Software as Sculpture: Creating Music from the Ground up Author(s): John Bischoff Source: Leonardo Music Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, (1991), pp. 37-40 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1513119 Accessed: 23/07/2008 16:30

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http://www.jstor.org ARTIST'S ARTICLE Software as Sculpture: Creating Music from the Ground Up

John Bischoff

his article discusses two compositions that I around 1976. The KIM-1was a composed by writing software for small computer-music single board system designed systems. Both pieces are entirely electronic. All sounds are around a 6502 central processing synthesized or triggered by the computer program, which is unit (CPU) with a built-in key- ABSTRACT partially guided by a human performer. The process by pad and 6-digit light-emitting which these pieces were constructed is characterized by diode (LED) display [2]. Ger- Theauthor discusses two elec- bottom-up design and the empirical method. Starting from ald Mueller, of the Electronic tronicmusic compositions that to an initial idea or perception, I composed each piece by Music Lab at City College of San typifyhis approach composing withsmall a feature at a time, aesthetic choices Francisco,also me with computer-musicsys- adding making by provided tems.The author's compositional As a result of this some to repeated close listening. process, early opportunities program techniqueis characterized bybot- features were refined, others were dropped. Finally, the in assembly language. After buy- tom-upsoftware design and close identity of each piece emerged. Although this way of work- ing my own KIM, I started writ- attentionto emergingdetails of the medium.These methods within a medium is common in visual art, it is unusual ing programs in 6502 machine computer ing resultin a of within the field of It is code both to make solo sculpturalprocess computer programming. generally pieces compositionthat is uniquein the in thought that programmers implement their ideas on the and eventually to play com- fieldof computermusic. Some of computer with as few unforeseen developments as possible, puter-network bands with Hor- thedetails of this process are out- and that ideas flow in only one direction, from the operator ton and others [3]. In this article, linedand distinctive features of the musicare discussed. to the machine. From the vantage point of an artist, though, I will focus on two examples of see the flow in the direc- solo both of it is just as easy to going opposite my computer work, m tion: the medium reveals itself as the artist proceeds, and which were also adapted for use such revelations shape the direction in which the artist in network bands at one time or continues. This interaction between artist and medium, and another. the intimacy it suggests, is no different for a computer artist. In programming a computer to generate music, distinc- tive characteristics and limitations of the computer medium AUDIO WAVE are inevitably revealed in the sonic behavior of the program. These characteristics might include timing complexities, I composed Audio Wave (1978-1980) [4] for pianist Rae effects created by sudden transitions in loudness or pitch, Imamura; she first performed the piece at 1750 Arch Street, or unforeseen artifacts that are the result of the unique flow Berkeley, on 30 May 1980. I wanted to create a live computer of the program. As these features arise and become part of piece in which both of Imamura's hands would continually the musical process, the composer/programmer is brought activate computer keypads instead of piano keys. I wanted into contact with the fundamental nature of the computer her actions to influence an ongoing musical output pro- as a musical instrument. duced by a computer rather than to initiate each sound as I began using computers to make electronic music in would be the case with a piano. To this end, I extensively 1977. Prior to that time, I had composed electronic pieces modified an earlier random-tone-generating program that using analog synthesizers, tape recorders and custom-built I had written for the KIM,ran it simultaneously on two KIMs, circuits designed for particular musical functions. Often the and made its behavior partially controllable by pressing keys sonic character of a synthesizer patch or a custom circuit on the KIM keypads. defined the structure of a piece. For example, the piece The final version of the program, written in 6502 machine Piano Socialemployed multiple recorded sounds fed into a code, generates an 8-bit sonic output characterized by a configuration of switching circuits (designed by Paul De- continuous stream of highly modulated tones. Each tone marinis) such that the presence of one sound would trigger starts as a simple ramp, triangle or random waveshape built the occurrence of another. The action of the switching up in memory in a wave table. At each audio cycle output, circuits highlighted details in the recorded sound in a way the waveshape is modified according to the following scheme: that would not be possible in a purely acoustic medium. This the value at a current point in the wave table is altered a focus on the material nature of the medium is also typical number of steps toward a maximum or minimum and the of much of my work with computers [ 1]. current point itself is moved a number of steps toward the My introduction to computers came about primarily Bischoff educator), 1374 Francisco St., (A 94702, U.S.A. association with Horton, an John (composer, Berkeley, through my James experimental- Received 10 October 1990. music composer and theorist based in the Bay Manuscript solicited by Larry Polansky. Area, who introduced me to the KIM-1 microcomputer

? 1991 ISAST Pergamon Press plc. Printedin Great Britain. 0961-1215/91 $3.00+0.00 LEONARDO MIUSICJOURNAL,Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 37-40, 1991 37 Fig. 1. Waveform modulation in Audio Wave. (a) An idealized superimposition of multiple waveforms, which are the result of approximately 80 cycles of modification carried out on a single ramp wave; (b) several typical waveforms extracted from (a).

beginning or end of the table. The re- insertion of 'key' functions into the flow tronic compensations for the absence sult after many audio cycles is a continu- of the program. The execution of a of musical phenomena found in acous- ally changing waveshape that waffles 'key' function is triggered when the tic instruments: around a given area of points in a re- performer depresses KIM keypads to *The onset of an acoustic tone, with peating modulation pattern (Fig. 1). influence the musical output of the pro- its characteristic richness and com- This technique creates tones with over- gram. The additional execution time plexity, is missing in Audio Wave tone spectra that expand and contract to required to process a 'key'function drops and is made up for by modulation varying degrees at varying rates. the pitch of the sounding tone notice- of the electronic tone throughout An additional timbraleffect arisesfrom ably. I retained this feature for its its length. It is as though the usual what might be considered a defect in mechanical quality: through it, one can richness at the start of each tone is my design: many program functions, visualizethe performer'skeystrokes shap- now spread out in time over its du- including keypad scanning, wave mod- ing the sonic output overall as well ration. Without the beginning, mid- ification, general housekeeping, are pro- as leaving a mechanical impression on dle and end of the acoustic envelope, grammed within the main audio loop the course of each tone. The 16 key- tones switch from one to another to at the end of each waveform cycle. function commands for each KIM form one continuous ribbon. The Before going to output the next wave- include sustain current tone, change bending and warping of that rib- form, the program executes these func- tempo, contract pitch range, repeat last bon are highlighted in Audio Wave. tions and therefore a flat portion is intro- 3 events and switch starting waveform. *The age-old magic of an acoustic duced into the waveshapebetween cycles The overall sonic effect of Audio Wave sound being struck into being by a (see Fig. 1). This 'dead zone' in each is one of unconstrained electronicism, human agent is replaced by the surg- audio cycle fluctuates in length due to an embracing of the electronic medium ing potential of a waffling speaker. the varying number of functions that in its power to create a new voice. The There is a different quality of voli- need to be executed. The fluctuation nature of this voice is shaped by the tion inherent in electronic sound. creates a kind of indeterminate pulse- limitations of the KIM-1 medium and Motion starts from the individual width modulation that slightly perturbs my response to them. Its sound emanates in the acoustic realm and is inher- both the pitch and the timbre of the tone. from the speaker cone as a direct result ent in the environment in electron- This unpredictable musical result came of program control; each twist and turn ics. The difference is something like about as a direct consequence of an em- of the program has an effect on the card- the difference between standing on piricalprogramming style that relied on board surface of the cone. The sound land and floating on water. demonstrated effect rather than precon- does not rely on simulation of acoustic *The subtle imperfections of pitch ceived limitson what might be considered instrumentsfor its musicaleffects. Rather, and amplitude naturally occurring musical. Many of these effects became its musicality derives from properties in a sustained acoustic tone are re- integral parts of the sonic character of within the electronic system itself, which placed by more methodical artifacts. the piece. were discovered by empirical play with In Audio Wave,small shifts in pitch Occasionally, the flat portion of the the medium. One can view the charac- occur as the result of unorthodox wave is substantially lengthened by the teristics of this piece as uniquely elec- program design: the audio output

38 Bischoff, Software as Sculpture routine is not insulated from other notes. As the program constructs each the music seemed to flow: if one rhyth- program functions. As these func- phrase, it uses much of a given progres- mic subdivision seemed too dominant, tions are brought into play by the sion as needed; this factor varies de- I tried to counterpoise it in the next layer. performer, the length of the out- pending on the primary rhythmic rela- Each rhythmic component exerts its own put loop is altered and therefore tionship selected for each phrase. In gravitationalpull on the listener-where both pitch and timbre are suddenly addition, a performer may activate em- multiple components are balanced, a shifted. Also, the performer may bellishments of chords as the chords single frame of reference is suspended switch the primary waveform in the appear. The embellishments are fast and a kind of polyphony of forward middle of a sounding tone, which reiterations of the chords just sounded momentum is allowed. The whole can may produce sudden changes in at rates that fit strictly within the pri- be described in terms of each of the position of the speaker cone. Often mary rhythmic units. Each phrase is perceived rhythmic layers: this will insert a pop or click in the built by the program according to the *The longest event is the phrase it- sounding tone. These are welcome following steps, the order of which re- self (15 sec), which in its strict reg- imperfections that become part of capitulates my compositional process ularityprovides a fixed gesture within the character of the electronic in- (Fig. 2): (1) A slow procession of primary which the changing events occur. strument. Tones in Audio Waveare chords (bass and tenor) subdivides the *The primarychords (3-5 sec), which constantly revoiced in this manner, phrase into a simple polyrhythm (3 to are locked in a slow polyrhythm, creating extended sequences of com- 4, 4 to 5, or 5 to 6). This choice also move a bit faster than the phrase. plex timbral articulation. determines the amount of the progres- They unfold at a slow enough rate sion required, since more chords are that their polyrhythmic relationship needed, for example, in a 4-to-5 than a is just a step beyond the listener's 3-to-4 A of sec- constant awareness. act as the NEXT TONE, PLEASE relationship. (2) layer They ondary chords (alto and soprano) fall fundamental points of chordal tran- NextTine, Please (1984-1985) [5] was writ- slightly before, right on or slightly after sition againstwhich the other events ten in the FORTH computer language the primary units. The precise place- are heard. on a Commodore 64 computer. Addi- ment before or after is based on higher *The secondary chords occur at tional tone-generating hardware was number subdivisions of the phrase roughly the same rate as the pri- added to the Commodore to give it a length (e.g. 24, 36). Additional second- mary chords, but act as attendants total of 12 oscillators, which make up ary chords are inserted when the pro- to the primary chords: appearing the basic signal source for the piece. All gram finds the resultant proximity synchronous with or right next to enveloping was done externally with an between the alto and soprano chords to the primary chords, they anticipate, analog synthesizer panel controlled by fall within a given limit. The inserted reinforce or reflect the moments of the computer [6]. I first performed the chords are 'reflecting' chords: if in- primary transition. piece on 2 November 1985 at the New serted in the alto, they will echo the ?At the fastest level, reiterations College Art Gallery in San Francisco. notes of the soprano chordjust sounded (0.2-1 sec) fill the space between Next Tone, Pleaseconjures a rarefied or vice versa. (3) Reiteration of chords chords. This motion is fast enough world of percussive block chords moving may fill the space between secondary to be assertivelymetrical and acts to slowly across a phrase of fixed length. chords if triggered by a performer. methodically mark time between The chords are tuned to a subset of 31- Each successive layer was added to events. tone equal temperament. Three differ- the piece after extensive listening to the Next Tone, Please methodically con- ent chord progressions were com- previous layer(s). Particular attention structs an experimental style of musical posed, each containing six chords of 12 was paid to the overall manner in which momentum. The use of a polyrhythm

Fig. 2. A diagram representing two possible phrases in Next Tone,Please. Each dot represents a 3-tone chord in the range specified to the left. The primary rhythmic relation is the polyrhythm between bass and tenor (a relation of 3 to 4 in phrase 1; a relation of 4 to 5 in phrase 2). The alto and soprano are placed rhythmically right before, right on or right after the bass and tenor, respectively. The short vertical dashes in the alto and soprano represent reiterations of the chord just sounded. I I I I 1I I Soprano * I I *1 l11111111111l I I I * I 1 I I 1IIIIIIs 1I I II .

Alto * 1 I I I I I I1 I I I I I I III I ,*1111I'ill lI I .111I 111111111. . ,f X

Tenor * * 5 . .

Bass * . 0 . . 0

Bischoff Software as Sculpture 39 as the framework for all other proximity. This potential resonance be- over the network and to respond to incoming data primary in its musical the sense tween elements output. The result was a multipart rhythmic placement grounds rhythmicallyindependent electronic music performance coordinated by paths of time flow on an essentially ambigu- permeates Ives'smusic at many levels. of mutual influence defined by the network. See ous A is am- In Next Tone, Please the chord John Bischoff, Rich Gold andJim Horton, "Music phenomena. polyrhythm primary for an Interactive Network of in because the listener can shift motion is surrounded attendant Microcomputers", biguous by Curtis Roads and John Strawn, eds., Foundationsof attention from one component subdi- chords and reiterations. I tried to fash- ComputerMusic(Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1985) vision to the other, each time ion a musical context in which small pp. 588-600; originally published in ComputerMusic shifting Journal 2, No. 3, 24-29 (1978). The Hub is a band the reference for rhythmic activity. In shifts in placement around a fixed chain that has continued to work in the network-music addition, the slow tempo injects enough of events would generate surprising in- form since 1986, with membersJohn Bischoff, Chris of to make the ar- stances of musical The Brown, Scot Gresham-Lancaster, Tim Perkis, Phil feeling anticipation meaning. piece Stone and Mark Trayle. See Mark Trayle andJohn rivalof each chord slightlyunpredictable. uses proximity as an independent musi- Bischoff, "PaperHubrenga", in ISJournal#9, Vol. 5, Below a certain metrical events cal chords become related No. 1, 74-85 (1990). (IS Journal is published by speed, parameter: International See for re- tend to loosen their bonds while virtue of their simultaneous or near- Synergy.) Discography gain- by cordings by both The League of Automatic Music ing an air of inevitability. Very slight simultaneous occurrence-the greater Composers and The Hub. delays are also introduced by program the distance, the weaker the relation- 4. For recordings of Audio Wave,see Discography. overhead (each is cal- upcoming phrase ship. 5. For recordings of Next Tone, Please,see Discog- culated during the execution of the cur- I think of these pieces as being sculp- raphy. rent These add further tural because of the phrase). delays way they were writ- 6. The distinctive envelopes for Next Tone, Please minute displacements to the position- ten in software. Through the composi- were produced using Dual Transient Generators and Controlled made of each chord and lend to the music tional I have described, each Voltage Amplifiers by Serge ing process Modular Synthesizers, 572 Haight St., San Fran- a slight feeling of effort that it would not piece gradually became a distinct musi- cisco CA 94117, U.S.A. otherwise have. Each harmoni- cal As I I tried to phrase entity. worked, peer 7. I studied composition and piano with James cally progresses with just a touch of for- into the behavior of the machine to Tenney at the California Institute of the Arts, 1970- 1971. Meta-Hodos CA: ward momentum. Within the gestural see from where the next musical angle SeeJamesTenney, (Oakland, Frog Peak Music, 1986). sweep of a fixed phrase length, the shift- would come. My strategy was to accept details of chord the medium 'as its confines ing placement parse is', using Discography time in a patchwork of moment-to-mo- as a avenue of rather possible discovery, a ment arrivals and This dif- than to be distracted ArtificialHorizon(ART 1003), compact disc (CD) departures. allowing myself by of computer music byJohn Bischoff and Tim Perkis, fuses the sense of a discrete musical the wish for a more perfectly plastic available from Artifact Recordings, 1374 Francisco CA present and induces a more global ex- material. St., Berkeley, 94702, U.S.A. This CD includes performances of Audio Waveand Next Tone,Please. perience of time. The Hub (ART 1002), a CD of 9 the Next Tone, Please out of in- References and Notes pieces by grew my computer network band The Hub, available from volvement with the music of Charles Artifact 1. See Tim Perkis, "The Future of Music" (com- Recordings. Ives, which was introduced to me by piled by LarryPolansky), Leonardo20,No. 4 (1987) Next Tone, Please, a cassette of six electronic 365. James Tenney [7]. After listening ex- p. compositions byJohn Bischoff, available from Frog Peak Box CA U.S.A. to Ives's I have become 2. For more information about the KIM-1 and its Music, 9911, Oakland, 94613, tensively music, This cassette includes of Audio use in the scene early performances interested in his past experimental computer-music Waveand Next Please. particularly expansive in the see Curtis Tone, sense of a musical moment. Ives stretches Bay Area, Roads, "Improvisation with George Lewis",in Curtis Roads, ed., Composers Just For theRecord (VR 1062), an LP by 'Blue' Gene the definition of a moment to include and the Computer(Los Altos, CA:William Kaufman, Tyranny performing music by ,John 78-79. such rambling arrivals and departures 1985) pp. Bischoff, Paul Demarinis and Phil Harmonic, available from Music Ltd., 105 Hudson of 3. The of Automatic Music the Lovely St., tones and chords that the listener's League Composers, New York, NY 10013, U.S.A. first network band, was active sense of the present is widened to in- microcomputer during 1978-1982 and, at one time or another, LovelyLittle Records(VR 101-06), six EPs of music clude a bit more of the past and future. ,John Bischoff, Donald Day, Rich byJohn Bischoff, Paul Demarinis, Phil Harmonic, A moment is experienced as an intersec- Gold,Jim Horton and Tim Perkis were active mem- FrankieMann, MaggiPayne and 'Blue' Gene Tyranny, tion of that have bers. The group played music by linking their com- available from Lovely Music Ltd.John Bischoffs EP multiple paths suddenly puters together into a computer network. Each includes a selection by The League of Automatic gained additionalmeaning through close program was designed to send and receive data Music Composers that was recorded in 1978.

40 Bischoff,Software as Sculpture