Trojan Women

Introduction and background

Trojan Women is a Greek centring on the horror of war and its aftermath. Trojan is an adjective referring to persons, places, and things in the ancient city of ; the action of the play takes place before the walls of Troy, which is near the western coast of present- day Turkey.

Trojan Women was first presented at the City of 415 BCE, along with two other unconnected , Alexandros and , and the comedic satyr play Sisyphos, all of which have since been lost to antiquity. It follows the fates of , , and the other women of Troy after their city has been sacked, their husbands killed and their remaining families about to be taken away as slaves. The action runs parallel to the events in Euripides’ play Hecuba.

Trojan Women is a masterpiece of pathos and a timeless and chilling indictment of the brutality of war. It is often considered one of Euripides’ greatest works and as among the best anti-war plays ever written.

Euripides wrote Trojan Women a short time after an army from , , attacked Melos, an island in the , during the . They did this in order to force its inhabitants to become members of an alliance against the Greek city state of Sparta, and they also demanded tribute. After the island residents refused to yield to the Athenian demands, the Athenians overran the city, killing male defenders who stood their ground and capturing women and children to serve as slaves. Many consider this to be the principle influence on the writing of the play and cite the raging moral indignation contained within it as evidence that Euripides wrote Trojan Women to protest the incursion against Melos.

Euripides also based the play on the myths and legends about the . Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the war actually took place, approximately between 1350 and 1100 BC. However, ancient storytellers mythologised the events before, during and after the war, saying gods and goddesses took sides and even intervened in battles to affect the outcome of the war and the fates of heroes. It is also suggested the storytellers exaggerated or fabricated the deeds of Greek and Trojan warriors.

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Structure

PROLOGUE The prologue, or introduction, of the play begins when laments the fall of Troy. It continues

when tells Poseidon that she has turned against the Greeks, whom she supported during the

war, because the Greek warrior Aias the Less raped the Trojan prophetess Cassandra in a temple

dedicated to Athena. The prologue ends after Hecuba, who had been queen of the city, speaks her

first lines, bemoaning the fall of her city and the fate of .

PARODE, EPISODE, STASIMON The lines that chorus members sing when they first appear make up what is called a parode (or

parados). The parode takes place when the chorus of Trojan women enters and asks Hecuba about

the lines she spoke in the prologue. Her despairing tone has unnerved the women. The parode ends

when the chorus women mourn their losses and express anxiety about the future. Speaking in the

first-person singular, they say, in part: ‘I look my last and latest on my children’s bodies; henceforth

shall I endure surpassing misery; it may be as the unwilling bride of some Hellene—perish the night

and fortune that brings me to this!; it may be as a wretched slave.’

The lines that the characters speak as the plot unfolds make up what are called episodes. For example,

the first episode begins with the dialogue between and Hecuba, with a short comment by

the chorus. It continues when Cassandra speaks her mind, and it ends with dialogue involving

Cassandra, Hecuba, Talthybius and the chorus.

EXODOS The lines making up the final events of the play—from the death of and the burning of Troy

to Hecuba’s exit as the slave of —are called the exodos.

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The structure of Trojan Women is episodic. That is to say, it does not so much tell a continuous story as depict a series of individual and discrete scenes. The sum total of the episodes is not a plot, as in standard narrative tragedy, but an impression. The impression that Euripides sought to convey in Trojan Women is that war is unspeakably horrible. In the various scenes of this tragedy, the playwright has attempted to depict the suffering that war causes even for those innocents who do not fight in it, innocents such as women, children and the elderly.

A sense of unity is provided in the drama by the continual presence of Hecuba. She represents all wives who have lost their husbands in war and all mothers who have lost their children. Each successive episode brings word of new sorrows to Hecuba. When she first appears to the audience, she is aware that she has lost her city, her position and most members of her family. That seems tragic enough, but Euripides wanted to illustrate that war spares nothing for the innocent, not even their hopes. Hecuba must also endure seeing her daughter Cassandra apparently afflicted with madness. The audience, however, which knew that the curse of Cassandra was to prophesy the truth but never to be believed, would have realized that her “madness” was really an accurate prediction of the future. In the following episode, Hecuba learns that another daughter, , had been sacrificed on the tomb of . Finally, Hecuba must endure the slaughter of Andromache’s infant son, Astyanax, who is flung from the walls of Troy. Hecuba concludes (lines

1280-1283) that it is futile even to call upon the gods for help; the prayers of the innocent go unanswered.

The only consolation available to Hecuba is that her sufferings, and those of the other Trojans, were so severe that they will always be remembered (lines 1240-1250). Hecuba knows that if it were not for their many sorrows, the Trojans would not become the subject of songs for generations yet unborn. This realization is cold comfort, indeed, but it is the only consolation that Euripides was willing to admit in this play. His goal was to see that later ages never forgot what the Trojans, like the Meians, had endured. The structure of The Trojan Women is episodic. That is to say, it does not so much tell a continuous story as depict a series of individual and discrete scenes. The sum total of the episodes is not a plot, as in standard narrative tragedy, but an impression. The impression that Euripides sought to convey in The Trojan Women is that war is unspeakably horrible. The author attempted in the various scenes of this tragedy to depict the suffering that war causes even for those innocents who do not fight in it, innocents such as women, children, and the elderly.

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Unity is provided in the drama by the continual presence of Hecuba. In her person are represented all wives who have lost their husbands in war and all mothers who have lost their children. Each successive episode brings word of new sorrows to Hecuba. When she first appears to the audience, she is aware that she has lost her city, her position, and most members of her family. That seems tragic enough, but

Euripides wanted to illustrate that war spares nothing for the innocent, not even their hopes. Hecuba must also endure seeing her daughter Cassandra apparently afflicted with madness. (The audience, however, which knew that the curse of Cassandra was to prophesy the truth but never to be believed, would have realized that her “madness” was really an accurate prediction of the future.) In the following episode, Hecuba learns that another daughter, Polyxena, had been sacrificed on the tomb of Achilles.

Finally, Hecuba must endure the slaughter of Andromache’s infant son, Astyanax, who is flung from the walls of Troy. Hecuba concludes (lines 1280-1283) that it is futile even to call upon the gods for help; the prayers of the innocent go unanswered.

The only consolation available to Hecuba is that her sufferings, and those of the other Trojans, were so severe that they will always be remembered (lines 1240-1250). Hecuba knows that, if it were not for their many sorrows, the Trojans would not become the subject of songs for generations yet unborn. This realization is cold comfort, indeed, but it is the only consolation that Euripides was willing to admit in this play. His goal was to see that later ages never forgot what the Trojans, like the Meians, had endured.

The structure of The Trojan Women is episodic. That is to say, it does not so much tell a continuous story as depict a series of individual and discrete scenes. The sum total of the episodes is not a plot, as in standard narrative tragedy, but an impression. The impression that Euripides sought to convey in The

Trojan Women is that war is unspeakably horrible. The author attempted in the various scenes of this tragedy to depict the suffering that war causes even for those innocents who do not fight in it, innocents such as women, children, and the elderly.

Unity is provided in the drama by the continual presence of Hecuba. In her person are represented all wives who have lost their husbands in war and all mothers who have lost their children. Each successive episode brings word of new sorrows to Hecuba. When she first appears to the audience, she is aware that she has lost her city, her position, and most members of her family. That seems tragic enough, but

Euripides wanted to illustrate that war spares nothing for the innocent, not even their hopes. Hecuba

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must also endure seeing her daughter Cassandra apparently afflicted with madness. (The audience, however, which knew that the curse of Cassandra was to prophesy the truth but never to be believed, would have realized that her “madness” was really an accurate prediction of the future.) In the following episode, Hecuba learns that another daughter, Polyxena, had been sacrificed on the tomb of Achilles.

Finally, Hecuba must endure the slaughter of Andromache’s infant son, Astyanax, who is flung from the walls of Troy. Hecuba concludes (lines 1280-1283) that it is futile even to call upon the gods for help; the prayers of the innocent go unanswered.

The only consolation available to Hecuba is that her sufferings, and those of the other Trojans, were so severe that they will always be remembered (lines 1240-1250). Hecuba knows that, if it were not for their many sorrows, the Trojans would not become the subject of songs for generations yet unborn. This realization is cold comfort, indeed, but it is the only consolation that Euripides was willing to admit in this play. His goal was to see that later ages never forgot what the Trojans, like the Meians, had endured.

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Characters - (Active & Mentioned)

Gods Greeks Romans Poseidon Achilles Poseidon, the god of the sea and Achilles was the greatest Greek Priam was the King of Troy. patron of Troy. He appears, at warrior. He was Pyrrhus’ father. the beginning of the drama, to was an important Hecuba take official leave of the city; he Greek king and the husband of Hecuba, the queen of Troy. Aged had favoured it, but the gods . and broken by the fall of the aiding the Greeks had proved city, she is the epitome of all the too strong, especially Pallas Pyrrhus () misfortune resulting from the Athena. His monologue also Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) was a defeat of the Trojans and the gives the necessary background son of Achilles. He killed King destruction of the city. She is for the play. Priam and took Andromache as first revealed prostrate before his slave. the tents of the captive Trojan Athena women, with the city in the Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Menelaus background. Her opening lyrics She confronts Poseidon as Menelaus, the king of Sparta tell of the pathos of her situation he bids farewell to Troy and and the husband of Helen, who and introduce the impression proposes a common vengeance has been returned to him, the of hopelessness and the theme against the Greeks, though man she wronged, to kill. It is of the inevitable doom that war she had favoured them earlier. evident that he will not do so. His brings. The Greek herald enters Because their impious behaviour eagerness to assure others that with the news that each of the at the capture of Troy has Helen has no control over him women has been assigned to alienated the gods, the Greeks and that he intends to kill her a different master. Hecuba are to be punished as they go becomes almost comic. asks first about her children, to sea. This threat of retribution Cassandra and Polyxena; then, looms over the entire play. Helen when she finds that she has Helen, the beautiful and insolent been given to Odysseus, she queen of Sparta abducted by rouses herself to an outburst . Her pleading before of rebellious anger. Cassandra Menelaus is an attempt to place appears and recalls the prophecy the blame for her actions on that Hecuba will die in Troy. others: on Priam and Hecuba After Cassandra is led away, because they had refused to kill Andromache, who appears with Paris at the oracle’s command, news of the sacrifice of Polyxena, on the goddess Aphrodite tries to console Hecuba with the because she promised Helen to idea that Polyxena is fortunate in Paris at the time of the judgment, death, but Hecuba, in reproach and on the Trojan guards who and consolation, points out to had prevented her return to the Andromache and the younger Greeks. She departs, proud and women of the Chorus the hope confident. of life. Her attempts to console those younger than herself, here and elsewhere, are her most Agamemnon was a Greek king endearing feature. The other who sacrificed his daughter important aspect of her

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Gods Greeks Romans to the gods to gain character, the desire for good sailing weather. When he vengeance against Helen, who returned from the war, he was has caused her sorrow, is shown killed by his wife . in her reply to Helen’s plea to Menelaus. Hecuba’s reply is Odysseus vigorous: she points to Helen’s Odysseus was an important own responsibility for her actions Greek king known for his wiliness and ends with a plea to Menelaus and trickery. Because of his part to kill Helen and vindicate Greek in the destruction of Troy, the womanhood. Hecuba’s last gods punished him by forcing action is the preparation of the him to wander for ten years body of Astyanax, the young son before returning home. of Andromache and killed by the Greeks out of fear, for Talthybius burial. Her lament over the body Talthybius, a herald of the is profoundly moving. At the end Greeks. He appears three times: of the play, she is restrained to fetch Cassandra, to execute from throwing herself into the Astyanax, and to bring back the ruins of the burning city. body of Astyanax for burial and set fire to the remains of Troy. A Paris Alexander kindly man, he is unable to carry Paris Alexander was the son of out the execution of Astyanax Priam and Hecuba. He abducted/ personally. seduced Helen after Aphrodite promised Helen to him.

Hector Hector was the oldest son of Priam and Hecuba and the greatest warrior of Troy. He was married to Andromache.

Andromache Andromache, Hector’s wife, allotted to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. She brings Hecuba news of the sacrifice of Polyxena and compares her fate in accepting a new lord to Polyxena’s escape through death. When she learns of the Greeks’ decision to kill Astyanax, her son by Hector, she gives expression to her tortured love as a mother. Unable to condemn the Greeks because they would refuse Astyanax burial, she

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Gods Greeks Romans curses Helen as the cause of misfortune.

Cassandra Cassandra, the daughter of Hecuba, a prophetess chosen by Agamemnon as a concubine. When she first appears, wild- eyed and waving a torch above her head, she sings a parody of a marriage song in her own honour, but she soon calms down and prophesies the dreadful end of Agamemnon because of his choice and of the suffering of the Greeks. She views aggressive war as a source of unhappiness for the aggressor. As she leaves, she hurls the sacred emblems of her divine office to the ground and looks forward to her triumph in revenge.

Astyanax Astyanax, the infant son of Andromache and Hector. He is flung from the highest battlement of Troy because the Greeks believe that a son of Hector is too dangerous to live.

A Chorus of Trojan Women

A Chorus of Trojan Women, whose odes express a mood of pity and sorrow for the Trojans.

The chorus of Trojan Women is different from their counterparts inAntigone or . They are women who have suffered the same tragic losses as Hecuba, Cassandra, and Andromache. Social status is less relevant in a refugee camp, so all of the women are united in their experiences of the Trojan War. The role of the chorus in this play is to engage in the ancient ritual of communal storytelling so we never forget the horrors of war. They take us back in time to the moment the arrived on the shores and the moment when the Trojans knew the gods had abandoned them. It’s not unlike when we gather with

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friends to retell stories from important moments in our lives, whether they are happy or sad: retelling them keeps us from forgetting and helps us process.

Hecuba (HEH-kyew-buh), the queen of Troy. Aged and broken by the fall of the city, she is the epitome of all the misfortune resulting from the defeat of the Trojans and the destruction of the city. She is first revealed prostrate before the tents of the captive Trojan women, with the city in the background. Her opening lyrics tell of the pathos of her situation and introduce the impression of hopelessness and the theme of the inevitable doom that war brings. The Greek herald enters with the news that each of the women has been assigned to a different master. Hecuba asks first about her children, Cassandra and

Polyxena; then, when she finds that she has been given to Odysseus, she rouses herself to an outburst of rebellious anger. Cassandra appears and recalls the prophecy that Hecuba will die in Troy. After Cassandra is led away, Andromache, who appears with news of the sacrifice of Polyxena, tries to console Hecuba with the idea that Polyxena is fortunate in death, but Hecuba, in reproach and consolation, points out to Andromache and the younger women of the Chorus the hope of life. Her attempts to console those younger than herself, here and elsewhere, are her most endearing feature. The other important aspect of her character, the desire for vengeance against Helen, who has caused her sorrow, is shown in her reply to Helen’s plea to Menelaus. Hecuba’s reply is vigorous: She points to Helen’s own responsibility for her actions and ends with a plea to Menelaus to kill Helen and vindicate Greek womanhood. Hecuba’s last action is the preparation of the body of Astyanax, the young son of Andromache and Hector killed by the

Greeks out of fear, for burial. Her lament over the body is profoundly moving. At the end of the play, she is restrained from throwing herself into the ruins of the burning city.

Cassandra

Cassandra (kuh-SAN-druh), the daughter of Hecuba, a prophetess chosen by Agamemnon as a concubine.

When she first appears, wild-eyed and waving a torch above her head, she sings a parody of a marriage song in her own honor, but she soon calms down and prophesies the dreadful end of Agamemnon because of his choice and of the suffering of the Greeks. She views aggressive war as a source of unhappiness for the aggressor. As she leaves, she hurls the sacred emblems of her divine office to the ground and looks forward to her triumph in revenge.

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Andromache

Andromache (an-DRO-muh-kee), Hector’s wife, allotted to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. She brings

Hecuba news of the sacrifice of Polyxena and compares her fate in accepting a new lord to Polyxena’s escape through death. When she learns of the Greeks’ decision to kill Astyanax, her son by Hector, she gives expression to her tortured love as a mother. Unable to condemn the Greeks because they would refuse Astyanax burial, she curses Helen as the cause of misfortune.

Helen

Helen, the beautiful and insolent queen of Sparta abducted by Paris. Her pleading before Menelaus is an attempt to place the blame for her actions on others: on Priam and Hecuba because they had refused to kill Paris at the oracle’s command, on the goddess Aphrodite because she promised Helen to Paris at the time of the judgment, and on the Trojan guards who had prevented her return to the Greeks. She departs, proud and confident.

Menelaus

Menelaus (meh-nuh-LAY-uhs), the king of Sparta and the husband of Helen, who has been returned to him, the man she wronged, to kill. It is evident that he will not do so. His eagerness to assure others that

Helen has no control over him and that he intends to kill her becomes almost comic.

Talthybius

Talthybius (tal-THIH-bee-uhs), a herald of the Greeks. He appears three times: to fetch Cassandra, to execute Astyanax, and to bring back the body of Astyanax for burial and set fire to the remains of Troy. A kindly man, he is unable to carry out the execution of Astyanax personally.

Astyanax

Astyanax (as-TI-uh-naks), the infant son of Andromache and Hector. He is flung from the highest battlement of Troy because the Greeks believe that a son of Hector is too dangerous to live.

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Poseidon

Poseidon (poh-SI-duhn), the god of the sea and patron of Troy. He appears, at the beginning of the drama, to take official leave of the city; he had favored it, but the gods aiding the Greeks had proved too strong, especially Pallas Athena. His monologue also gives the necessary background for the play.

Pallas Athena

Pallas Athena (PAL-uhs uh-THEE-nuh), the goddess of wisdom. She confronts Poseidon as he bids farewell to Troy and proposes a common vengeance against the Greeks, though she had favored them earlier.

Because their impious behavior at the capture of Troy has alienated the gods, the Greeks are to be punished as they go to sea. This threat of retribution looms over the entire play.

Key Themes/Issues The Horror of War

The central theme of the play is the horror of war. Troy is in ruins. Corpses lie about the battlefield. Trojan women, young and old, huddle together as they lament the loss of husbands and children and shudder at the thought of becoming slaves in a land across the sea. Hecuba, once a great queen, is to become a lowly servant in the house of the Greek warrior Odysseus. The rape victim, Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo, is to become the property of Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek armies.

One of the most painful moments in the play is the death of Little Astyanax—the son of the dead Trojan leader, Hector, and his wife, Andromache. The Greeks throw him from the walls of Troy in the belief that he would have sought vengeance as an adult.

Hope

Andromache says she would be better off dead. However, Hecuba says that where there is life there is hope for a better tomorrow. Having lived long enough to know that situations change, she says, ‘Fortune, like a madman in her moods, springs towards this man, then towards that; and none ever experiences the same unchanging luck.’

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Dread

The captive Trojan women dread the future. All they know for certain is that ships will carry them across the sea to a strange country, a different culture, unfamiliar faces and a degrading way of life. There will be no family members to comfort them, no pay for the work they do.

Revenge

Athena turns against the Greeks after Aias the Less rapes Cassandra in Athena’s temple. To gain revenge,

Athena persuades Poseidon to help her sabotage the Greek ships. Cassandra herself later speaks of retribution when she says, ‘I will slay [Agamemnon] and lay waste his home to avenge my father’s and my brethren’s death.’ Meanwhile, the Greek king Menelaus plans to kill Helen, his wife, for having run off before the war with Paris, a prince of Troy. ‘My purpose is . . . to carry her to Hellas in my seaborne ship, and then surrender her to death, a recompense to all whose friends were slain in .’ The Trojan women agree with his decision to kill her, for they regard her as the source of all their troubles.

Critical response / Productions

An important and significant interpretation of Euripides’ text is the

2008 production. Firmly located in the naturalistic setting of a bulky iron holding bay, Mitchell’s reimagining of Trojan

Women is brutally effective as a visual translation of a classic text. Mitchell does not simply place the text in a contemporary situation; she immerses it so fully in modern warfare that almost every carefully considered image hits its target with a destructive poignancy.

In this production, particular emphasis is placed on the hoarse, wailing madness of Cassandra (Sinead

Matthews) and the tear-stained loss of Andromache (Anastasia Hille) as her child is torn from her arms, all overseen by Kate Duchêne’s Hecuba.

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Mitchell’s direction never once lets us lose sight of the impropriety of these women’s unfitting situation.

Within the hollow hulk of Bunny Christie’s set, the women, wearing ball gowns and high heels, seem totally out of place and unequipped to cope. These are the tottering women of Troy, torn from their victory ball: they dance, at times softly and at others manically, their arms embracing absent husbands. Despite appearances, their coping mechanisms emerge. With every metallic clunk warning of male intrusion into their space, the women shelter, pack-like, behind their queen. They smoke, they pace, they reminisce.

Together they throw themselves into tasks, such as the preparation for burial of Andromache’s son, thrown from the city’s walls by the Greek victors. The diligence and determination with which the women conjure dignity from the horrific is beautifully crafted in this production.

It is through such contrasts that Mitchell exposes the desolation of war. There is a solid emphasis here, though this never becomes an overwhelming pity. Perhaps this is the result of the text sitting somewhat uncomfortably on top of the action, leaving the women entrenched in the present at the expense of their bleaker futures. Perhaps it is due to the metaphorical raising of the fourth wall for the choral odes, which draws attention to the oddity of its reinstatement for most of the action that delivers a powerful performance.

When interpreting the play, students should consider different settings – locations and periods – in which they could engage a contemporary audience.

First steps into the text …

Below are some ideas related to key scenes in the play The Trojan Women. These are intended to inspire exploration and are in no way prescriptive. Detailed practical approaches to the text can be found in the

‘Eduqas Drama and Theatre A Level Guide’.

Each element – i.e. acting, directing and designing – can be covered simultaneously in the study and practical exploration of scenes from the play. This will enable learners to have prepared ideas for all the elements which will appear in Section A or B of the examination.

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Context

The knowledge of the genre, practitioners to apply, as well as social, economic and historical context will apply to all answers in some degree in the examination. If learners relate them closely to the text, their relevance is heightened.

The importance of the Power of the Gods in Greek Theatre and culture is evident in the opening scene of the play between Poseidon and Athena. Consideration of this power and how it affects the action could be considered in the exploration of this scene. The ‘Parode’, or opening dialogue, presents the topic of the tragedy. Euripides’ work differs from his contemporaries and predecessors in that he explores the feelings and psychological drama of his characters. He concentrates on female protagonists and how their feelings meet the world of reason head on. In The Trojan Women, this is evident in the emotionless and pragmatic aftermath of war conveyed by the Greeks. Euripides’ innovative use of women might be a consideration in the learners’ approaches to the text.

Hecuba’s speech P41 and the entry of the chorus (parados) follows the typical structure of and reveals the story so far and their emotional response to it. Learners might consider the role of the chorus in the play. They are an important character(s) and are divided into two, reflecting various ages of the women. How could they be used to emphasise meaning to tan audience?

The Greek theatre was an open-air stone structure with tiered seating, a stage and a ground-level orchestra.

It was an outgrowth of festivals honouring the god . The understanding of the performance space used in Greek Theatre can also be witnessed in the opening scene, where the gods are raised above the action (on the theologian), whilst Hecuba ‘lies of the ground’. Learners might choose to represent this relationship as the Greeks did, or to take this idea and work to use the space in a different way. Learners must use their contextual knowledge to support their ideas.

Acting • Practical exploration of the text will help learners to form their own opinions about the

characters at different stages in the play. For example, how Hecuba begins the play defeated and

‘in degradation’, is further tested by the arrival of her mad daughter Cassandra, where ‘she faints’,

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overwhelmed by the situation. Hecuba tries to inspire her daughter-in-law, Andromache, with the

words, ‘where there is life there is hope’ (p.56), her disgust and revulsion towards Helen (p.65) and

her final acceptance in her old age of her fate,‘my trembling limbs support my steps.’

• The specific rehearsal techniques used by practitioners and theatre companiesthe learners

are familiar with can be used to explore acting style, subtext and motivation of the characters. For

example, Talthybius (p.58) – understanding what other thoughts Talthybius has as he struggles

to tell Andromache the fate of her son. Is he a father himself, and how might that play upon his

mind?

• Physical and vocal experimentation in the building of a role and relationships will help

learners to develop opinions and personal responses to the performance demands of The Trojan

Women; for example, the exploration of Hecuba’s physical age and the affect the war has had upon

her. Though the Chorus might contrast with her in age, they share some of the same physical

responses to the events of their lives. For example, their movements might be swifter and more

rhythmic to suit their language but their posture and facial expressions convey their emotional

burden.

• Close text work from The Trojan Women, to prepare monologue or duologue technique and

performance skills, will give learners the opportunity to use subject specific vocabulary about

vocal and physical performance skills. Familiarity with and use of this vocabulary is expected

in the written responses in the examination. Using Hecuba’s speech over the body of Astyanax

(p.70), learners can annotate and explore the various use of vocal skills to create the changing

attitudes to grief exhibited by Hecuba.

• Live theatre productions, seen as part of the course, will provide helpful examples of acting

skills at work, which can be referred to by learners in Section B. These observations also help

learners to make similar or different creative choices throughout their study of the text.

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Directing

For the purposes of the examination, directing refers to the work done with actors in terms of movement and positioning in the space, in rehearsal and in performance.

• Performance style. This might refer to the original production style or one that learners have

applied to the text in their own experimentation with it. For example, the chorus might adopt

physical theatre techniques in their movement in the space to convey their sisterhood or embrace

an Artaudian style where the visceral movements and positioning of the desperate and enslaved

women might be exaggerated.

• Movement and positioning in the performance space. As well as the placement of actors

in relation to one another, this might also cover where they enter and exit the stage and the

characters’ relationship with the audience. For example, Talthybius’ entrance on p.45: Where will

he enter from? How will he use the space to convey his purpose as a Greek soldier? He has known

Hecuba before this tragedy, and learners might consider if this makes him embarrassed at first,

and thus his entrance might be hesitant. His irritation in response to Hecuba’s singing might

cause him to try to show his power and conviction by his use of proxemics in the line, ‘After all, isn’t

it a great thing to win a royal bed?’ He may approach her and physically intimidate her by invading

her space.

• Interactions between characters through reaction and response in the space. The pacing and

rhythm of the scene might be considered in conveying this relationship, as well as the reaction to

the arrival of new characters and how they change the dynamic of a scene. On p.63, Helen tries to

justify being kept alive. Her indignant words show her haughtiness. This scene then begins to take

on a “courtroom” style, as Hecuba refutes Helen’s justifications. Their reactions to each other are

important in this scene as they show the audience the impact of the reasons for war, and Helen’s

inability to take any responsibility for her actions or show any form of contrition. Learners might

consider this scene to be even more tragic when they consider it focuses on women’s behaviour

impacting on other women.

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• Rehearsal techniques. These should refer closely to the technique used, its reason and intention,

and the success of its use in achieving the aim. For example, experimentation with the role of

the chorus and their placement in relation to each other and characters on stage. The use of a

shoaling movement in the space might represent their “one mind” and unity as women, or they

might break into separate groups to represent the varying voices of the women. They might be

slaves now, but they were once wives, mothers, sisters and influential women in a thriving city.

Learners might consider how close to they stand to Hecuba (proxemics). Do they convey their fear

of Cassandra’s madness? Perhaps they draw away from her (p.47).

• Live theatre productions, seen as part of the course, will provide helpful examples of directing

skills at work, which can be referred to by learners in Section B. These observations also help

learners to make similar or different creative choices throughout their study of the text.

Design

The Design element covers set and props, hair and make-up, costume, lighting and sound. The questions in the examination will clearly state which skill area(s) are required in the response.

• Production Style. Reference to the original production style and context will inform the learners’

ideas. In some cases, this will be a faithful rendition of the style, their own ideas or a different

style completely. In both cases, justification of this concept in terms of their wider knowledge of

the play, themes, relevance and intended impact upon a contemporary audience are required.

Learners may choose to place the action of the play in a modern setting, e.g. a refugee camp.

This idea might encourage the development of political ideas through the use of the Epic theatre

techniques of Bertolt Brecht. This choice of production style allows for explicit reference to the

key themes and ideas of the play in the design choices made, whereas a more naturalistic style

might focus the response from the audience on the emotions and feelings of the characters. In

Section B, the influence of live theatre must be referred to in justification of their ideas.

• Hair and Make-up. Ideas might include the use of colour and make-up and hair techniques to

convey the period, age and status of the character(s). The use of techniques in the creation of

prostheses and elaborate hair pieces and wigs, body make-up and light reacting colours might

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be explored, e.g. to show the contrast in the appearances of Helen and Hecuba (p.63). Hecuba

is enslaved and older, whereas Helen is younger and untouched by the war’s consequences.

Learners may choose to convey this through the use of aging make-up and unkempt hair or a

wig for Hecuba, and lighter more youthful and perhaps elaborate make-up and hair for Helen.

Learners will need to give reasons for the choices of these ideas and connection to the given

/ chosen scene(s) is essential. In Section B, the influence of live theatre must be referred to in

justification of their ideas.

• Costume. Reference to the original performance and other productions might provide a starting

point for costume ideas. This might be achieved by the choice of historical period, use of fabric

texture, colour, silhouette of the design and the intended use by the in the given/chosen

scene(s). For example, the victorious Greeks might wear colours of power and elaborate breast

plates as part of their uniform to convey their dominance over the Trojans. This will contrast with

the downtrodden women who wear rags. Learners might consider how the colour and texture

of the fabrics used here will show the contrast in power of the characters. The colour of costume

might be used in a symbolic way to identify groups/sections in the chorus, thus allowing the chorus

to represent different ages and attitudes for the women. In Section B, the influence of live theatre

must be referred to in justification of their ideas.

• Set and props. This refers to the study and discussion of various performance spaces and their

suitability for the text and how other productions have been designed for their chosen space. The

production style, location, mood and atmosphere of the given/chosen scene(s) might be created

through the use of levels, positioning of exits and entrances, the proximity of the set to the audience,

and whether set pieces are fixed or able to be moved automatically or by the actors. Learners will

consider the use of large props to dress the scene, and the colour, period and significance of these

in terms of the scene and in conveying a meaning to the audience. The play follows the Aristotelian

Unities: one place, one time, one action. Learners might choose to follow this and set their play in

one location, e.g. ‘The action is set before the city of Troy in front of the tents where the captive Trojan

women have been quartered.’ This might suggest the use of a traverse stage where the audience

are divided between those in sympathy with the Greeks and those in sympathy with the Trojans.

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A large edifice of Troy might be erected at one end of the stage, or perhaps where the stage space

is the beach/‘no man’s land’ between the past and the Trojans’ imminent future. Learners might

want to convey the disenfranchisement and dislocation of the Trojans and create a space where

they appear to become more distant from their city and past as the play progresses. Thus, use

scenes where they move further away or projections to show this distancing effect. In Section B,

the influence of live theatre must be referred to in justification of their ideas.

• Lighting design. The techniques used by a lighting designer to convey location, mood, atmosphere

and meaning to an audience might include the use of colour, different types of lighting, positioning

of lights and their intensity, use of effects lights, and length of the lighting cue. The use of technology

through projection and animated visual effects are considered part of the creation of this visual

element. Projections of atrocities might be used in a political sense to reinforce the horrors of

war. Learners may use a more naturalistic style to convey the passing of time throughout the

play and the exposed nature of the women waiting to be shipped away. Effects lighting might be

used to differentiate between the present and the reminiscences of the past. The final exit of the

characters could be accompanied by the use of lights and colour to show the final destruction and

burning of Troy. Learners might explore the use of spotlights to intensify the power of the Greeks

and make them almost ‘God like’ in contrast to the helpless women. In Section B, the influence of

live theatre must be referred to in justification of their ideas.

• Sound design. The techniques used by a sound designer to convey location, mood and atmosphere,

change in dynamics and rhythm of a scene, and their impact upon an audience might include the

use of different types of sound, placement of speakers, intensity, length of the cue and changes

between sound states, manipulation of sound through software, and the looping of sound in

performance. Background sounds of the peaceful sea contrasting with the creaking of the wooden

ships ready to take the women to slavery might be used as background sound throughout scenes

to create a sense of location and atmosphere. Key moments, such as the arrival of Cassandra,

might be accompanied by a soundscape. This could be mixed, and effects could be applied to

convey Cassandra’s mental state. In Section B, the influence of live theatre must be referred to in

justification of their ideas.

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Acknowledgements

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Page 1: Cover of The Trojan Woman and Other Plays by Euripides, translated by James Morwood and introduction by Edith Hall (OUP, 2008) / ‘Fair dealing’ of third party materials is used for criticism and review purposes however if there are omissions or inaccuracies please inform us so that any necessary corrections can be made [email protected]

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