Land/orm Analysis, Vol. 4: 57-64 (2003)

The Czarny Dunajec River, Poland, as an example of human­ induced development tendencies in a mountain river channel

Kazimierz Krzemieri

Jagielloflian University IlIstitllte of Geography and Spatial Management ul. Grodzka 64, 31-044 Krak6w, Poland

Abstract: The Czamy Ounajec is a typical river origmating in high mountains (the Western Tatras). Over tbe entire Qualernary era tbe river laboured carrying material away from the Tatras and depositing it in LA the form ofltypical brtided channel at their foot. Atlbe cnd of the 19· century. river management projects -- and quarrying operallons located directly in the very chlnnel set off I rejuvenltlon process thal was further - accelerated at the end of 196Os. The activitIes resulted in the damaged several sectIons in their natural form and considerably deepened the channel. Measures taken to restrict the Imount of material entering the Czorsltyn Dam have largely failed. From the geomorphologic and enVironmental points of view I continued transformation of the Czamy DunaJee river ebannel should be regarded as highly ad\·erse. Fig. 7. Evorsion hole in the cUllmg of the unpa\cd road

Kcy "'ords: mounlain river channels. fluvial processes. human pressure. Western Carpathiao Mts.

Introduction made to onc river section can lead to changes, which are difficult to predict in others (Osuch, The contemporary diversification of river 1968; Klimek, 1983). In order to determine their channels is a result of long-tenn processes cov­ current status and to try to predict the develop­ ering the entire catchment basins. As active chan­ ment tendencies (Wasson et al., 1993; Chelmicki nel sections indicate the current stage of a river and Krzemieil, 1999), therefore, it is very impor­ channel evolution, a description ofthe entire river tant to evaluate the cntire systems. Channel struc­ channel system helps understand the principles of tures should be evaluated first and only then can how it works (Choeley, Kennedy, 1971). Infonna­ changes be made. The Czamy Dunajec river is tion on the entire channel systems is mainly a very wonhy object of such an investigation, as supplied by field research, supplemented by maps its river channel has becn subject to intensive and aerial photographs (Mosley, 1987; Tbome, human-induced transformation involving river 1998; Kamykowska et al., 1999). However, as management and aggregate extraction, especial­ most of the research has focused only on select­ ly after the Second World War. These acti\lities ed river sections, little is known about river are still being carried out despitc the official dec­ channel systems at the scale of entire mountain larations of the relev80l authorities that no fur­ ranges or even larger catchment areas. ther river management work is planned and the Similarly, treated as a whole, the upper Vis­ extraction of the material from the river being tula-catchment system is unquestionably under­ legally prohibited. researched. Meanwhile, as several Carpathian The research project conducted in the Czarny rivers are subject to management schemes and Dunajec catchment basin was aimed at under­ their channels dug for building aggregatcs, their standing the structure of the channel system and systems have not been properly investigated. The demonstrating thc natural and human-induced research carricd out so far shows that alterations causes of its transformation.

•_ Landform 57 Kazimierz Krzemien The Czamy Dunajec River, Poland, as example of human-induced development tendencies ...

Research area (ridge), Kotlina Orawsko-Nowotarska (mid­ Research methods Next, the following reaches were defined on mountain basin) and the Dzialy Orawskie (Kli­ a map: The Czarny Dunajee catchment area covers maszewski, 1972, Fig.I). Field research in the area started in 1975. transecting coarse moraine material; fluvio-gla­ c. 473 km". Geomorphologically, it is located in The river is the resultant of three converging Investigation into thc structure of the channel cial, bedrock or alluvial covcrs; cutting all the three topographic units, the Tatra Mts., the streamS: Chocholowski, Koscieliski and Lejowy. employed a special register form and an instruc­ way to the bedrock, thus indicating a tenden­ Podhale region and the Western Beskidy Mts. Its Both in terms of thc geomorphology and hydrol­ tions manual developcd in the Geomorphology cy to downcutting; complex geology includes metamorphic rocks, ogy (Krzemien, 1991) the Chocholowska valley Department of the Institute of Geography and - braiding, indicating a tendency to deposition, graintoid, quarzite, limestone, sandstone and is its source valley. This paper pays particular Spatial Economy, Jagiellonian University (Ka­ re-deposition and lateral erosion; jlysch shale (Fig. I). The catchment area is locat­ attention to the channel pattern at the foot of the mykowska et ul., 1999). So far, the entire Czarny with the largest index of undercut bank area ed in five regions, i.e. the Western Tatras, Row Tatras. The structure of the ChochoJowski stream Dunajec river channel system has been mapped indicating a tendency to lateral erosion; Podtatrzanski (trench), Pasmo Gubalowskie has also been described elsewhere (Kaszowski twice (1977 and 1999) and a detailed investiga­ other (all not defined according to the applied and Krzemicn, 1979; Krzemieil, tion was carried out into the fluvial dynamics in criteria) grouped as transporting reaches. 1981; 1991; RllCzkowska. 1983). the upper course of the river (Krzemien, 1981 and Generally speaking, major morphological th NOWY The Czarny Dunajec river chan­ 1991). Additionally, 19\·- and 20 _century maps processes were identified by looking at particu­ nel is 30 to 50 m wide with stretch­ and aerial photos were used to analyse the chan­ lar scts of features, i.e.: es of up to 200 m wide, and its flood nel system development trends. downcutting was identified by the existence plain is 100-500 m wide. The flood The fundamental channel reaches were de­ of bedrock channels and alluvial channels with plain, rises 1-3 m above the river fined on the basis of the channel pattern and the rocky outcrops in the river bed; bed, is transectcd by multiple aban­ features and markcd on a map and aerial photos. lateral erosion was identified by tbe high doned channel-systems and is most­ They were then described in a standardised way values of the bank undercut ratio and by lat­ ly overgrown wi1h bushes and trees. involving the quantitative and qualitative charac­ eral migration of the channels; The channel rubble varies as to the teristics ofthe channel, its features, the rubble and deposition was identified by high thickness of o 5 km L'~~_~~~I type of rocks and the mechanical the degree to which the channel was managed. alluvial formations and high alluvial surface .••./ composition (Borowski and Kocisze­ Also, the flood plain was described and analysed. ratio values; ./ redeposition was idcntified bascd on high , wska-MusiaJ, 1959; Nawara, 1960). In total, 13 reaches of the Potok Chocho· , I ...... ; It consists mainly of granite and iowski (11.8 km) and 20 of the Czarny Dunajec values of the alluvial surface ratio and the -#11111111 ...... quartzite clasts, up to 20 cm in di­ (37.6 km) were mapped and characterised. 'wild' ratio, as well as based on 'wandering , bars' moving ovcr regulation structures or into Chochol6w ----_. • ameter. The proportion of granite in­ ;. 19 c , creases from the source down to the vegetated areas; '. , transportation (transportation reaches) was '" ~ village ofChocholow, and then falls Morphologically active channel types 1973,V • ++0+-- identified when there was no clear dominance • • .18 towards Nowy Targ. The converse is , • • WMw \ • HO true of quartzite. The largest-size In 1977, a typology of the channel reaches of one ratio over the others or when the val­ 17 1963 , , , •••• material comprises granite and was developed on the basis of the collected data ues of the alluvial surface and bank undercut­ ,, £J J..QQ.. , 0 16 1968 V quartzite varying from 40 cm max­ describing the channel, its ground features and the ting ratios were very low. The transportation 15 imum in the upper course, 30 cm in fluvial rubble, and the use of calculated indices JOeaches, in general, could by otherwise referred KOJs6WKA • '0000 (Fig. I ), The analysis of the Czarny Dunajec to as transit reaches because the movement of 14 the middle course to 20 cm in the Roztokj ...... lower course of thc river. The max­ channel system was based on features providing the rubble docs not cause any major changes direct or indirect information on the dynamics of of the channel morphology. Such reaches can 13 B imum high water on the Czarny ...... '.. KIRY the channel, i.c. those processes, which form and be very stable for years. ,. . Dunajec is normally associated with ,- -- continuous summer intensive rains transform the channel. Thus, river channel pro­ In 1977, this material served as the basis for falling between June and August. A cesses were selected as the basic criterion for the defining 6 dynamic channel types (Fig. I ): I) maximum dischargc of 870 ml/s definition or separate channel reach types. The erosion reaches produced primarily by downcut­ ,f A was recorded in 1934, and a mini­ analysis took into account the following: ting, 2) erosion reaches driven by lateral erosion ~, mum of 0.85 m3/s in 1964. Thc I) geology (bedrock, bedrock-and-rubble and and downcutting, 3) erosionlre-deposition reach­ ,, alluvial reaches); ,•" , natural structure of the river chan­ es, 4) re-deposition reaches produced by re-dep­ o , 2) horizontal channel pattern; osition and lateral erosion, 5) transportation • nel, developed over a long period of , , " 3) channel bcd mobility; reaches, and 6) deposition reaches. , '.,\ " 11 time, was that of a typical braided III ".----, channel running across gravel. At 4) bar index in m" per I km; The Czarny DunajcclPotok Chocholowski is the end of the 19\h century it began 5) largest material size in the channel rubble; a complex type of channel system (Fig. I). As far 6) channel wildness indcx, i.e. medial bars and as Reach 10, the Potok Chocholowski channel is Fig. I. 1- The Research Area, JI ~ Czamy DUllajcc Catchment. 1lI - Types ofmor­ to shrink in width and deepen at the islands per I km; shaped mainly by weak downcutting, which is phodYllamic rcaches ill 1977 same time (Krzemien, 1981), the I- erosion reaches modelled primarily by downcuuing. "- erosion rcachcs modelled by laleral process intensifying, particularly in 7) channel shape index, i.e. mean width/mean typical of a stable channel system in valleys that erosion and dOWfiCU1ting. 3 - erosion/rc-deposition rcaches. 4 _ rc·dcposilioo reacbes modelled depth; were not glaciated other than during the Pleis­ by re_dcpo.ition and lateral erosion, 5 - transponation reaches. and 6 - deposition reaches: the 19705. 7 - region.] bound..ies. 8 - a watershed, 9 - majnr rubble eXlra~tion pointo; a - watermarh. 8) width of the floodplain; tocene era (Krzemien, 1991). The only exception b - bigbwater marh on bridge.: date and height ahove the bed in cm; A- the Tatras. B- Row 9) river-management index, I.e. number of to this is the braided reach running through the Podtatrr.aliski, C- POllOrZe Gubalowskic (foothills), D- KOlJina Orawsko-Nowolarska (mid­ mountain ba.in) facilities per I km. Polana Chocholowska (clearing), dominated by

58 " S9 Kazimierz Krzemien The Czarny Dunajec River, Poland, as example of human-induced development tendencies ... relatively small-scale re-deposition and lateral The exploitation gradually removed the channel 2) erosion reaches produced by lateral erosion and regulation features are somewhat different: in­ erosion (Fig. 1). Such reaches are normally found armouring and increased its channel depth. downcutting, 3) erosion/re-deposition reaches 4) stead of the concrete steps (up to 2.5 m high) built in glacial valleys above recessional moraines or Reaches located above such areas were subject to re-deposition reaches driven by re-deposition and in the past, wedge-shaped steps following the glacial thresholds (Krzemien, 1999). Below the increased retro-erosion in the channel bed. lateral erosion, 5) transportation reaches, 6) dep­ channel cross-section were built flush with the junction of the Chocholowski and Koscieliski In 1999, the channel was mapped again in the osition reaches, and 7) re-deposition/deposition channel bed, or low steps protruding just 20-30 streams, the downcutting-driven reaches were same reaches as defined in 1977 and only Reach reaches produced mainly by re-deposition. cm from the bed. This method is less expensive, located in the top section of the Czamy Dunajec 21 was reclassified so as to define a separate Reach After 22 years, the structure of the Potok more effective in stabilising the plan pattern of (Reaches 14-16 and 19), Reach 20 was modelled 21 a. This material formed the basis for a typolog· Chocholowski channel had not changed in any the channel and less destructive to the original by re-deposition, Downstream, the channel was ical procedure similar to that from 1977. As a re­ visible way within the Tatras. Only at the foot of channel. Those reaches, which had been regulat~ modelled mainly by lateral erosion and downcut­ sult, seven reach types were defined (Fig. 2): 1) the mountains, had downcutting increased signif­ cd before have shown clear signs of accumu[a· ting (Reaches 28-33). Deposition has taken place erosion reaches produced mainly by downcutting, icantly in Reach 13, which is located on an al­ tion between the thresholds. In the lower course above rubble-barriers in Reach 21. luvial fan where the channel had downcut all the of the river, above the town of Nowy Targ, the Other reaches were dominated by way (Q the flysch bedrock (Fig. 2). However, banks are more stable and transporration has re-deposition, lateral erosion and downstream from here, the Czamy Dunajec chan· taken over as the dominant process. deposition, as well as by transpor­ nel had undergone a dramatic change. The bed­ The channel is still used as a source of ag­ tation. Thesc rwo morphologically­ rock-reaches increased in length by almost 80%; gregate, although to a lesser extent than in the active reach types alternated with the downcutting-driven reaches now start right 1970s, as evidenced by less material in the chan­ each other. Transport dominatcd in from the foot of the Tatras in Reach 13 and nel bed and by fewer extraction pits. Legally regulated channel reaches with continue all the way to the end of Reach 19 near prohibited, such operations are still very much bankside management facilities, but Chochol6w. This was at the expense of the braid­ a reality even along the regulated reaches. They a weak tendency to the channel ed reaches, the length of which was considerably have an extremely adverse effect when the bank 23 returning to its wild form was found D reduced. The river training structures destroyed st'abilisation and the huge spending on the rcg· 22 ...... -.-.--.~ for example in Reaches 23 and 26. the typical braided Reach 24, despitc the decla­ ulation of the river are taken into account. Judg­ rations of the authorities rcsponsible for river ing by the size of the operations, it certainly In 1970, the Czamy Dunajec chan· KON«5WKA :';_ / . , channel management that the Czarny Dunajec seems that opposition from thc controlling au­ nel underwent management work '21a ! along its entire length. The plan :. 21/ , , channel would not be subject to funher regula­ thorities is largely ineffective. Houses are still ~ ./ -HIJIIIlII pattern was altered by efforts to , / e.e."" tion. Only in Reaches 21 a and 25 did the braid­ being built on foundations of this material that '. ~.., , • ed channels develop in any significant way; the is also stored in heaps waiting for the next house straighten the channel, with bank­ Chodd>w ' side and cross-current facilities lat­ c , -- number and area ofbars, and undercuts increased to be built. The rubble is normally dug in two eral regulation facilities erected. r~9 • (Figs. 4 and 5). Compared with 1977, the length stages; the excavated material is first stored near - ----_. ofregulated reaches, i.e. narrower and either with the channel and then taken to the building lots. The lateral facilities comprised six ,'. 18 • strengthened embankments (longitudinal regula­ The scale of the problem is shown in the larger systems ofconcrete thresholds up to Wlt6w "t " ~ 17 -•••• tion) or with concrete steps (lateral regulation) number of houses completcd and under con­ 2.5 m high (Reaches 2\ and 23), , - , , • • while the bankside facilities includ- , , increased. The recent additions to the lateral struction. ,, • ed bands of broken rock up to 300 • , m long, netting and faggoting, as KOJSOWKA, -eGGO V 12 ""OZ') •• '5 well as a system of revetments to '-- " " "20.21 " strengthen the river banks. They 3 B rn -- 80 were located either individually or _.- 12 ·~.IS.I.~Y in sets alternately along the right '0 and left bank. 9 The Czarny Dunajec river chan­ 8 '" nel was also intensely used as a 7 A source of natural stone aggregate • ,, (Fig. I). This began after WW2 and ,• ,, was enlarged in the 1970s, just as in o other Carpathian river channels • ~-,,' " ",,-, ,,,,,' --- (Augustowski, 1968; Osuch, 1968; III ~,,----' " , Klimek, 1983 and 1987; Wyiga, 1991). The extraction operations Fig. 2. 1- The Research Arca. 1I - Czamy Dunajcc Catchment, III - Types of mor­ were either large-scale businesses phodynamic rcachcs in 1999 using machinery or small-scale scat­ I_ erosion R""bu modelled m.aillly by dOWIICUlTinl, 2 - nosion reaches rnoOclled by lat.,ral eros'on and do"'lKulTill&, 3 - eros,onJrc-

60 6\ Kazimierz Krzemien The Czarny Dunajec River, Poland, as example of human-induced development tendencies...

ao 1.' n n n These features would suggest that the regulation Number of bars 02~ ?. "I'?IU .. .. " .. .. " n " .. .. " ...... Conclusions ""km methods fonncrly used have failed to reduce the amounts of bcdload material, that the concrete The natural structure of the Czarny Dunajec thresholds are subject to intensive abrasion and river channel had developed over a long period destruction, and that the channel may have a ten­ of time at the foot of the Tatras, a high mountain 1Il11' r-.,.. -..,.. I',...... ,,- - -~ dency to return to the wild original fonn between range. Beginning in the Pleistocene era and " - the thresholds. Indeed, tbe regulated reaches throughout the post-glacial period, the river car­ " N/ 10 revert to the old, natural model­ ....-...... slowly tend ried material out of the mountains and deposited ... 'km ling tendencies. Only in the braided reaches does it at their base, leading to the development of a the area of islands and bars increase, indicating typical braided river channel. The natural process· ~l " IlIl , ~ that the remains of the braided channels have es involved lateral channel migration and limit­ '- been shaped by narural processes (Fig. 4). ed material transportation. At the end of the 191h Ne. of bats and islanM In IIloUsaods sq m Another difference is the reduced number of century, however, the channel began to grow per' km undercut banks (except Reaches 14, 16,20, 21a narrow and deep again. This process further 1 \ and 21), particularly in regulated reaches. The accelerated at the end of the 1960s and has con· "I, \ channel banks arc generally better stabilised, tinued to the present day. Efforts to curb lateral \ " \ 1 \ whether in regulated reaches or not (Fig. 5). This erosion have only managed to channel the river v would suggest a huge drop in tbe amount of 1 energy into downcutting, in many of the reach­ ~ J ~ K~~ , ./ ~" "..1/ 1/1 N?" , material from the undercuts and therefore that the es, further intensified by the extraction of the ~ - ~ ~ "~ • ,. » " material found in the channel must have come channel-bed material. The gravel and cobble " " from bed erosion. This is particularly clear in the excavation has led to the removal of the channel reaches located at the foot of the Tatras, in the armour and deepening of the excavation areas. ____ 1999'977 Roztoki area, but also in the lower course of the Additionally, upstream reaches have been suffer­ Fig. 4. The number and area nf bars and islands in the Czamy Dunajec river channel system in 1977 and 1999 river below Dlugopote. The lower course of the ing from retro·erosion, which, already active at Czarny Dunajec shows a tendency to channel the foot of the Tatras, may in the futurc migrate The differences between the channel in 1977 covering of larger boulders. Such boulders occur deepening followed by increased housing devel­ headwards (as indicated by the newly exposed and in 1999 are better shown in Figs. 3 through as individual pieces of rounded rock scattered opment in the near vicinity, as clearly in evidence bedrock at the accumulation fan of Potok 5. 10 the long profile of the river, the maximum throughout the river and in the bedrock·reaches near D1ugopole. Similarly in owy Targ, once Chocholowski, at Siwa Polana). The river man­ size of the material has increased (Fig. 3), the are rarely taken out partly because they are dif­ flood embankments had been erected, buildings agement accompanied by channel material pros· only exception being the regulated Reaches 21 ficult to access. are being constructed much closer to the river, pecting bas contributed to the destruction of the and 29 where this trend was not obvious. The In the long profile of the river there are more causing new problems in the valley, which are natural channel structure and to its deepening, but larger maximum size of material down the river small bars, particularly in previously regulated further aggravated during catastrophic high wa· has not stopped the movement of the clastic indicates primarily the river's increased energy, reaches (Fig. 4.). The deepening of the channel ter levels. material. J·ndeed, the amounts of material depos­ but also reflects the straightening of the channel, has also resulted in the reduced number of islands The straightening of the channel, its narrow· ited in the Czorsztyn Dam may have actually dissection of the underlying material and un· and the square area of the numerous small bars. ing and the reinforcement of the banks, corn· increased. From the geomorphologic and environ­ pounded by the excavation of the aggregate in­ mental point of view, the transformation of the creased the river's energy which was then ap· Czarny Dunajec river channel must be viewed as --..- ~'~'p:'m1.~'P'P:'~' P'~' ='~'+'~'::P'~' ~~"~~"q~"q:"~~'1=,,;;:::+~nq~n~,,+~nq:~"q:~n~p"!:f"!f"!fp;nfnq plied mainly to downcuuing and deepening. This highly damaging. process was supposed to be addressed by the In view of the adverse changes in the Czamy river management, which has clearly failed. For Dunajec channel system, the extraction of the this reason further excavation of material from channel rubble should be strictly prohibited. 1L~~tkt~::lW/--l-~J~]"\~'l-~_.L*':~-:i.J~~~i<:'::/T_~~1/.+e~,q~r-$ ~/-fl\_~ the river channel should be fully prohibited and Furthermore, those unique semi-natural channel ... , km ': __;;j4t=I- the prohibitions strictly enforced. In other reg­ reaches that have not yet been destroyed by man Area of culbanks lnsqmperlkm ulated Carpathian rivers their energy also was should be protected. Examples of such protection found to have had increased, but in the larger schemes can be found for instance in Scotland. rivers it was detected much earlier (Klimek, The research into the Czarny Dunajec river chan­ 1983; 1987). nel should provide a warning signal against ex­ We have recently observed a new wave of cessive human activity, which eould mean irre­ support for protection of natural river channel versible damage to a fluvial system, without ever forms (Chelmicki and Krzemien, 1998; 1999; achieving the original aim of reducing the trans­ Vcrbraak, 1999). The Czarny Dunajec, however, port of clastic material into a water reservoir. So is still being destroyed. Therefore, there is a need far, the river management has restricted the nat­ to protect the remaining semi-natural reaches of ural lateral channel migration and markedly in­ ____ 19991977 its channel (D'\browski, 1998) in order to save the creased downcutting, all of which has been affect­ very valuable (as well as some of the last) grav­ ing the natural environment in many ways, in­ Fig. S. The number and area of undercut banks in Ihe: Czamy Dunajec river channel system in 1917 and 1999 el-bedded braided channels in Poland. cluding increased ground water drainage.

62 63 Kazimierz Krzemien

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Proce Geogr., z. 104, Instytut Biatki i Czarnego Dunajca, Acta Geol. Pol. 10, e-mail: [email protected] Geografii UJ: 57-68. 3, Warszawa: 455-474. Choeley, RJ. & Kennedy, BA, 1971: Physical Osuch, 8., 1968: Problemy wynikajllce z nad­ geography. A systems approach. London, Pren­ miernej eksploatacji kruszywa rzecznego na Abstrtu-t: The development of longitudinal dunes depends on three overlapping factors: the strengtb and tice Hall: 1-370. przykladzie rzeki Wisloki, Zesz. Nauk. AGH direClion of winds, the amount of supplied sand. and the occurrence of vegetation which can fix the Dllbrowski, P., 1998: Renaturalizacja - Czarny w Krakowie Nr 219, z. 15: 283-301. LA rising forms. Il is assumed that 10ngilUdinal dunes in Polish territory were mainly formed from the arms Dunajec jako elemcnt ochrony bior6znorod­ RllCzkowska, Z., 1983: Types of stream channels of parabolic dunes. as a resuh of the deflation of the central pans of these duncs. 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Geomorphological investigation and supply is small, and vegelalion fixes the rising forms. 2) They develop after a changc of wind dircctiOn by 90·, in consequcnce of transformation of K., 1999: River channel mapping instruction. analysis of river channels, John Wiley & Sons, a single lransversal dune or a sct of parabolic dunes formed in fronl of or on an obstruction. Key to the river bed description. In: K. Krze­ Chichester: 1-133. 3) Thcy arc primary forms originating RI obslrucl;ons. when eolian malerial is transported by bi­ mien (Ed.) River channels, pallern, structure Verbraak P., 1999: Re-naturalisation projects for direelional winds from a narrow (up to 90·) sector. and dynamics. Proce Geogr. z. 104, Instytut the River Meuse: New opportunities for nature Gcografii UJ: 9-25. with an integrated water management approach. Key "'f}rd.~: longiludinal dunes, dale Ple;stocene. the lub\in Upland Kaszowski, L. & Krzemien, K., 1979: Channel In: M. Kucharczyk (Ed). Problemy ochrony subsystems in the Polish Tatra Mts. Studia i renatllralizacji dolin duiych rzek Ellropy. Lu­ Geom. Corp.-Bale. 8, Krak6w: 149-161. blin: 209-213. Krzemien, K., 1981: Zmiennosc subsystemu Wasson, J.G" Bethcmom, J., Degorce, J.N., Introduction nant direction have much lower velocities than korytowego Czarnego Dunajca. Prace Geogr., Dupuis B. & Joliveau T., 1993: Approche eeo­ those from the secondary direction - which are not z. 53, Instytut Geografii UJ: 123-137. systemique du bassin dc la Loire. Elements In many papers dealing with the formation necessarily frequent but strong. Longitudinal dunes Krzemien, K., 1991: Dynamika wysokog6rskiego pour I'elaboration des orientations fondamen­ conditions of inland dunes in Poland, the origin of appear to originate most often from barchalJs, but systemu fluwialnego na przykladzie Tatr Za­ tales de gestion. Lyon, Saint-Etienne: 1-102. longitudinal duncs has never been the principal the possibility that thcy develop from parabolic or chodnich. Rozpr. Hob. Nr 215. Krak:6w: 1-160. Wyzga, B., 1991: Present-day downcutting of the concern. Thcy have mainly been considered to be transversal dunes cannot be excluded. The occur­ Krzemien, K., 1999: Structure and dynamics of Raba River channel (Western Carpathians, created by the deflation of the central parts of rence of various obstructions, mainly vegetation, the bigb-mountain channel of the River Plima Poland) and its environmental effects. Catena parabolic dunes (Galon, 1958; Wojtanowicz, and small supply ofeolian sand are also important in the Ortler-Cevedale Massif (South Tirol). 18: 551-566. 1969). 11 was also suggested that longitudinal for thcir development. In: K. Krzcmieil (Ed.) River channels pattern, dunes wcre primary forms which could develop Complcx studies of eolian forms in the west­ into parabolic dunes (Dylikowa, 1969). Observa­ ern part of the Lublin Upland have revealed an tions of longitudinal dunes being formed at present important structural differentiation of the distinc­ (Hack. 1941; Bagnold, 1954; McKee & Tibbits, tive longitudinal duncs and an attempt was made 1964; Verstappen & Delft, 1968; Brookfield, 1970; to explain this phenomenon. The aim of this paper Fryberger, 1979; Lancaster, 1980; Tsoar, 1983, is to determinc the origin of longitudinal dunes, 1984) reveal that shifting, bi-directional winds i.e. to show the dependence of dune·forming from a sector of < 130" are the main factor stim­ processes on cnvironmental conditions, and to ulating thcir developmcnt; winds from the domi- classify the longitudinal forms.

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