Flaw and Order: The Science and Mythology of Criminal Profiling Somewhere between hard forensic science and Hollywood-cop psychobabble, criminal profiling struggles to find a legitimate place in law enforcement’s investigative toolbox. LAURENCE MILLER ere’s a common television drama scenario: a body has the art and practice of criminal profil- ing into the fields of scientific psychol- been discovered in a neighborhood, and it seems to ogy and criminal justice. Hmatch a pattern of previous homicides. Criminal Profiling: What Is It? “Looks like a serial killer,” mutters one beat cop to an- All professionals who work with human other. “Better call in [your favorite TV detective’s name beings, whether medical doctors, psy- chologists, business managers, or police here].” Cue the somber yet wistfully hopeful music as the detectives, do some kind of profiling in experienced criminal profiler enters the frame and scopes their daily work. Understanding both out the crime scene, analyzes the evidence, interviews wit- the commonalities and differences in human behavior enables these pro- nesses, and ultimately develops a behavioral profile that fessionals to individually tailor their leads to the killer’s capture and conviction. Everybody has services to diverse types of people. Clinicians need to know how different seen stories like this, but what is their basis in reality? Is patients will respond to different med- criminal profiling a valid law enforcement tool or a fic- ical procedures or forms of psycho- tional forensic fad? therapy. Law enforcement officers need to know how different suspects will Information from books, TV shows, and Offender Profiling. behave under varying circumstances. movies, and the media’s general fas- However, a number of forensic skep- Although various terms and defi- cination with the dark side of human tics have expressed concern that the nitions have been proposed, the term behavior have all combined to produce popularity and enthusiastic application behavioral profiling is generally un- an explosion of interest in the field of of what variously has been termed be- derstood to refer to “a technique for criminal profiling over the past decade havioral profiling, psychological profiling, identifying the major personality and (Douglas and Olshaker 1998; Ressler offender profiling, or criminal profiling behavioral characteristics of an individ- and Schactman 1992). In academia, have far exceeded the evidence for its ual based upon an analysis of the crimes too, a growing number of masters and scientific validity (Dowden et al. 2007; he or she has committed” (Douglas and doctoral programs are allowing students Hicks and Sales 2006; Kocsis 2009; Burgess 1986, 405). Thus, the basic to do research and dissertations in this McCann 1992; Muller 2000; Palermo idea is that certain personality types ex- area (Dowden et al. 2007). Behavioral and Kocsis 2005; Snook et al. 2007). press themselves by the individualized profiling research is being accepted for This article provides a concise descrip- way they commit a crime, and that an- publication in many prominent psy- tion of the practice of criminal profil- alyzing the particular pattern can pro- chology and criminal justice journals, ing, addresses the questions of both its vide clues to the killer’s identity. and the field has spawned at least one theoretical validity and practical utility, While some form of profiling has periodical entirely devoted to this topic, and makes some recommendations for always been a part of criminal inves- the Journal of Investigative Psychology how to rationally and usefully integrate tigation, efforts by the Federal Bureau 54 Volume 39 Issue 1 | Skeptical Inquirer of Investigation to develop and imple- ment a formal and systematic process for crime scene profiling began only as recently as 1978, with the formation of the FBI’s Behavioral Science Unit, or BSU, which evolved into the Pro- filing and Behavioral Assessment Unit (Douglas and Burgess 1986; Geberth 1996; Homant and Kennedy 1998; Ressler et al. 1988). Initially, the pro- cess was developed specifically to deal with cases of serial homicide and serial rape. Although the official FBI term for this activity is criminal investigative analysis, the more colloquial term crim- inal profiling has become entrenched in both the academic and popular lit- Despite the emphasis on psychology, however, profilers as a group have not articulated a uniform theory of human behavior that guides their investigations. statements concerning the interper- initiates a log or timeline that accounts erature. With some slight differences sonal style and the underlying motives for all activities at the scene and the in approach, profiling has also become of the suspect. people and vehicles that have had ac- popular in Canada, Great Britain, and cess to the area. The on-scene officer the Netherlands (Dowden et al. 2007; Working the Case: then contacts the special investigator, Palermo and Kocsis 2005). How Profiles Are Developed Despite the emphasis on psychol- or “profiler.” ogy, however, profilers as a group have The FBI’s model of criminal profiling Initial procedures. The investigator not articulated a uniform theory of typically follows a sequence of stages first assesses the area as a whole to take human behavior that guides their inves- (Geberth 2006; Kocsis 2009). in the “big picture”—neighborhood, tigations, and it is often unclear as to Preliminary steps. The first officer roadways, pedestrian pathways—before whether they are trying to reconstruct who discovers the crime scene endeav- focusing on the crime scene itself. In an the personality of a given offender or ors to preserve the scene and, if possi- initial survey, or “walk-through,” of the merely generating a loosely connected ble, to hold any witnesses or suspects scene, the investigator takes notes, pho- series of psychologically descriptive for questioning. The on-scene officer tos, and videos for later processing and Skeptical Inquirer | January/February 2015 55 and friends (recent romantic breakup or harassment by creepy neighbor or workmate?), and legal history (clean- cut preppie found in “druggie” neigh- borhood?). This information is combined to de- velop the victim profile, which in turn is supposed to yield clues to the offender’s modus operandi, or MO, that is, his or her particular and individualized meth- odology of committing crimes (this is distinguished from the signature, which reflects the offender’s deliberate manip- ulation of the crime scene). Developing the offender profile. When all this data has been collected, the FBI’s Crime Scene Analysis consists of six steps: (1) inputting the profiling data; (2) developing decision process models to discern patterns and commonalities; (3) reconstructing the crime scenario, i.e., exactly how the suspect killed the victim; (4) construction of a criminal ascertains whether there is any fragile to look like robberies, or sexual homi- profile that incorporates the motives, or perishable evidence that needs to be cides staged to shock or taunt police physical qualities, personality, and be- collected and preserved right away. and the media (Miller 2000; Miller havioral tendencies of the perpetrator; Describing the scene. The investiga- 2012). In such cases, the investigator (5) targeted investigation of a narrowed tor records a complete description of considers who would benefit from the pool of suspects who fit the profile and the victim and the surrounding area, scene being staged or what psycholog- use of the profile in interviewing and including: age, sex, body type, skin ical gratification might be obtained by interrogating likely suspects; and (6) and hair coloring, clothing or missing the perpetrator. apprehension of the offender. This pro- clothing, positioning and location of Forensic interviews. Any potential cess strives to be a cyclical and flexible the body, obvious or unusual weapons witnesses are interviewed at the scene one, so that the profile may be modified in the vicinity, obvious signs of violence to take advantage of their fresh observa- as new information comes in from the such as bullet holes, shell casings, blood tions and recollections. Some witnesses ensuing investigations. stains, bottles, or syringes, evidence of may be transported to the department Note that the overall rationale of the premortem injury or postmortem mu- for further questioning. Follow-up in- FBI’s criminal profiling approach is not tilation, and any other evidence that terviews may be scheduled at later dates to identify airtight, idiosyncratic mark- could yield clues as to cause of death. as more evidence comes in. ers that can zero in on a single specific At some point, physical evidence is col- Victimology. A thorough under- perpetrator but to develop a suite of lected from the crime scene, either by standing of who the victim is, where identifying characteristics that can be a special evidence collection team (in he or she lived and worked, his or her compared to other offenders already in larger police agencies) or by the inves- background, and social relationships the database. If the suspect is previously tigator him- or herself (in smaller de- are often viewed by profilers as a vital unknown to law enforcement, there partments). first step in ascertaining why he or she will be nothing to compare the profile An important aspect of on-scene was victimized, who the killer was, and with. The preternatural discernment homicide investigation is an analy- what may be his or her preferred type and apprehension of a previously un- sis of crime scene staging, in which the of victim (Joyce 2006; Napier and Ha- known suspect living down the street is offender manipulates the crime scene zelwood 2003). Types of victim infor- something that happens in Hollywood, in an attempt to confuse or misdirect mation include injuries sustained (me- not in real-life law enforcement. law enforcement investigators from the thodical execution or violently rageful true cause of death or motive for the attack?), location of the victim (what killing (Hazelwood and Napier 2004).