n al eodmlenaB nsvrlrgos nldn h otws,teNorthern (Mei the Plain Northwest, the Central including third regions, the late the several and to in back BC Zone traced be millennia generally second can early China and in metallurgy copper of emergence The Introduction Chen Kunlong China basin, Hanzhong the from bronzes BC second-millennium late exchange: interregional and production Indigenous ∗ 4 3 2 1 opsto analysis recognised. composition been previously has than China Keywords: Central Age Bronze of structure power the within itiuin n erdcini n eim rvddteoiia oki rprycited. properly is work original the provided medium, any in reproduction and distribution, omn trbto iec ( licence Attribution Commons ANTIQUITY C m2000 km 0 N niut ulctosLd 06 hsi nOe cesatce itiue ne h em fteCreative the of terms the under distributed article, Access Open an is This 2016. Ltd, Publications Antiquity eda eerhIsiue yvse od abig B A,UK 9AF, CB3 Cambridge Road, Sylvester 8 Road, Xueyuan Institute, 30 Research Beijing, Needham Technology China and Beijing, Science 100083 of District, University Haidian Materials, and Metallurgy Historical of Institute colo utrlHrtg,NrhetUiest,29Tiabiu 109X’n China Xi’an, 710069 Taibaibeilu, 229 University, City, Northwest Education Heritage, Building, Cultural Georgetown 25256, of Box School PO University, Khalifa Qatar bin Hamad Doha, of partner a Qatar, UCL uhrfrcrepnec (Email: correspondence for Author 031(06:6568doi: 665–678 (2016): 351 90 hn,Hnhn ai,Boz g,mtlug,lnsae,chemical landscapes, metallurgy, Age, Bronze basin, Hanzhong China, 1, ∗ ,JianjunMei Hanzhong Beijing http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ [email protected] 2009 1,2 .Acaooia icvre odt,however, date, to discoveries Archaeological ). hl Rehren Thilo , 665 azogrgo edgetrimportance greater held region the that Hanzhong demonstrates and older, models, beyond new simplistic a progression from allows finds perspective these appreciate to the The ability of thought. previously networks was of than Age landscape Bronze level extended the a in shows complexity greater China much implies that diversity central in Hanzhong the one basin from artefacts of bronze microanalysis) study probe use to (electron The method insights. such offering new is important investigate however, to composition, techniques chemical application analytical new The of methods. production and decoration typology, on focused have China in metallurgy bronze early of studies Traditional ) 3 ,wihprisursrce re-use, unrestricted permits which ), ogagZhao Congcang & 10.15184/aqy.2016.94 4

Research Kunlong Chen et al.

Figure 1. Distribution of the main sites yielding bronzes dating to the late second millennium BC in China, showing the location of Hanzhong and other sites mentioned in the text. suggest that the widespread adoption of copper and bronze metallurgy in the territory of present-day China did not occur until the later part of the second millennium BC (Figure 1). The significant discoveries from the so-called ‘peripheral areas’ outside the core area of the Shang Kingdom in the Central Plain have given recognition to indigenous developments of bronze metallurgy in these areas, and stimulated substantial research interest among scholars both in China and abroad over the past decades (Kane 1974; Bagley 1977, 1990, 1993, 1999;B.Li1990). While previous studies centred mainly on the typology, decorative styles and casting methods of the bronze objects, more recent attention has shifted to their scientific analysis in order to evaluate the technological similarity and diversity between the culturally different regions that produced them (Chen & Mei 2006;Maet al. 2012;Cui& Wu 2013). Among the so-called ‘peripheral areas’ outside the core area of the Shang Kingdom, the Hanzhong basin is undoubtedly one of the most intriguing. More than 700 bronze artefacts have been unearthed there since the 1950s, most of them dated to the late Shang period (fourteenth to eleventh centuries BC; Table 1). Earlier systematic examination of the Hanzhong bronzes has already revealed a number of the more significant technological characteristics of these bronzes (Chen et al. 2009;Meiet al. 2009). Examination of the Hanzhong bronzes from a wider cultural-technological perspective, however, has allowed C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2016

666 h pe ece fteHnRvradsrone yteQnigmuti ag othe to range ( mountain south Qinling the the to by Mountains on surrounded Daba-Micang located and the is River and Province, Han north Shaanxi the of of part reaches south-western upper the the in situated basin, Hanzhong characteristics The technological their and bronzes Hanzhong The regional multiple of model. network core-periphery the exchange over-simplified in an an production within than framed rather metallurgical better centres, of Shang be late development would the period the during Shang that metallurgical exchanges late indigenous demonstrate interregional own in results its role The possessed active period. only an played not also region but Hanzhong production, the that show to us ewrsbtendfeetprso hn,arl hti a efre ic h Neolithic the since communication performed for has centre it that important role an ( a period China, it and Yangshao of valley making parts River region, different Wei Yangtze between the networks Middle to north the Plain, to Chengdu south the to south-west reaching connections oflec fteHnadXsu ies(Duan Rivers Xushui and Han the of confluence rm3 ahsa 9dfeetsts( objects sites 700 different than 19 more at of caches consists (Zhao 33 2006, basin from in after the counted group’, of as bronzes, part bronze Hanzhong eastern of ‘Chengyang the assemblage in total the Yangxian and as Chenggu known of counties also two the group, bronze Hanzhong the forming ndaee,wihaecniee ysm coast aebe sda osso shields on bosses as used (Zhao been yielded) have to objects scholars Da and some & caches by (Huang considered bronze are the which diameter, of in list detailed a 2006 for 1 supplement online 6&1) ikesae bet ( objects sickle-shaped 17), & 16 ( discs ‘Yang’ h hn cprsaebaesae bet ihsm eoain ale xmlso a of examples Earlier decoration. some with objects blade-shaped are (Wang ‘Yang’ sceptres named Zhang was it The that indicating inscription an bearing Beijing, ic h 90,dzn facetboz orso ahshv enfudaon the around found been have caches or hoards bronze ancient of dozens 1950s, the Since .Tetr Yn’dssrfr oagopo one rproae ic bu 100mm about discs perforated or pointed of group a to refers discs ‘Yang’ term The ). iue3 Figure 2007 c. fht hr ilni C SKY BC; millennia third to fifth 0671WsenZhou Western Shang) (Late Anyang/Yinxu 1046–771 Shang Middle 1300–1046 Shang) (Early Erligang 1400–1300 Erlitou 1600–1400 Longshan Late 1900–1600 Longshan Early 2600–1900 Yangshao 3000–2600 4000–3000 periods) (dynastic cultures Archaeological (BC) River). Time Yellow Middle the of region cultures the archaeological (in the discussed of Chronology 1. Table .Ads fasmlrsaewsuerhda h ilh eeeyin cemetery Liulihe the at unearthed was shape similar a of disc A ). 2&1) oeso iulvses ak,‘hn’sete ( sceptres ‘Zhang’ masks, vessels, ritual of dozens 13), & 12 : nieospouto n nergoa exchange interregional and production Indigenous iue3 Figure iue2 Figure 8&1) n e ol n raet (see ornaments and tools few a and 19), & 18 : 667 .Tegopicue udeso epn and weapons of hundreds includes group The ). 1963 1994 ;Tang iue1 Figure ). tal et C .Tebsnhsgeographic has basin The ). niut ulctosLd 2016 Ltd, Publications Antiquity . 1980 ;Chai 2006 a 2011). Cao ; tal et 1996 iue3 Figure . 2005 .The ). ), :

Research Kunlong Chen et al.

Figure 2. Map of the Hanzhong basin showing the distribution of bronze-deposition sites and the archaeologically excavated site at Baoshan (after Zhao 2006).

Figure 3. Different types of objects from Hanzhong (drawings after Cao 2006;Zhao2006). 1) Ding tripod; 2) Li cauldron; 3) Gu goblet; 4) Bu jar; 5) Gong wine vessel; 6–7) Ge blades; 8–9) spear heads; 10) hole-handled Yue axe; 11) Yue axe; 12) Yang disc with projection; 13) Yang disc with central hole; 14) human-faced mask; 15) animal-faced mask; 16–17) Zhang sceptres; 18–19) sickle-shaped objects.

C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2016

668 h ein otmoaywt h hn utr fteCnrlPan(XDWX Plain Central in site the excavated of extensively culture only Shang the the from with name contemporary its region, takes the which Culture’, were they ‘Baoshan that the believe scholars some and Li stone, (X. or objects ritual jade as of used made mostly were shape similar eeet oegt etre C C Li (C. BC) centuries eighth to (eleventh Zhao nag(ix)pros pnigtefutet oteeeet etre C(Cao BC centuries eleventh Late the the to to fourteenth Erligang the Upper spanning the periods, from (Yinxu) range Anyang date approximate an suggest studies Typological n aesiuae osdrbersac B Li (B. Kingdom, research Shang the considerable of region stimulated core the have surrounding areas and the in cultures bronze regional the ( objects of variety great and oercn okhsptgetrepai nisclual ie risadconnections and traits Li mixed (C. culturally bronzes, cultures its Hanzhong bronze on the contemporary emphasis in other greater apparent put with influences has work Shang recent the more on concentrated studies earlier h oiatrl ftetnla rnesse nms otmoayBoz g cultures Age Bronze contemporary most in reflecting system analysed, (Su bronze China objects Cu-Pb in tin/lead the Cu-Sn, the of that of 75%) role than surprising dominant (more (Cu-Sn- not the majority is the bronze for It tin (Cu-Sb: account 6). Cu-Sn-Pb copper (Cu-As-Ni: leaded and antimonial alloy 3); 68); (Cu-As: copper-arsenic-nickel copper (Cu-Sn: and arsenical bronze 4); 7); (Cu-Pb: tin copper leaded objects); 81); 35 Pb: is (Cu: data copper composition unalloyed chemical A complete London. and in 2. used supplement Archaeology online methods of in analytical presented Institute Wolfson the UCL the (EPMA) of the in Microanalysis description at out Probe Laboratories carried Electron was Science by 31 (EPMA-WDS) Analysis Archaeological masks, the Spectrometer bronzes. all Dispersive 19 of covering Wavelength group discs, thus and caches, Yang this different of 51 24 from types weapons, sceptres major composition 54 Zhang chemical 10 vessels, their and 39 of objects sickle-shaped analysis include scientific They for microstructure. sampled and been have artefacts 200 than ute nlsso h azogbozs(Chen bronzes Hanzhong the of its of analysis dynamics further the with controversial. together and however, uncertain bronzes, remains regions, of other group with this interaction to contribution its and Falkenhausen rne hswsntue o ikesae bet n hn cprs hc were probably which were sceptres, what of Zhang commonly, and less objects and, sickle-shaped copper tin/lead of for unalloyed composed of used were categories made not mask predominantly ( was and types disc this Yang artefact weapon, bronze, other vessel, the the Zhang from of and portions out objects sickle-shaped stand categories, immediately distinctive stylistically sceptres, most two The object. of Hanzhong however, the Cu-As-Ni, and among Cu-Sb distinctiveness Cu-As, and as complexity such bronzes. alloys technological rare demonstrate of clearly occurrence the and copper sagop hs rne,otnfudacdnal yfres aebe sindto assigned been have farmers, by accidentally found often bronzes, these group, a As ee ifrn aeil aebe dnie mn h bet nlsd namely: analysed, objects the among identified been have materials different Seven eetacaoealria eerhhsrvae motn nomto htallows that information important revealed has research archaeometallurgical Recent h eut eoemr nrgigwe lte codn otedfeetcategories different the to according plotted when intriguing more become results The 2006 ,atog oepee ntegopmydt oteWsenZo period Zhou Western the to date may group the in pieces some although ), tal et 2011 . 1998 .Teeitneo nidgnu ealria rdto nHanzhong in tradition metallurgical indigenous an of existence The ). a Ko & Han ; nieospouto n nergoa exchange interregional and production Indigenous iue3 Figure 1992 ). aeteHnhn rne nottnigeapeof example outstanding an bronzes Hanzhong the make ) 2007 2007 ; iue4 Figure 669 o Falkenhausen von ; .Acnieal rprino unalloyed of proportion considerable A ). 2007 1983 tal et ;Bagley ;Zhao . 2009 C niut ulctosLd 2016 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 1996 ;Mei 2011 iue5 Figure 2011 ;X.Li asn21;von 2011; Rawson ; .Telrenumber large The ). tal et .Wienotable While ). . 1997 2009 .While ). .More ). 2002 2006 ). ;

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Figure 4. Proportional representation of material types among analysed objects.

Figure 5. Material types of different object categories among the Hanzhong bronzes.

‘natural’ alloys (Cu-As, Cu-Sb and Cu-As-Ni) that have not been identified in the other artefacts (Figure 5). Moreover, arsenic, antimony and nickel are frequently detected as minor/trace elements (<2 wt%) in samples taken from sickle-shaped objects and Zhang sceptres, but they are much scarcer in other artefact categories (see online supplement 2). C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2016

670 nieosmtlugclpouto nHnhn,adfritrcinbtenti centre this between interaction regions. for other and and Hanzhong, in production metallurgical indigenous h ikesae bet n h hn cprs hc a aebe sda insignia as used been have Li may (X. which activities sceptres, Zhang ceremonial the during and objects sickle-shaped The Hanzhong in production metallurgical Indigenous and objects sickle-shaped (Chen the the sceptres by still, between Zhang represented important tradition, match More metal-using close or distinct observed. a metals a been revealed of compositions such results range particular has wide and nor types a metallurgy, artefact such Shang-period specific has in before Never documented period. been Shang alloys the been in have metallurgy could bronze of that source mineral alloys. multi-metallic natural local the a make to of used presence the suggests This azogbozs aeo tn hn cprswr ieyue srta bet nlate in objects Li ritual as (X. used Asia widely were East sceptres continental Zhang Neolithic stone or Jade bronzes. Hanzhong emt aebe mlydt infiatetn nyi w ein:teHanzhong the regions: two in only (ZSKY extent Plain significant Chengdu a the to and employed basin been have to seem hl nteCeguPano iha,ol w iitr rneZagsceptres Zhang bronze miniature two only (SWKY Sichuan, far numbers, of considerable so in reported Plain recovered been Chengdu been have have the bronze or in copper while of made sceptres Zhang asa ie h nyacaooia iei h azogrgo aigt h aeShang (XDWX late excavated the the to properly of dating excavation been region Hanzhong the has the during in that objects site period sickle-shaped archaeological only of the fragments site, three Baoshan anywhere of discovery found the been by have objects sickle-shaped Hanzhong the to else. analogous items no utrltat eeldb rvossyitcsuis(.Li (C. studies the stylistic of previous complexity the by consider revealed we when traits bronzes cultural Hanzhong the significant of especially understanding is better This a metalwork. Shang for identifying in prevalent for bronze leaded criterion copper-arsenic-antimony the natural of empirical and instead copper alloys an from of use time, data the analytical first namely objects, The the manufactured unclear. locally for still provides, are however, Hanzhong objects, in bronze industry metalworking second local the the of of centuries late the during indigenous been basin (Chen have BC Hanzhong must millennium the there in that one association imply production direct and strongly metallurgical their culture, as wt%), archaeological well local 4–6 as the The objects, of with Hanzhong. sickle-shaped of in level recovered distinctness objects chemical the sickle-shaped and (Chen other stylistic (at of arsenic features antimony compositional of the contain amount with two small that a shows contains pieces these of rmtertplgclfaue,scl-hpdojcs hn cprsadscee xswith ( axes blades socketed and curved sceptres blunt Zhang objects, sickle-shaped features, typological their From h eut fteaayi fteHnhn rne r ihysgicn o h study the for significant highly are bronzes Hanzhong the of analysis the of results The ute vdnefrteeitneo nieosmtlugclpouto sprovided is production metallurgical indigenous of existence the for evidence Further nteasneo ietacaooia vdnefrtepouto rcs,mn aspects many process, production the for evidence archaeological direct of absence the In iue3 Figure tal et tal et nieospouto n nergoa exchange interregional and production Indigenous . . 2009 2009 0 61)aems rbbytepouto oa foundries local of product the probably most are 16–19) 10, : ,ta fescuilsiniceiec o h xsec of existence the for evidence scientific crucial offers that ), ). 1997 1999 2003 1992 ,aetems itntv reat mn the among artefacts distinctive most the are ), CWKY ; 671 .Frhroe ti nyi azogthat Hanzhong in only is it Furthermore, ). tal et .Drn h hn eid oee,they however, period, Shang the During ). . 2012a 2002 2004 .Ti euti ul consistent fully is result This ). .Rcn cetfi examination scientific Recent ). .I sitrsigt oethat note to interesting is It ). 2007 C niut ulctosLd 2016 Ltd, Publications Antiquity o Falkenhausen von ; 2011 ).

Research Kunlong Chen et al. in Hanzhong, while many other artefacts among the group of bronzes found in this region may have had their origins outside the Hanzhong basin.

Hanzhong in a network of interregional exchange Many scholars have already observed that, among the Hanzhong finds, a number of ritual vessels of typical Shang style, and often of high quality, are a clear indication of the influence that Hanzhong received from the Shang metropolitan areas within a framework of ‘core-periphery’ interaction dynamics in Bronze Age China. Depending on their degree of similarity to Shang examples, bronzes recovered in Hanzhong, as with vessels from many other regions outside the Central Plain, have often been assigned ambiguous labels such as ‘Shang-style’, ‘local’ or ‘hybrid’ (B. Li 1983;Zhao1996; Rawson 2011). These labels and their associated notions could be misleading, however, because they may oversimplify the complicated interaction network linking the many different regions. At the same time, the possible contribution of local metalworking, at least in the case of Hanzhong, may have been overestimated, as the term ‘hybrid’ often carries the implication that such pieces were made locally under the influence of another region. Yang discs and masks provide good examples of pieces that have been called ‘local’ or ‘hybrid’, but may not indeed have been made at Hanzhong. It has been suggested that Yang discs and masks were most probably used as shield buckles or parts of armour (Wang 2006; Cao 2011). Many scholars tend to describe them as local Hanzhong products because of their remarkable stylistic characteristics and their occurrence in large numbers in that area (283 Yang discs and 48 masks) (Zhao 1996;Cao2006;Wang 2006). Other opinions now suggest, however, that these unusual objects may have come from central Shaanxi, rather than being made locally, following the discovery of analogous pointed Yang discs at the Laoniupo site in central Shaanxi (Chen 2010; von Falkenhausen 2011). A connection between Hanzhong and the Guanzhong region in central Shaanxi is also supported by the results of our analysis. The Yang discs and masks, together with different types of ‘Ge’ (dagger-axe) from the same cache, are all made of remarkably high-quality (leaded) tin bronzes, which are easily distinguished from the products of local foundries (Figure 5). In addition to several almost identical Yang discs and masks, moulds for casting such objects have been excavated at the Laoniupo site in central Shaanxi (Figure 6;Liu 2002). As most of the Yang discs and masks were recovered from one single cache at Sucun Xiaozhong, it is reasonable to suggest that they were imported from central Shaanxi, rather than cast in the Hanzhong basin. Even though the assemblage at Sucun Xiaozhong probably dates to the Anyang period, based on stylistic grounds, the presence of several Erligang-style (c. 1600 to 1400 BC) tripod vessels among the Hanzhong bronzes suggests that the flow of bronzes from central Shaanxi to the Hanzhong basin might have started earlier (Chen et al. 2012b). Hanzhong’s connection with the Middle Yangtze River valley via the Hanshui River is also widely recognised by many scholars (Cao 2006;Bagley2011; von Falkenhausen 2011). It has been suggested that high-quality bronze vessels of typical Erligang style found at Longtou may have been imported from Panlongcheng, a Shang offshoot site in Hubei in the Middle Yangtze valley (Figure 1). Vessels from the Longtou assemblage not only show C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2016

672 h aeSagadWsenZo eid nteCnrlPano hn (Kane China of Plain Central the in with periods Zhou contemporaneous independent Western region, and of Yangtze Shang characteristics late the as the recognised in were traditions they bronze-manufacturing 1980s, Anyang. southern early in splendid and counterparts their 1970s and from the different quantity rather During are their which bosses, of whorl-shaped because of bands bronzes Hanzhong (Zhao the decoration among out stand period, o hs esl.Svrlpae nteMdl n oe agz ie einhv been have region River Yangtze (Rawson Lower centres and origins production southern Middle more their the or in as one places suggested of Several notion vessels. the these support for to evidence further provide provinces 1981 period Anyang late the during regions two the between evidence ( connection good is continuing Hanzhong in have this vessels to shouldered circular, for never large, power seems of region Shang presence Yangtze The the of off. and cut decline Hanzhong been the between connection with the period south, the Anyang in the during abandoned was Panlongcheng rmbt azogadPnoghn ohhv ato ade;ta s h vessel (Chen the them is, onto cast that were handles; handles the cast-on then have and vessels both first ‘Gui’ also made Panlongcheng ritual were them bowl-shaped, and bodies of example, Hanzhong For some features. both but technical from Panlongcheng, same at the counterparts exactly exhibit their with similarities typological Liu (after Shaanxi central in site Laoniupo the from excavated moulds and discs Yang masks, Bronze 6. Figure azogbsnwr motdfo h ideYnteRvrrgo i h a ie.It River. Han the via region the River in Yangtze recovered Middle vessels the from shouldered circular, imported were large, basin the Hanzhong that suggest to therefore, reasonable, iue7 Figure hs ag,crua,solee esl,otncle Zn r‘e’addtdt h Anyang the to dated and ‘Lei’ or ‘Zun’ called often vessels, shouldered circular, large, These .Nmru e icvre fsmlrvsesi nu,Hnn ue n Jiangxi and Hubei Hunan, Anhui, in vessels similar of discoveries new Numerous ). ). 2006 nieospouto n nergoa exchange interregional and production Indigenous .Te etr raehg-eifdcrto,jge agsand flanges jagged decoration, high-relief ornate feature They ). 673 1994 ;Shi 1998 C niut ulctosLd 2016 Ltd, Publications Antiquity ;Zhang 2010 2004 .Although ). .I seems It ). 1974 2002 ;Gao ).

Research Kunlong Chen et al.

Figure 7. ‘Southern style’ Zun and Lei vessels from Shaanxi, Hubei, Sanxingdui and Sichuan (after Jiangxi Museum 1997; SWKY 1999;Zhao2006). is of great interest to note that very similar large, circular, shouldered vessels, ‘Zun’, have also been found at the Sanxingdui site (Figure 1) in the Chengdu Plain, Sichuan Province (Jiang 2006;Zhang2006). This strongly implies the existence of a network of regional exchanges, in which Hanzhong could have acted as a link between the Chengdu Plain and the Middle Yangtze River region, with the Han River as a crucial route of transportation.

Beyond the ‘core-periphery’ model It has become increasingly clear that the most remarkable aspect of the Hanzhong bronzes is their diversity, in both typology and technology (C. Li 2007;Chen2010; von Falkenhausen 2011). Even though the Hanzhong bronzes have generally been considered a single integral assemblage, they in fact comprise different groups of products from different regions. This observation leads to the recognition of multi-directional connections between the Hanzhong basin and many other regions, notably the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan to the south, the Guanzhong region in Shaanxi to the north and west, and the Middle Yangtze valley in Hubei and Hunan to the east and south-east. As many scholars have repeatedly pointed out, the presence of Erligang and Anyang bronzes among the Hanzhong bronze group would indicate contacts with the core areas of the Shang culture (B. Li 1990;Zhao C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2016

674 h eta li i eta n atr hax rteHnhiRvrvle oteeast. the to valley River from Hanshui came the undoubtedly or Shaanxi that eastern vessels and ritual central of but via number period Plain a Central Erligang the are the Finally, bronzes period. during Anyang Hanzhong polity the the during Plain power among Central Shang from the independence enjoyed of probably under influence have more been have or may may control styles, which region, direct various Yangtze central Middle the of the in in vessels Mountains, centres predominantly production Qinling to artefacts, linked the been of of may group north and another centres composition, Yet chemical production Shaanxi. different from a imported have been masks, and have discs locally remarkable Yang stylistically the manufactured other numerous namely last contrast, were the objects, By during BC. they basin millennium Hanzhong second that the the of in implies centuries existed production strongly metallurgical affiliation indigenous Culture, close that Baoshan their and with Zhang native together the these compositions, and between unusual with objects correlation their close and sickle-shaped The items composition. local of the chemical stylistically group distinctive as Hanzhong very such a the have to elements, sceptres, complexity unusual unexpected Typologically an bronzes. show studies technological Recent Conclusions to Li contribution (C. own exchanges their cultural made these have through these for region would intermediaries Hanzhong regions as acted the these have importantly, regions probably More contiguous would provinces Geographically contacts. Shaanxi directly. and Hanzhong Hubei to the come in have not probably would 1996 ni oceeeiec o culmtlugclstsi on n ofimdi Hanzhong. in confirmed and of found is details sites far, metallurgical so actual hypothesis available for a remain evidence evidence must concrete scientific argument until this the Consequently, unknown. of remain element scale basis and trace the location metallurgical on (arsenic-rich) indigenous Hanzhong of existence different in the for production a argue for we evidence with though Even archaeological sites. of materials metallurgical acquired, lack actual otherwise the from accommodate or locally must looted interpretation were Finally, vessels made bronze: signature? bronze tin they as from such made were be metals, to or Shang appear of imported that of movements sceptres of made Zhang such manufacture and they the other sickles is of and thought requires number such these that small why issue behind a to Another context considered. as be question social also the case, must The begs this materials imported. that in although that, was event, indicate quantity single may a a This in north. acquired of the were to One material bronzes Shaanxi Hanzhong? of the central exclusively to from almost bronzes consists came these tell assemblage, probably brought they Xiaozhong that can that Sucun and contact the hoards, hoards, the largest and of the caches nature numerous the the about might of more purpose model us the ‘core-periphery’ was a what Firstly, as group. Kingdom, influence Shang cultural the receiving of centre remote areas a core suggest. not the was from It period. directly Shang the during network 2011 eea ao usin o oee,rmi nnwrdrgrigteHnhn bronze Hanzhong the regarding unanswered remain however, do, questions major Several ,bti sipratt epi idta n nunefo h oeSagareas Shang core the from influence any that mind in keep to important is it but ), .I em,teeoe htHnhn ce stendlpito nexchange an of point nodal the as acted Hanzhong that therefore, seems, It ). nieospouto n nergoa exchange interregional and production Indigenous 675 C niut ulctosLd 2016 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 2007 o Falkenhausen von ;

Research Kunlong Chen et al.

The most remarkable aspect of the Hanzhong group of bronzes is, therefore, their diversity and complexity in both typology and technology. The co-existence of objects of such diverse origins makes the group a unique cultural mixture. Given the relatively small proportion of locally made objects in the assemblage, the Hanzhong basin during the Bronze Age was more likely to have been a place where bronzes were imported and exchanged, rather than an important production centre for the manufacture of such a wide range of objects, including ritual vessels. Its special geographic position makes Hanzhong a pivotal crossroads, linking a number of regional centres between the Yellow River in the north and the Yangtze River in the south. It can be argued that the Hanzhong basin acted as a nodal point in an exchange network connecting different cultural groups. The exchange network proposed in this study indicates the need to transcend the constraints of the overly simplistic ‘core-periphery’ paradigm. It also demonstrates the complexity of the metallurgical landscape during the late Shang period of the late second millennium BC, which was characterised by the strong development of indigenous metallurgical centres in a number of regions, as well as by extensive interregional contacts and exchanges. In this landscape, individual regional bronze cultures were not simply all unilaterally linked to the Shang culture at the centre; instead, they had a considerable amount of interaction and exchange with each other. A new understanding of the Hanzhong bronzes not only places Hanzhong as one of several nodes in the exchange network, but also throws new light on the richness of bronze metallurgy in Bronze Age China.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Fulin Chai, Quntao Zhai and other scholars in Hanzhong for their support in the sampling and fieldwork necessary for this research project; and to Kevin Reeves at the UCL Institute of Archaeology for assisting with the EPMA analysis. Our thanks also go to Jessica Rawson (University of Oxford), Cao Wei (Museum of the First Emperor of Qin’s Mausoleum Site), John Moffett (Needham Research Institute) and colleagues at the University of Science and Technology Beijing for their insightful comments, support and assistance. This work received research grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51304020) and the National Administration for Cultural Heritage (2014220). Kunlong Chen gratefully acknowledges the support for his three research visits to London and Cambridge, provided, respectively, by the European Union under contract MEST2004-519504 for the Marie Curie EST Action Science and Conservation in Archaeology (2007), by the China Scholarship Council under a State Scholarship Fund (2007–2008), and by the Li Foundation of New York and the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange (2012–2013).

Supplementary material Supplementary material for this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/ 10.15184/aqy.2016.94

References – 1993. An early Bronze Age tomb in Jiangxi Province. Orientations 24(7): 20–36. BAGLEY, R. 1977. Pan-lung-cheng: a Shang city in Hupei. Artibus Asiae 39: 165–219. – 1999. Shang archaeology, in M. Loewe & http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3250165 E.L. Shaughnessy (ed.) The Cambridge history of – 1990. A Shang city in Sichuan Province. Orientations ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 21(11): 52–67. BC: 124–231. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Received: 26 April 2015; Accepted: 27 July 2015; Revised: 28 July 2015

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