Redondas, Arquelogia, 1980 A statistical exami natio n of sett lemen t Epigrafia , pp. 87-108 . Universidad Nacional patte rns at Tika l, . American Autonoma de Mex ico, D.F. Antiquity 45(4):7 13-726. Fedick, Scott L Ashmore, W. 1995 Land Evaluation and Ancient Maya 198 1 Some Issues of Method and Theory in Land Use in the Upper Belize River Area, Low land Maya Settlement Archaeo logy. In Belize, Centra l America. Latin American Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited Antiquity 6( 1):16-34. by W. Ashmo re, pp. 37-69 . University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

84 - _ L4 .... _ ..... ' A't:3 nrnnl )SC:: Anabel Ford et. at.

Fed ick, Scott L. (edi tor) Ford, Anabel and Ronald Nigh 1996 The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya 2009 Origins of the Maya forest gar den: Agriculture and Resource Use. University of Maya resource management after the Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Holocene thermal maxi mum. Journal of Ethno biology 29:213-236. Fed ick, Scott L. and Anabel Ford 1990 The prehistoric agricultural landscape Garrison, Thomas G., Stephen D. Houston, Charles of the central Maya lowland s: An Golden , Takeshi Inomata, Zachary Nel son and Jessica exa mination of local variability in a regional Munso n context. World Archaeology 22( 1):18-33. 2008 Eva luating the use of IKONOS satell ite image ry in lowland Maya sett lemen t Ford, Anabel archaeo logy. Journal of Archaeological 1985 Maya Settlement Pattern Chrono logy in Science 35:2770-2777. the Belize River Area and the Implications for the Deve lopment of the Cen tral Maya Hav iland, William Arthur Low lands. Belcast Jour nal of Belizean 1969 A New Po pulation Est imate for Tikal, Affairs 2: 13-32. Guate mala. American Antiquity 34(4):429­ 433. 1990 Maya Sett lement in the Belize River Area: Variations in Residence Patterns of Haviland, William A. the Central Maya Lowland s. In Prehistoric 1972 Family Size, Prehisto ric Population Population History in the Maya Lowlands , Estimates, and the Ancient Maya . American edited by T. P. Cu lbert and D. S. Rice, pp. Antiquity 37(1):135-139. 167-181. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque . Healy, Paul F., Ch ristophe G. B. Helmke, l aime J. Awe and Kay S. Sunahara 1991 Problem s with the Eva luatio n of 2007 Survey, Sett lement, and Popul ation Population from Settlement Data: History at the Ancie nt May a Site of Examination of Ancient Maya Residential , Belize. Journal of Field Patterns in the Tikal-Yaxha Intersite Area. Archaeology 32(1): 17-39. Estudios de Cultura Maya (18) :157- I86. Hendon, lulia A. 2003 Crecimiento de Poblacion y 1992 The Interpretation Of Survey Data : Complejidad Social: Asentamiento y Medio Two Case Studies From The Maya Area. Ambiente en las Tierras Bajas Mayas. Latin American Antiquity, 3(1):22-42. Translated by E. H. Gaytan Monografica 14. Plumsock Mesoamerican Studies/C IRMA , Iannone, Gyles and Samue l V. Connell (editors) Miami. 2003 Perspectives on Ancient Maya Rural Complexity. The Cotsen Institute of Ford, Anabel and Keith C. Clarke Archaeology, University of Ca lifornia, Los 2006 Predicting late class ic May a settlement Angeles, Los Ange les. pattern s. In Archaeological Investigations in the Eastern Maya Lowlands: Papers ofthe Isendah l, Christ ian 2005 Belize Archaeology Symposium, pp. 2002 Common Knowledge: lowland Maya 193-212. Research Reports in Belizean urban farming at Xuch. thesis, Uppsala Arc haeo logy. vol. 3. Institute of University. Archaeology, Belmopan. Joh nston, Kevin, Fernando Moscoso Moller and Ford, Ana bel, Keith C. Clarke and Gary Raines Stefan Schmitt 2009 Modeling settlement patterns of the 1992 Casas No-Visibles De Los Mayas Late Classic Maya with Bayesian methods Clasicos: Estructuras Residenciales Sin and Geographic Information Systems. Plataformas Basales En Itzan, Peten. In V Annals of the Association of American Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Geographers 99:496-520. en Guatemala, edited by J.P . Laporte. Museo Nac ional de Arqueo logia y Ford, Anabel and Scott L. Fedick Etnologia, Guatemala. 1992 Prehistoric Maya Settlement Patterns in the Upper Belize River Area: Initial Result s l ohnston, Kevin J. of the Belize River Archaeological 2002 Protrusion, Bioturbation, and Settlement Survey. Journal of Field Settlement Detectio n during Surface Survey : Archaeology 19:35-49. The Low land Maya Case. Journal of

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