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Effects of Weapon Exposure on Confidence in Weapon Identification ABSTRACT EFFECTS OF WEAPON EXPOSURE ON CONFIDENCE IN WEAPON IDENTIFICATION Weapon identification is a common procedure in criminal trials, but has not been investigated scientifically. Much attention has focused on eyewitnesses identifying perpetrators. Exposure to weapons in the media and its effects on cognition has not been a topic of interest. Few studies have investigated weapon identification, level of confidence in identifying weapons, and amount of exposure to weapons in the media. The present study aims to investigate the relationship, if any, among these variables. The archival data of the study were extracted from a larger database and was subjected to a variety of statistical tests for analysis. Multiple regression analysis demonstrates that exposure to weapons in the media significantly predicts the level of confidence in identifying weapons. MANOVA analysis demonstrates a significant relationship between the ability to accurately identify weapons and the level of confidence in weapon identification. An additional MANOVA shows that the ability to accurately identify weapons is significantly associated with exposure to weapons in the media. Results of the study have ramifications in criminal proceedings. Emanuel Alcala May 2013 EFFECTS OF WEAPON EXPOSURE ON CONFIDENCE IN WEAPON IDENTIFICATION by Emanuel Alcala A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology in the College of Science and Mathematics California State University, Fresno May 2013 APPROVED For the Department of Psychology: We, the undersigned, certify that the thesis of the following student meets the required standards of scholarship, format, and style of the university and the student's graduate degree program for the awarding of the master's degree. Emanuel Alcala Thesis Author Matthew Sharps (Chair) Psychology Michael Botwin Psychology Rebecca Slaton Psychology For the University Graduate Committee: Dean, Division of Graduate Studies AUTHORIZATION FOR REPRODUCTION OF MASTER’S THESIS X I grant permission for the reproduction of this thesis in part or in its entirety without further authorization from me, on the condition that the person or agency requesting reproduction absorbs the cost and provides proper acknowledgment of authorship. Permission to reproduce this thesis in part or in its entirety must be obtained from me. Signature of thesis author: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with great pleasure that I thank several individuals who made this thesis a reality. First, I would like to thank my graduate mentor, Matthew J. Sharps, who provided endless knowledge, support, and the foundation for this research. Also, I would like to thank Rebecca Slaton and Michael Botwin, who together shared invaluable insight as committee members. I especially would like to thank Constance Jones for never closing her office door on me throughout my graduate career. I have to thank each and every family member Javier, Fernando, Jessica, Mom, and Dad for being the best teachers I ever had. Finally, I would like to thank Nicole and Ada Martinez for which there are no words to describe my gratitude for their contribution. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1 Identification ..................................................................................................... 1 Confidence ........................................................................................................ 1 Exposure ............................................................................................................ 2 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................. 3 Weapon Identification ....................................................................................... 3 Confidence in Weapon Identification ............................................................... 6 Exposure to Weapons ........................................................................................ 7 Hypotheses ........................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ..................................................................................... 11 Materials .......................................................................................................... 11 Design and Procedure ..................................................................................... 12 Measures ......................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ....................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ................................................................................. 19 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 22 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 27 APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT .............................................................. 28 APPENDIX B: DEBRIEFING FORM .................................................................. 31 APPENDIX C: EYEWITNESS INTERVIEW ...................................................... 34 APPENDIX D: RECALL QUESTIONNAIRE ..................................................... 37 vi vi Page APPENDIX F: EXPERIMENT DIRECTIONS ..................................................... 42 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Multiple Regression Results of the Interest in Weapons, Experience with Weapons, and Exposure to Weapons in the Media as Predictors in the Level of Confidence in Weapon Identification ............................... 16 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of Weapon Identification on Confidence Variables .................................................................................................. 17 Table 3 Descriptive Statistics of Weapon Identification on Weapon Interest, Experience, and Exposure in the Media .................................................. 18 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Identification In criminal trials eyewitnesses are often asked to identify weapons that may have been used by the perpetrator. Witnesses may be accurate or inaccurate in their ability to identify weapons. Few studies have investigated one’s ability to identify weapons. Thus, little is known about the accuracy of the eyewitness’s testimony with regards to weapon recognition. Weapon identification, in the context of this study, refers to the recognition of a weapon (e.g., handgun) that was previously viewed in a given crime scene. The current study aims to measure this accuracy along with the ability to identify the color of the weapon. Confidence Studies have shown that jurors interpret an eyewitness’s confidence as credibility (Brewer & Burke, 2002). In other words, a highly confident witness is perceived as highly accurate in his or her testimony. Earlier data show that confident eyewitnesses are not any more accurate at identifying their perpetrator than unconfident eyewitnesses; concluding that confidence in not a good indicator of accuracy (Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987). However, more recent studies illustrate that the relationship between confidence and accuracy is strengthened, dependent on the manner in which the questions are asked (Brigham, 1990). To date, studies have only examined the eyewitness’s level of confidence in the ability to accurately identify a person. The current study examines the confidence-accuracy relationship between the eyewitness’s level of confidence and weapon identification, as well as weapon color. 2 2 Exposure Eyewitnesses have varying degrees of exposure to weapons. For example, some eyewitnesses may be highly interested in weaponry, while others are of low interest. In addition, others have personal experiences with weaponry that may help with weapon recognition. For example, one might be a member of the National Rifle Association and identifying a rifle would be of ease. It could be the case that eyewitnesses only have exposure to weapons through media outlets. Recent studies cite that television continues to be a primary source of entertainment and news (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007; Gentile & Bushman, 2012). The term “media” refers to television as the main source of exposure. This would include television shows, video games, and movies. Past research has focused on violence in the media as a factor contributing to human aggression (Savage, 2008; Bushman & Anderson, 2009). There is a paucity of data regarding weaponry in the media and its influence on human cognition. However, this study aims to fill this gap. Specifically, the level of interest in weaponry, experience with weaponry, and exposure to weapons in the media is included in the analysis. Research Questions Question 1: Does weapon interest, experience, or exposure in the media significantly predict confidence in one’s ability to identify weapons? Question 2: Does ability to accurately identify weapons significantly influence one’s level of confidence? Question 3: Does ability to accurately identify weapons significantly influence weapon interest, experience, and exposure in the media?
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