Introduction Shared Environmental Problems
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
INTRODUCTION including mangroves (around 10 per cent of the world’s total habitat), seagrass beds, and estuarine The South Pacific subregion comprises a total lagoons. Terrestrial diversity is shaped by the of twenty one countries and territories, which in this endemic island ecology, coupled with the importation chapter, are presented under the following four and invasion of foreign species. For example, over groupings: Australia and New Zealand; Melanesian 75 per cent of the biodiversity of New Caledonia is Countries (Papau New Guinea, Solomon Islands, endemic, including several plant species limited to New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji); Mid-sized open one small area of one mountain. This chapter islands of Polynesia and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, highlights the major environmental issues in the American Samoa, French Polynesia, Palau, Guam, subregion with particular emphasis on shared and the Northern Mariana Islands); and the Small concerns and challenges. Table 18.1 provides a island micro-states (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, summary of the region’s key environmental issues Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and their causes. Niue, and Nauru). The subregion is quite diverse, politically, economically, geographically, and SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ethnically. Australia and New Zealand tend to face issues of marine pollution, deforestation, and The island nations of the South Pacific desertification, while the small island developing subregion control Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) states face common environmental challenges in the of 200 nautical miles from their coasts. This threat of sea level fluctuation, isolation, exposure to represents a significant portion of the high seas disaster, and shortage of resources. fisheries and seabed mineral wealth of the global The South Pacific has the lowest population ocean hemisphere. Shared environmental problems of all the Asian and Pacific subregions (just over are dominated by fluctuations in sea level, increasing 30 million) and while it has a high rate of population vulnerability to natural disasters, decline in marine growth, in a number of cases this has been absorbed resources and erosion of the coastal zone. Other through migration to the regions larger peripheral common problems of the subregion include those islands. The subregion has some of the lowest per associated with the degradation and depletion of land capita arable land resources, together with the highest and water resources, loss of biodiversity and per capita marine resources. The South Pacific also deforestation. In prioritizing the region’s shared has some of the highest marine diversity in the world environmental concerns, the most important are: – up to 3 000 species may be found on a single reef (SPREP 1993). The many thousand islands are Sea level and temperature fluctuations surrounded by a rich complex of coastal ecosystems, Temperature patterns of the marine
Table 18.1 Key Environmental Issues and Causes in the South Pacific Region
Country Key Issues Key Causes
Australia and New Zealand Soil erosion; soil salinity; degradation of in-land Overgrazing; poor farming practices; land and marine waters; depletion of wetlands; clearance and deforestation; invasion of exotic desertification; depletion of fisheries; loss of species; overfishing; over development of the biodiversity. coastal zone; shipping pollution. Melanesian Countries (Papau New Deforestation; land degradation/soil erosion; loss Commercial logging; land clearance; mining; Guinea, Solomon Islands, New of biodiversity; water degradation and limited climate change; population growth and Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji) access to potable water; local depletion of coastal deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure; over fisheries. fishing. Mid-sized open islands of Polynesia Deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; Expansion of commercial agriculture and agro and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, local depletion of coastal fisheries; degradation pollution of run-off; population growth and American Samoa, French Polynesia, of in-land and marine waters. expansion into marginal lands; indiscriminate Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana collection of coral and shells; invasion of exotic Islands) species; overfishing; hunting, particularly of native sea turtles. Small island micro-states (Cook Islands, Vulnerability to natural disasters; water Climate change; groundwater salinization; Kiribati, Tuvalu, Federated States of degradation and limited access to potable water; deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure. Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Niue, and coastal erosion. Nauru Source: Complied from WRI 1999; UNEP 1999; Counterpart International 1997; ADB 1997 and United Nations 1999
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environment regulate the distribution of plants Table 18.2 Indicative List of Potential Impacts of and animals, and slight, short or long-term Climate Change and Sea-level Rise variations can have dramatic impacts. Requiring Adaptive Responses in the Problems have been witnessed with coral South Pacific Subregion bleaching (see Chapter 16, Box 16.2), and species migration from traditional fishing areas. Coastal zone Inundation and flooding of low-lying areas Cities, villages, agriculture, and infrastructure Coastal erosion are all concentrated in the regions coastal zones, Possible increase in cyclone-related effects which are especially vulnerable to sea level rise. Changes in sediment production due to changes in coral reef systems Determining the severity of this problem is especially complicated by natural and intricate Water Changes in freshwater lenses and other sea level shifts associated with recurring ice resources groundwater resources ages, however there are many potential impacts Salt intrusion of groundwater resources Changes in surface-water resources which will require adaptive policy responses Changes in surface run-off, flooding and (see Table 18.2). erosion Water scarcity and degradation Limited and decreasing supplies of potable waters resources Agriculture Changes in commercial crop yields Changes in subsistence crop yields are threatening many of the regions island Changes in plant pest populations populations (see Figure 18.1). At the same time, Possible changes associated with changes in demand is increasing through tourism and ENSO, drought and cyclone patterns agricultural related developments, and drought Changes in soil quality is a common problem. This is often Fisheries Changes in distribution and abundance of compounded by pollution of groundwater, offshore fish species extensive leakage and clandestine connections Changes in productivity of inshore fisheries to the existing system. Changing weather Changes in fish breeding sites patterns are also a factor, with one of the Ecosystems Coral bleaching and coral degradation (also subregions worst droughts on record recorded possible increased upward coral growth) as a result of the reduced rainfall during the Changes in mangrove health and 1997/1998 El Niño event. distribution Land erosion and degradation Widespread Degradation of sea grass meadows overgrazing in the larger countries, and water Changes in forest ecosystems and wind erosion in the smaller islands, are Changes in wetland systems
common causes of land degradation. The Human Health Increased incidence of vector-borne disease increasing pressures from globalization and the such as malaria and dengue fever use of chemicals in commercial agriculture are Increased heat stress and heat-related also degrading land resources, in addition to illnesses entering the terrestrial water and marine Indirect effects on nutrition and well-being secondary to effects in other sectors, such as environments. Pressures on land also stem agriculture and water resources from the rise in urbanization and increasing Deaths, injuries and disease outbreaks developments in the coastal regions. related to possible increases in extreme Deforestation and biodiversity loss The events such as cyclones, floods and droughts
biological diversity of the South Pacific Source: SPREP 1999c in UNEP 1999 subregion is some of the most critically threatened in the world (Given 1992). As the economies of many of the countries remain Degradation of the marine environment subsistence based, this is more than an Increasing economic development activities environmental threat. Biodiversity is over the last ten years are placing imminent threatened by large scale deforestation and the threats on the region’s marine environment. pressures on marginal lands imposed through Negative impacts have been observed to increasing population and shifting cultivation. fisheries, mangrove forests, sea grasses, coral Land-based sources of marine pollution are also reefs, and surface conditions, including red thought to be one of the four biggest threats to (toxic) phytoplankton blooms; together with oil marine diversity, together with the introduction pollution, and floating and suspended solid of invasive species, and habitat destruction, wastes. Increasing levels of UVB penetration including dynamiting. are also impacting on fish eggs and plankton
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Figure 18.1 Percentage of Population in Selected Fire’ (a region of severe seismic activity) for Pacific Island Countries with Access to example. The impact of these disasters can be Safe Water highly localized, but severe. In many other countries of the subregion, severe tropical Vanuatu 87% storms and cyclones are accompanied by Tuvalu 100% Tonga 100% massive rainfall and the low pressure may Tokelau 100% cause the sea to rise as much as 2 metres, itself Solomon Islands 61% stimulating wide spread flooding, coastal Samoa 70% inundation, land erosion, destruction of PNG 23% housing and gardens, loss of vegetation, and Palau 88% Niue 100% salinization of water supplies (see Figure 18.2). Countries Nauru 90% Marshall Islands 50% CAUSES Kiribati 65% Fiji 92% Fed. States of Micronesia 30% Lifestyle changes dominated by the movement Cook Islands 99% away from subsistence and towards consumer lifestyles have characterized much of the increasing Percentage of population with access to safe water (%) pressures on the South Pacific environment. Climate Source: UNDP 1996 in UNEP 1999 change, population growth, and coastal urbanization are presenting an increasing strain on the region’s fragile resources and deficient infrastructure. The species which occupy the surface waters of the average population growth across the subregion is South Pacific. estimated at 1.2 per cent per annum (ESCAP 2000), Increasing vulnerability to natural disasters and indications are that GDP per capita has tended Physical natural disasters including volcanic to decline, together with the standard of living eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones and (ESCAP 1999). However, while conventional droughts, threaten much of the South Pacific economic and social indicators demonstrate that a region, and the resilience of the fragile island significant percentage of the region’s population ecosystems to disasters is increasingly experience a high poverty level, many still enjoy a impaired. The region’s tropical and sub- degree of subsistence affluence which does not form tropical climate is punctuated by climatic part of the conventional calculation. Nevertheless, extremes which have far reaching impacts on poverty is a serious emerging issue, particularly in land use and serious environmental relation to the growing levels of urban inward consequences. Melanesia, Guam, and the migration. Major socio-economic indicators of the Mariana Islands are part of the ‘Pacific Rim of subregion are provided in Table 18.3.
Figure 18.2 Estimated Levels of Vulnerability to Specific Natural Hazards in Selected South Pacific Islands
Coastal Country Cyclone River flood Drought Earthquake Landslide Tsunami Volcano flood
Fiji xxx xxx xxx xx x xxx x Fed. States of Micronesia xx xxx x xxx x x xxx Kiribati x xxx xxx x x xxx Marshall Islands xx xxx xxx x x xx Palau xx xx xx x x xx Solomon Islands xxx xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx Tonga xxx xxx xx xxx xxx x xxx xxx Tuvalu x xxx xx x x xxx Vanuatu xxx xxx xxx x xxx xxx xxx xxx
Source: UNDHA 1996 in UNEP 1999 x Low xx Medium xxx High
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Table 18.3 Major Socio-Economic Indicators for South Pacific Countries
Population Annual growth Population Urban Annual growth Total GNP Per capita Countries (2000) rate of density (person population as rate of urban (US$ millions) GNP (US$) (thousands) population (%) per km2) % of total population (%) 1998 1998
American Samoa 64 2.9 315 48 4.6 – – Australia 19 1.0 3 85 1.0 387 006 20 640 Cook Islands 19 -0.5 – 59 0.6 – – Fiji 825 1.6 43 49 2.9 1 748 2 210 French Polynesia 23 2.33 62 53 1.3 – – Guam 148 1.0 270 39 2.5 – – Kiribati 91 2.5 118 37 2.2 101 1 170 Marshall Islands 62 2.7 342 66 1.7 96 1 540 Micronesia 118 1.9 162 27 0.4 204 1 800 (Federated States of) Nauru 12 1.8 – 100 1.8 – – New Caledonia 218 2.5 11 77 3.4 – – New Zealand 3 869 0.5 14 86 1.1 55 356 14 600 Niue 2 -3.1 – 35 1.2 – – Northern Mariana 77 5.5 143 90 5.6 – – Islands Palau 19 2.2 40 71 2.9 – – Papua New Guinea 4 807 2.2 10 17 3.9 4 104 890 Samoa 169 0.6 60 22 2.4 181 1 070 Solomon Islands 448 3.4 15 20 5.8 315 760 Tonga 100 0.6 137 32 0.8 173 1 750 Tuvalu 10 0.9 – 42 4.8 – – Vanuatu 200 3.0 15 21 4.3 231 1 260
Source: 1. World Bank 1999 and 2000 2. ESCAP 2000 3. United Nations 1998
POLICY RESPONSE developed countries of New Zealand and Australia, one of the most significant causes of A. National Initiatives unsustainable behavior in the smaller countries Policies and initiatives in the region stem from of the subregion is the lack of capacity for a mixture of historic social and cultural values adequate environmental planning. In the coupled with, in many cases, a recent colonial independent South Pacific islands, government administration. The South Pacific subregion therefore environmental units and planning units lack has a wide range of systems of government. both human and financial resources. In many Nonetheless, strong national identities exist, together countries, environmental units have no direct with a history of cooperation on issues of regional input into the main decision making processes, concern, and a well-developed legal and institutional and in most other countries, environment framework through which to address them. is marginalized as a department within a However, it is only relatively recently that policies multi-function ministry. have taken account of strategic environmental Legal While there is a strong legal framework dimensions, and a major challenge will be for the (much of which stems from traditional subregion to meet its emerging economic community structures), there is a lack of development needs, while sustaining its subsistence enforcement or implementation of many bases and its values of cultural and social cohesion. policies or legislation, together with a growing A number of common themes are observed in relation weakness in the protection of the subregion’s to present sustainable development limitations. indigenous property rights. A number of regulatory mechanisms are also becoming Policy While capacity for the implementation out-dated and have failed to respond to of environmental policy is high in the changing paradigms of development.
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Industrial Although the subregion is perceived complementary mandates, common goals, and as having a small industrial base, growing synergy of regional initiatives. Member organizations industrialization is particularly acute in terms include (UNEP 1999): of the micro- and small-scale industries. Greater effort is required promote research and South Pacific Regional Environment development both within and across these Programme (SPREP) SPREP was established industries and academia, of environmentally in 1982 by the government and administrations sound techniques and technologies. Focus is of the South Pacific countries and four other also required on the exchange and use of data countries with a direct interest in the region. and information relating to ocean and fishery It is the major inter-governmental organization sciences. The major agricultural, fishery, charged with promoting regional cooperation, forestry, and tourist industries also need to be supporting protection and improvement of the sustainably managed and more closely South Pacific environment and ensuring its integrated into the planning framework. sustainable development. With the help of NGO Grassroots environmental NGOs are a ESCAP and others under the Barbados recent development in many of the South Programme of Action, SPREP has assisted small Pacific islands, although they have been active island developing states in capacity building in New Zealand and Australia since the 1920’s. through development of National Recent NGO activity has however witnessed Environmental Management Strategies and some surprisingly effective success stories. A legislation on environment. In the last ten hard-hitting NGO media campaign was years SPREP initiatives have focused on afforded the main responsibility in the rapid biodiversity conservation (see Box 18.1), waste and powerful action of governments in the management, climate change, impact region to curtail the use of drift netting, for assessment, and environmental assessment and example. The full potential of many awareness raising. community-based and indigenous NGOs is Forum Secretariat This was established in 1971 still not fully recognized, often due to a lacking from the independent and self-governing capacity in project management and countries of the South Pacific. Its fifteen implementation, in addition to weak member countries are Australia, Cook Islands, accountability and monitoring. Fiji, Kiribati, Marshal Islands, Federated Stated of Micronesia (FSM), Nauru, New Zealand, B. Subregional Cooperation Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Coordination of policy responses facilitates a Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. The necessary strategic approach to sustainable Forum is responsible for facilitating development and environmental problem solving in maintaining and developing cooperation and the region. The South Pacific is one of the two consultation across it’s membership on issues subregions (together with Southeast Asia) in Asia and such as trade, economic development, the Pacific to have ratified subregional conventions transport, and energy. on environmental protection (this is further discussed Forum Fisheries Agency FFA was established in Part V). Opportunities for cooperation in the in 1979 with a broad mission to enable the subregion are promoted through a range of policies region to obtain maximum sustained benefit and programmes, in addition to national and from the conservation and sustainable use of international projects, which are outlined under the its fisheries resources, with a particular following two headings: emphasis on tuna. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission the Council for Regional Organizations of the It was originated in 1972 and its member Pacific (CROP); and countries are Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Other Cooperation Programmes in the Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, FSM, New Subregion. Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. SOPAC 1. The Council for Regional Organizations of the is involved in the provision of advice on the Pacific (CROP) environmental effects of coastal zone CROP is the formal coordination mechanism developments, water and sanitation, pollution for subregional organizations in the South Pacific. and health issues. Formerly the South Pacific Organizations Secretariat of the Pacific Community It was Coordinating Committee, it aims to ensure first established in 1947, and is mandated to
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Box 18.1 The Vatthe Conservation Area – Big Bay, Espirito Santo, Vanuatu
The Vatthe Conservation Area is located at the southern end of Big Bay on the island of Espirito Santo in Vanuatu. It is 2 276 hectares of lowland alluvial rainforest owned by the villages of Sara and Matantas. The Vatthe Conservation Area Project was initiated in 1994. The basic idea for the project began in 1993 during a biodiversity survey of the area by the Vanuatu Environment Unit in collaboration with the Royal Forest and Bird Conservation Society of New Zealand. During the study there was some discussion with the community on the idea of setting up a national park.
The project was developed by the Environment Unit and ran into some constraints in its early stages. It has been argued that involvement and therefore ownership was lacking with the local community, and a major, long-term land dispute between the two villages was initially seen as a serious problem for the project. In 1995, as the community became more involved in the work plan and budget, and SPREP arranged a trip to Fiji for the landowners where two conflicting groups were able to share new experiences and view the progress of other conservation areas together. The project planning sessions and discussions acted as a stimulus for peace between the two villagers and in 1995 a traditional ceremony united them to a common cause. By 1996, the communities had formed a Community Management Committee that began to assume control over work plans, activities and budget. Two conservation Support Officers were appointed by the Committee to work with the project manager on a part-time basis. By 1998, The community had built a small hotel with six bungalows and restaurant, installed a water supply system with fibreglass tanks and a roof catchment system, created three walking tours, a coconut crab hunt, a garden tour and custom dance. The project had trained local guides, established a handicraft centre, created two sub-committees (eco-tourism and conservation), and appointed a full time eco-tourism manager. The Vanuatu Energy Unit contributed solar powered lighting and the Department of Geology and Mines provided a new water well. A radio-telephone link was established with the main urban area to facilitate reservations. A forest fruit project and Alley cropping garden project has been established as a further source of income for the villages.
Sources: Nari, R. 1997 and Reti, I. 1998
provide sustainable development assistance in projects across a range of development issues. the subregion. The Pacific Island Forestry and the Trees Support Programme awards provides 2. Other Cooperation Programmes in the Subregion a good example of an innovative SPC scheme Fisheries departments in the Cook Islands, aimed at promoting the adoption of sustainable Tonga Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papau New forestry techniques. Other activities include Guinea, Fiji, and Samoa (see Box 18.2) are at various management advice and applied research in stages of developing partnerships with local the coastal/national fisheries sector and communities to sustainably manage their coastal research on oceanic (mainly tuna) fisheries. resources, often with the support of external funding. Tourism Council of the South Pacific The The United Nations is supporting climate change role of TCSP is to market and promote tourism programmes in Niue and Papau New Guinea, and to the region, and to help the tourist sector integrated coastal zone management programmes are enhance the quality of its product through a being implemented in Fiji, Marshall Islands, Samoa, variety of programmes on training, tourism and Tuvalu with support from Japan. Much attention awareness, and preservation of the has also be paid to the analysis of sea level environment. fluctuations and their impacts to the subregion by University of the South Pacific The University the governments of USA, Australia, and Japan. was established in Fiji in 1969, and includes Numerous projects are also underway to address the regionally focused research under its four issues of potable water supply and sanitation, schools of agriculture, humanities, pure and primarily with support through ADB, USAID, the applied social and economic development. European Union, and AusAID. Total financial Pacific Island Development Programme It has injection to the sector amounts to around US$36 22 members including Pacific island developing million. National programmes in New Zealand, countries and territories, and draws academic Tonga, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu include resources both subregionally and from the establishment of species and habitat conservation international organizations to plan and conduct areas, and the promotion of eco-tourism activities.
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Box 18.2 The Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project
Coastal fisheries are an important source of protein for the people of the South Pacific islands. The advent of commercial fishing has, in some areas, resulted in over harvesting of fish and damage to coral reef ecosystems. Subsistence fisheries continue to operate, and expand, in parallel with efforts at commercializing coastal fishing efforts. Because of the diffuse, and multi-species nature of the fisheries, the small size of the fisheries departments, and the distances between islands, practical management of the subsistence fishery is beyond the capability of national fisheries officers. There is, therefore, little information available to document the state of the fisheries other than community perceptions of a decreasing catch.
If the local communities willingly assume responsibility and control of their own fisheries resources, with guidance of experienced fishery biologists, some form of management may be possible. AusAID funded the Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project to work out how Government/Community partnerships might be developed. The project is one of the most innovative and successful examples of community/government partnerships for coastal fisheries management in the South Pacific region.
The Samoa Fisheries Extension and Training Project began in 1995 by producing a series of information sheets (written in Samoan and English) intended for the Village Councils. Project personnel met with Village Councils and explained the need for local management and suggested the national government would be willing to assist the villages in producing local management plans. By 1998, 54 villages had joined the plan. Many had created and approved fisheries management plans. The plans include bans on use of explosives and chemicals, a reserve area, recognition of size limits and other restrictions. The plans also provide for strict enforcement of the regulations.
The extension process takes about three months. The socio-biologist on the team believes this is the minimum time required for the people to take ownership of the project. The key to a successful village fisheries management plan was having the villagers develop it because they understood the issues and wished to protect their own fishery resources. If they had other motivations (expecting foreign aid or free goods and services) the project would not succeed. In helping villages to make the process their own, the extension officers do not provide answers or give instructions. They ask questions – What is the condition of your fisheries? If the villagers report various problems the officer asks, What do you think is causing the problem? and later, after this is discussed, What do you think might be done to solve the problem?
The project found that most village councils knew the answers to these questions, sometimes better than the fishery agents did. By asking questions, everyone learned and the villagers gained a feeling of ownership of the programme.
Source: Chesher 1998a.
SUBREGIONAL OUTLOOK mainstreaming environment as an integral component of the planning system. Among the major Like the countries of Southeast Asia, South accomplishments of national governments in the Pacific countries have a strong history of subregion are steps in decentralization of environmental cooperation, and a major challenge environmental management responsibilities, and the for the subregion is therefore the continuation and development of partnerships with NGO communities. development of cooperation and coordination Such developments will need to be built upon, and initiatives and to balance its economic development links and partnerships will also need to be established perspective with its long-term environmental goals and strengthened between all levels of society, and responsibilities. The sectoral and hierarchical industry, and the academic community. Finally, the structure of most South Pacific Islands governments growing pressures of climate change, economic (and the split between traditional governance verses reform, and access to genetic resources, are colonial governance) has left its mark in respect to stimulating the rapid development of adaptive the existing vertical and horizontal communication strategies, and these will require continued capacity. Communications will need to be subregional cooperation and the timely significantly strengthened in the process of implementation of concrete actions.
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