The Science and Mythology of Criminal Profiling

Flaw and Order: The Science and Mythology of Criminal Profiling Somewhere between hard forensic science and Hollywood-cop psychobabble, criminal profiling struggles to find a legitimate place in law enforcement’s investigative toolbox.

LAURENCE MILLER

ere’s a common television drama scenario: a body has the art and practice of criminal profiling into the fields of scientific psychol- been discovered in a neighborhood, and it seems to ogy and criminal justice. Hmatch a pattern of previous homicides. Criminal Profiling: What Is It? “Looks like a serial killer,” mutters one beat cop to an- All professionals who work with human other. “Better call in [your favorite TV detective’s name beings, whether medical doctors, psychologists, business managers, or police here].” Cue the somber yet wistfully hopeful music as the detectives, do some kind of profiling in experienced criminal profiler enters the frame and scopes their daily work. Understanding both out the crime scene, analyzes the evidence, interviews wit- the commonalities and differences in human behavior enables these pro- nesses, and ultimately develops a behavioral profile that fessionals to individually tailor their leads to the killer’s capture and conviction. Everybody has services to diverse types of people. Clinicians need to know how different seen stories like this, but what is their basis in reality? Is patients will respond to different med- criminal profiling a valid law enforcement tool or a fic- ical procedures or forms of psycho- tional forensic fad? therapy. Law enforcement officers need to know how different suspects will Information from books, TV shows, and Offender Profiling. behave under varying circumstances. movies, and the media’s general fas- However, a number of forensic skep- Although various terms and defi- cination with the dark side of human tics have expressed concern that the nitions have been proposed, the term behavior have all combined to produce popularity and enthusiastic application behavioral profiling is generally un- an explosion of interest in the field of of what variously has been termed be- derstood to refer to “a technique for criminal profiling over the past decade havioral profiling, psychological profiling, identifying the major personality and (Douglas and Olshaker 1998; Ressler offender profiling, or criminal profiling behavioral characteristics of an individ- and Schactman 1992). In academia, have far exceeded the evidence for its ual based upon an analysis of the crimes too, a growing number of masters and scientific validity (Dowden et al. 2007; he or she has committed” (Douglas and doctoral programs are allowing students Hicks and Sales 2006; Kocsis 2009; Burgess 1986, 405). Thus, the basic to do research and dissertations in this McCann 1992; Muller 2000; Palermo idea is that certain personality types ex- area (Dowden et al. 2007). Behavioral and Kocsis 2005; Snook et al. 2007). press themselves by the individualized profiling research is being accepted for This article provides a concise descrip- way they commit a crime, and that an- publication in many prominent psy- tion of the practice of criminal profil- alyzing the particular pattern can pro- chology and criminal justice journals, ing, addresses the questions of both its vide clues to the killer’s identity. and the field has spawned at least one theoretical validity and practical utility, While some form of profiling has periodical entirely devoted to this topic, and makes some recommendations for always been a part of criminal inves- the Journal of Investigative Psychology how to rationally and usefully integrate tigation, efforts by the Federal Bureau

54 Volume 39 Issue 1 | Skeptical Inquirer of Investigation to develop and imple- ment a formal and systematic process for crime scene profiling began only as recently as 1978, with the formation of the FBI’s Behavioral Science Unit, or BSU, which evolved into the Pro- filing and Behavioral Assessment Unit (Douglas and Burgess 1986; Geberth 1996; Homant and Kennedy 1998; Ressler et al. 1988). Initially, the process was developed specifically to deal with cases of serial homicide and serial rape. Although the official FBI term for this activity is criminal investigative analysis, the more colloquial term criminal profiling has become entrenched in both the academic and popular lit-

Despite the emphasis on psychology, however, profilers as a group have not articulated a uniform theory of human behavior that guides their investigations.

statements concerning the interper- initiates a log or timeline that accounts erature. With some slight differences sonal style and the underlying motives for all activities at the scene and the in approach, profiling has also become of the suspect. people and vehicles that have had ac- popular in Canada, Great Britain, and cess to the area. The on-scene officer the Netherlands (Dowden et al. 2007; Working the Case: then contacts the special investigator, Palermo and Kocsis 2005). How Profiles Are Developed Despite the emphasis on psychol- or “profiler.” ogy, however, profilers as a group have The FBI’s model of criminal profiling Initial procedures. The investigator not articulated a uniform theory of typically follows a sequence of stages first assesses the area as a whole to take human behavior that guides their inves- (Geberth 2006; Kocsis 2009). in the “big picture”—neighborhood, tigations, and it is often unclear as to Preliminary steps. The first officer roadways, pedestrian pathways—before whether they are trying to reconstruct who discovers the crime scene endeav- focusing on the crime scene itself. In an the personality of a given offender or ors to preserve the scene and, if possi- initial survey, or “walk-through,” of the merely generating a loosely connected ble, to hold any witnesses or suspects scene, the investigator takes notes, pho- series of psychologically descriptive for questioning. The on-scene officer tos, and videos for later processing and

Skeptical Inquirer | January/February 2015 55 and friends (recent romantic breakup or harassment by creepy neighbor or workmate?), and legal history (clean- cut preppie found in “druggie” neighborhood?). This information is combined to develop the victim profile, which in turn is supposed to yield clues to the offender’s modus operandi, or MO, that is, his or her particular and individualized meth- odology of committing crimes (this is distinguished from the signature, which reflects the offender’s deliberate manip- ulation of the crime scene). Developing the offender profile. When all this data has been collected, the FBI’s Crime Scene Analysis consists of six steps: (1) inputting the profiling data; (2) developing decision process models to discern patterns and commonalities; (3) reconstructing the crime scenario, i.e., exactly how the suspect killed the victim; (4) construction of a criminal ascertains whether there is any fragile to look like robberies, or sexual homi- profile that incorporates the motives, or perishable evidence that needs to be cides staged to shock or taunt police physical qualities, personality, and be- collected and preserved right away. and the media (Miller 2000; Miller havioral tendencies of the perpetrator; Describing the scene. The investiga- 2012). In such cases, the investigator (5) targeted investigation of a narrowed tor records a complete description of considers who would benefit from the pool of suspects who fit the profile and the victim and the surrounding area, scene being staged or what psycholog- use of the profile in interviewing and including: age, sex, body type, skin ical gratification might be obtained by interrogating likely suspects; and (6) and hair coloring, clothing or missing the perpetrator. apprehension of the offender. This pro- clothing, positioning and location of Forensic interviews. Any potential cess strives to be a cyclical and flexible the body, obvious or unusual weapons witnesses are interviewed at the scene one, so that the profile may be modified in the vicinity, obvious signs of violence to take advantage of their fresh observa- as new information comes in from the such as bullet holes, shell casings, blood tions and recollections. Some witnesses ensuing investigations. stains, bottles, or syringes, evidence of may be transported to the department Note that the overall rationale of the premortem injury or postmortem mu- for further questioning. Follow-up in- FBI’s criminal profiling approach is not tilation, and any other evidence that terviews may be scheduled at later dates to identify airtight, idiosyncratic mark- could yield clues as to cause of death. as more evidence comes in. ers that can zero in on a single specific At some point, physical evidence is col- Victimology. A thorough under- perpetrator but to develop a suite of lected from the crime scene, either by standing of who the victim is, where identifying characteristics that can be a special evidence collection team (in he or she lived and worked, his or her compared to other offenders already in larger police agencies) or by the inves- background, and social relationships the database. If the suspect is previously tigator him- or herself (in smaller de- are often viewed by profilers as a vital unknown to law enforcement, there partments). first step in ascertaining why he or she will be nothing to compare the profile An important aspect of on-scene was victimized, who the killer was, and with. The preternatural discernment homicide investigation is an analy- what may be his or her preferred type and apprehension of a previously un- sis of crime scene staging, in which the of victim (Joyce 2006; Napier and Ha- known suspect living down the street is offender manipulates the crime scene zelwood 2003). Types of victim infor- something that happens in Hollywood, in an attempt to confuse or misdirect mation include injuries sustained (me- not in real-life law enforcement. law enforcement investigators from the thodical execution or violently rageful true cause of death or motive for the attack?), location of the victim (what killing (Hazelwood and Napier 2004). was he or she doing away from work But Does It Work? Evidence for the Valid- Common scenarios include revenge ho- in the middle of the afternoon?), vic- ity and Usefulness of Criminal Profiling micides staged to look like suicides or tim’s occupation (what type of people Even within the limits described, there accidents, domestic homicides staged would he or she likely run into?), family are quite a number of cases where

56 Volume 39 Issue 1 | Skeptical Inquirer criminal profiles have proven to be ing in profiling; (4) psychologists; and to describe unwarranted stigmatization inaccurate, unhelpful, or frankly mis- (5) university students. The expert and of certain demographic groups, and this leading in solving crimes (Muller 2000; trained profilers wrote longer and more attribution may be unfairly tainting the Rossmo 2009; Snook et al. 2007). detailed offender profiles, and their term in other contexts as well. This has led the pendulum of opinion profiles were ranked higher in overall Whatever the name, even if psychol- to swing in the other direction, with usefulness by an independent panel of ogists could overcome their skepticism, some critics asserting that behavioral detectives. However, the profiles of the might their unique training and knowl- profiling is little better than astrology expert and trained profilers were actu- edge about the human mind confer (Ainsworth 2001), while others take ally the least useful in predicting the some advantage in creating a profile? a more middle ground position in actual characteristics of the murderer, Richard Kocsis and colleagues (2000) the debate over whether behavioral although they did somewhat better directly compared the profiling skills of profiling is mainly a highly skilled art than the other groups in predicting the psychologists to that of police officers (Douglas and Burgess 1986; Turvey rapist’s characteristics. and found that the only significant dif- 1999) or should aspire to be a rep- ferences were that psychologists more licable, scientific technique (Canter accurately predicted the offender’s 2004; Kocsis 2009; Palermo and Kocsis physical features and offense behaviors. 2005)—in essence, the same debate In fairness, however, should psychol- that surrounds almost every area of ogists who don’t specialize in forensic applied psychology, including forensic I think the term profiling analysis be expected to have any special psychology (Miller 2006; Miller 2012). skills in that area based on their gen- One problem is that most research has accreted an eral knowledge of human behavior? For and writing on psychological profiling unfortunate burden of that matter, should police officers who has not been done by psychologists but prejudice, as it has been are not trained profilers be assumed to by law enforcement investigators, who used pejoratively to have such specialized abilities just by tend to take an intuitive case-study virtue of working in a law enforcement approach rather than a skeptical sci- describe unwarranted field? entific orientation toward their subject stigmatization of certain Craig Bennell and colleagues (2006) (Dowden et al. 2007). Over the past demographic groups, and mince no words in categorically reject- two decades, a number of forensic psy- this attribution may be ing the idea that psychologists have any chologists have attempted to examine special insight into the criminal mind or the empirical basis for criminal behav- unfairly tainting the term any special skills with regard to criminal ioral profiling. in other contexts as well. profiling. They point out that in other Law enforcement investigators and forensic contexts, such as psychological profiling. In an early study, Anthony evaluations for the courts, psychologists Pinizzotto (1984) surveyed local law typically show marked disagreement enforcement officers who had asked with one another and specialized train- the FBI’s BSU to develop a total of 196 ing seems to have no appreciable effect offender profiles to assist in their inves- on the accuracy or usefulness of their tigations. Most of the officers reported reports. that the profiles were of some use in fo- Psychologists and profiling. What This, however, may be generalizing cusing their investigation, but less than do psychologists think about psycho- from a few sensationalized “battles of half considered the profiles to be sig- logical profiling? Curt Bartol (1996) the experts” that receive glaring media nificantly helpful in solving their cases, found that 70 percent of a large sam- attention and that are dramatized on and in only 17 percent of cases did the ple of self-identified police psycholo- TV cop-and-lawyer shows. In my ex- profiles lead to the actual identification gists seriously questioned the validity perience as a forensic examiner, if pro- of a suspect. and usefulness of criminal profiling. vided with sufficient background data A subsequent study (Pinizzotto and However, in another study (Torres and a comprehensive clinical interview, Finkel 1990) presented a previously et al. 2006), simply changing the no- it is rare for truly honest and objective solved murder case and rape case, in menclature from criminal profiling to evaluators to come up with diametri- which the outcome was already known, criminal investigative analysis yielded cally opposed conclusions in forensic to five different groups: (1) “expert a sharp increase in perceived scientific evaluations. Examiners may disagree profilers” (i.e., instructors in the FBI’s validity among surveyed psychologists. on the precise diagnosis (schizophrenia BSU); (2) “trained profilers” (i.e., law Although the authors did not address vs. schizoaffective or bipolar disorder) enforcement investigators who had un- this, I think the term profiling has ac- or the exact relationship of the clinical dergone training from the BSU); (3) creted an unfortunate burden of prej- criteria to the legal standard (subject police detectives with no formal train- udice, as it has been used pejoratively was paranoid at the time of the offense

Skeptical Inquirer | January/February 2015 57 but was able to control his actions vs. regarded as one piece of the puzzle parative assessment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15: 311–331. subject was powerless to disobey com- that can occasionally yield useful in- McCann, J.T. 1992. Criminal personality pro- mand hallucinations). formation. Again, the tension between filing in the investigation of violent crime: However, most evaluations of the art and science in all fields of applied Recent advances and future directions. human behavior, especially in forensic Behavioral Sciences and the Law 10: 475–481. same subject will yield a rough con- Miller, L. 2000. The predator’s brain: Neuro- sensus because the examiners are using psychology, is one that must be dealt psychodynamics of serial killers. In L.B. well-validated principles of psycholog- with forthrightly if our professional Schlesinger Ed., Serial Offenders: Current ical investigation combined with their credibility is to be maintained (Miller Thought, Recent Findings, Unusual Syndromes. ■ Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 135–166. own knowledge and experience to pro- 2006; Miller 2012). ———. 2006. Practical Police Psychology: Stress duce a credible assessment. The same References Management and Crisis Intervention for Law probably applies to skilled criminal Enforcement. Springfield, IL: Charles C Ainsworth, P.B. 2001. Offender Profiling and Thomas. profilers: of course they’re not always Crime Analysis. Devon: Willan Publishing. ———. 2012. Criminal Psychology: Nature, right, and different profilers may dis- Bartol, C.R. 1996. Police psychology: Then, now, Nurture, Culture. Springfield, IL: Charles C agree on assorted details, but it would and beyond. Criminal Justice and Behavior 23: Thomas. 70–89. Muller, D.A. 2000. Criminal profiling: Real be surprising if, given the same data Bennell, C., N.J. Jones, P.J. Taylor, et al. 2006. science or just wishful thinking? Homicide and using the same methods, they Validities and abilities in criminal profiling: A Studies 4: 234–264. came up with widely diverging profiles, critique of the studies conducted by Richard Napier, M.R., and R.R. Hazelwood. 2003. Kocsis and his colleagues. International Homicide investigation: The significance of especially on a consistent basis. Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative victimology. National Academy Associate 5: Criminology 50: 344–360. 14–15, 21–22, 30–32. Criminal behavioral Canter, D.V. 2004. Offender profiling and inves- Palermo, G.B, and R.N. Kocsis. 2005. tigative psychology. Journal of Investigative Offender Profiling: An Introduction to the profiling will no doubt Psychology and Offender Profiling 1: 1–15. Sociopsychological Analysis of Violent Crime. Douglas, J.E., and A.W. Burgess. 1986. Criminal Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. ultimately be found to profiling: A viable investigative tool against Pinizzotto, A.J. 1984. Forensic psychology: occupy a middle ground violent crime. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Criminal personality profiling. Journal of 55: 9–13. Police Science and Administration 12: 32–40. somewhere between Douglas, J.E., and M. Olshaker. 1998. Pinizzotto, A.J., and N.J. Finkel. 1990. Criminal infallibility and Mindhunter: Inside the FBI’s Elite Serial Crime personality profiling: An outcome and pro- Unit. New York: Scribner. cess study. Law and Human Behavior 14: psychobabble. Dowden, C., C. Bennell, and S. Bloomfield. 215–233. 2007. Advances in offender profiling: A sys- Ressler, R.K., A.W. Burgess, and J.E. Douglas. tematic review of the profiling literature pub- 1988. Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives. lished over the past three decades. Journal of New York: Lexington Books. Criminal Profiling: Where Are We? Police and Criminal Psychology 22: 44–56. Ressler, R.K., and T. Schactman. 1992. Whoever Geberth, V.J. 1996. Practical Homicide Fights Monsters: My Twenty Years Tracking At present, the evidence for the overall Investigation. Tactics, Procedures, and Forensic rd Serial Killers for the FBI. New York: Simon validity of criminal profiles in solv- Techniques 3 ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC & Schuster. ing serial homicides and other crimes Press. Rossmo, D.K. 2009. Criminal Investigative ———. 2006. Preliminary death investigation. appears weaker than at first suggested Failures. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin September: Snook, B., J. Eastwood, P. Gendreau, et al. 2007. 131–140. by the initial flush of enthusiasm. Taking stock of criminal profiling: A narra- Godwin, G.M. 2001. Criminal Psychology and Probably, this represents expectable tive review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Forensic Technology: A Collaborative Approach and Behavior 34: 437–453. growing pains in the maturation of to Effective Profiling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Torres, A.N., M.T. Boccanccini, and H. Miller. Press. any behavioral science, and criminal 2006. Perceptions of the validity and utility of Hazelwood, R.R., and M.R. Napier. 2004. Crime criminal profiling among forensic psycholo- behavioral profiling will no doubt ulti- scene staging and its detection. International mately be found to occupy a middle Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative gists and psychiatrists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 37: 51–58. ground somewhere between infalli- Criminology 48: 744–759. Hicks, S.J., and B.D. Sales. 2006. Criminal Turvey, B.E. 1999. Criminal Profiling: An bility and psychobabble. In the mean- Profiling: Developing an Effective Science Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. time, practitioners out in the real world and Practice. Washington, DC: American New York: Academic Press. must competently, ethically, and care- Psychological Association. Laurence Miller, PhD, is Homant, R.J., and D.B. Kennedy. 1998. fully use the available skills and tools, Psychological aspects of crime scene profiling. a clinical and forensic psychological and technological, to try Criminal Justice and Behavior 25: 319–343. psychologist and an to solve actual cases (Godwin 2001; Joyce, T. 2006. Victimology awareness. Law and adjunct professor at Order March: 48–54. Kocsis 2010). Kocsis, R.N. 2009. Applied Criminal Psychology: Florida Atlantic Univer- Certainly, in the investigation of A Guide to Forensic Behavioral Sciences. sity. He is the author, crimes of all types, psychological pro- Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. most recently, of Crimi- ———. 2010. Criminal profiling works and filing should never be relied on to the everyone agrees. Journal of Forensic Psychology nal Psychology: Nature, Nurture, Culture exclusion of traditional evidence col- Practice 10: 224–237. (Charles C Thomas). He can be reached at lection and analysis, and it should be Kocsis, R.N., H.J. Irwin, A.F. Hayes, et al. 2000. [email protected]. Expertise in psychological profiling: A com-

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