Mass Society in an “Age of Progress,” 1871–1894

CHAPTER 23 Mass Society in an “Age of Progress,” 1871–1894 CHAPTER OUTLINE • The Growth of Industrial Prosperity • The Emergence of Mass Society • The National State • Conclusion FOCUS QUESTIONS • What was the Second Industrial Revolution, and what effects did it have on European economic and social life? • What roles did socialist parties and trade unions play in improving conditions for the working classes? • What is meant by the term mass society, and what were its main characteristics? L • What role were women expected to play in society and family life in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and how closely did patterns of family life correspond to this ideal? • What general political trends were evident in the nations of western Europe in the last decades of the nineteenth century, and how did these trends differ from the policies pursued in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia? N THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY, Europe witnessed a dynamic age of material prosperity. With new industries, new Isources of energy, and new goods, a Second Industrial Revolution transformed the human environment, dazzled Europeans, and led them to believe that their material progress meant human progress. Scientific and technological achievements, many naively believed, would improve humanity’s condition and solve all human problems. The doctrine of progress became an article of great faith. The new urban and industrial world created by the rapid economic changes of the nineteenth century led to the emergence of a mass society by the late nineteenth century. A mass society meant improvements for the lower classes who benefited from the extension of voting rights, a better standard of living, and mass education. It also brought mass leisure. New work patterns established the “weekend” as a distinct time 678 of recreation and fun, and new forms of mass transporta- engines, as well as railways, ships, and armaments. In tion—railroads and streetcars—enabled even workers to 1860, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium make brief excursions to amusement parks. Coney Island together produced 125,000 tons of steel; by 1913, the total was only eight miles from central New York City; Black- was 32 million tons. Whereas in the early 1870s Britain pool in England was a short train ride from nearby had produced twice as much steel as Germany, by 1910, German production was double that of Great Britain. Both industrial towns. With their Ferris wheels and other had been surpassed by the United States in 1890. daring rides that threw young men and women together, Great Britain also fell behind in the new chemical amusement parks offered a whole new world of enter- industry. A change in the method of making soda enabled tainment. Thanks to the railroad, seaside resorts, once France and Germany to take the lead in producing the the preserve of the wealthy, also became accessible to alkalies used in the textile, soap, and paper industries. more people for weekend visits, much to the disgust of German laboratories soon overtook the British in the one upper-class regular who complained about the new development of new organic chemical compounds, such “day-trippers”: “They swarm upon the beach, wandering as artificial dyes. By 1900, German firms had cornered listlessly about with apparently no other aim than to get 90 percent of the market for dye stuffs and also led in the a mouthful of fresh air.” Enterprising entrepreneurs in development of photographic plates and film. resorts like Blackpool welcomed the masses of new visi- Electricity was a major new form of energy that tors, however, and built piers laden with food, drink, and proved to be of great value since it could be easily converted into other forms of energy, such as heat, light, and entertainment to serve them. motion, and moved relatively effortlessly through space by The coming of mass society also created new roles means of transmitting wires. In the 1870s, the first com- for the governments of European nation-states, which mercially practical generators of electrical current were now fostered national loyalty, created mass armies by developed. By 1881, Britain had its first public power sta- conscription, and took more responsibility for public tion. By 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired health and housing measures in their cities. By 1871, steam-generating plants enabled entire districts to be tied the national state had become the focus of Europeans’ into a single power distribution system that provided a lives. Within many of these nation-states, the growth of common source of power for homes, shops, and industrial the middle class had led to the triumph of liberal prac- enterprises. tices: constitutional governments, parliaments, and Electricity spawned a whole new series of inven- principles of equality. The period after 1871 also wit- tions. The invention of the lightbulb by the American nessed the growth of political democracy as the right to Thomas Edison (1847–1931) and the Briton Joseph Swan opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights. vote was extended to all adult males; women, though, A revolution in communications was fostered when would still have to fight for the same political rights. Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) invented the tele- With political democracy came a new mass politics and phone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) sent a new mass press. Both would become regular features the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901. Although of the twentieth century. most electricity was initially used for lighting, it was even- tually put to use in transportation. The first electric rail- way was installed in Berlin in 1879. By the 1880s, streetcars and subways had appeared in major European ◆ The Growth of cities and had begun to replace horse-drawn buses. Elec- tricity also transformed the factory. Conveyor belts, cranes, Industrial Prosperity machines, and machine tools could all be powered by electricity and located anywhere. In the First Industrial At the heart of Europeans’ belief in progress after 1871 was Revolution, coal had been the major source of energy. the stunning material growth produced by what historians Countries without adequate coal supplies lagged behind have called the Second Industrial Revolution. The First in industrialization. Thanks to electricity, they could now Industrial Revolution had given rise to textiles, railroads, enter the industrial age. iron, and coal. In the second revolution, steel, chemicals, The development of the internal combustion engine electricity, and petroleum led the way to new industrial had a similar effect. The first internal combustion engine, frontiers. fired by gas and air, was produced in 1878. It proved unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power in l New Products and New Markets transportation until the development of liquid fuels, namely, petroleum and its distilled derivatives. An oil-fired The first major change in industrial development after engine was made in 1897, and by 1902, the Hamburg- 1870 was the substitution of steel for iron. New methods Amerika Line had switched from coal to oil on its new of rolling and shaping steel made it useful in the con- ocean liners. By the end of the nineteenth century, some struction of lighter, smaller, and faster machines and naval fleets had been converted to oil burners as well. Mass Society in an “Age of Progress,” 1871–1894 679 AN AGE OF PROGRESS. Between 1871 and 1914, a Second Industrial Revolution led many Europeans to believe that they were living in an age of progress when most human problems would be solved by scientific achievements. This illustration is taken from a special issue of The Illustrated London News celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1897. On the left are scenes from 1837, when Victoria came to the British throne; on the right are scenes from 1897. The vivid contrast underscored the magazine’s conclusion: “The most striking . evidence of progress during the reign is the ever increasing speed which the discoveries of physical science have forced into everyday life. Steam and electricity have conquered time and space to a greater extent during the last sixty years than all the preceding six hundred years witnessed.” The development of the internal combustion engine look at their domestic markets. As Europeans were the gave rise to the automobile and airplane. Gottlieb Daim- richest consumers in the world, those markets offered ler’s invention of a light engine in 1886 was the key to abundant possibilities. The dramatic population increases the development of the automobile. In 1900, world pro- after 1870 (see Population Growth later in this chapter) duction stood at 9,000 cars; by 1906, Americans had over- were accompanied by a steady rise in national incomes. taken the initial lead of the French. It was an American, The leading industrialized nations, Britain and Germany, Henry Ford (1863–1947), who revolutionized the car doubled or tripled their national incomes. Between 1850 industry with the mass production of the Model T. By and 1900, real wages increased by two-thirds in Britain 1916, Ford’s factories were producing 735,000 cars a year. and by one-third in Germany. As the prices of both food In the meantime an age of air transportation began with and manufactured goods declined due to lower trans- the Zeppelin airship in 1900. In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, portation costs, Europeans could spend more on con- North Carolina, the Wright brothers made the first flight in sumer products. Businesses soon perceived the value of a fixed-wing plane powered by a gasoline engine. It took using new techniques of mass marketing to sell the con- World War I to stimulate the aircraft industry, however, sumer goods made possible by the development of the and the first regular passenger air service was not estab- steel and electrical industries.

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