CHAPTER EIGHTEEN INTRODUCTION including mangroves (around 10 per cent of the world’s total habitat), seagrass beds, and estuarine The South Pacific subregion comprises a total lagoons. Terrestrial diversity is shaped by the of twenty one countries and territories, which in this endemic island ecology, coupled with the importation chapter, are presented under the following four and invasion of foreign species. For example, over groupings: Australia and New Zealand; Melanesian 75 per cent of the biodiversity of New Caledonia is Countries (Papau New Guinea, Solomon Islands, endemic, including several plant species limited to New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji); Mid-sized open one small area of one mountain. This chapter islands of Polynesia and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, highlights the major environmental issues in the American Samoa, French Polynesia, Palau, Guam, subregion with particular emphasis on shared and the Northern Mariana Islands); and the Small concerns and challenges. Table 18.1 provides a island micro-states (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, summary of the region’s key environmental issues Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and their causes. Niue, and Nauru). The subregion is quite diverse, politically, economically, geographically, and SHARED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ethnically. Australia and New Zealand tend to face issues of marine pollution, deforestation, and The island nations of the South Pacific desertification, while the small island developing subregion control Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) states face common environmental challenges in the of 200 nautical miles from their coasts. This threat of sea level fluctuation, isolation, exposure to represents a significant portion of the high seas disaster, and shortage of resources. fisheries and seabed mineral wealth of the global The South Pacific has the lowest population ocean hemisphere. Shared environmental problems of all the Asian and Pacific subregions (just over are dominated by fluctuations in sea level, increasing 30 million) and while it has a high rate of population vulnerability to natural disasters, decline in marine growth, in a number of cases this has been absorbed resources and erosion of the coastal zone. Other through migration to the regions larger peripheral common problems of the subregion include those islands. The subregion has some of the lowest per associated with the degradation and depletion of land capita arable land resources, together with the highest and water resources, loss of biodiversity and per capita marine resources. The South Pacific also deforestation. In prioritizing the region’s shared has some of the highest marine diversity in the world environmental concerns, the most important are: – up to 3 000 species may be found on a single reef (SPREP 1993). The many thousand islands are Sea level and temperature fluctuations surrounded by a rich complex of coastal ecosystems, Temperature patterns of the marine Table 18.1 Key Environmental Issues and Causes in the South Pacific Region Country Key Issues Key Causes Australia and New Zealand Soil erosion; soil salinity; degradation of in-land Overgrazing; poor farming practices; land and marine waters; depletion of wetlands; clearance and deforestation; invasion of exotic desertification; depletion of fisheries; loss of species; overfishing; over development of the biodiversity. coastal zone; shipping pollution. Melanesian Countries (Papau New Deforestation; land degradation/soil erosion; loss Commercial logging; land clearance; mining; Guinea, Solomon Islands, New of biodiversity; water degradation and limited climate change; population growth and Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji) access to potable water; local depletion of coastal deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure; over fisheries. fishing. Mid-sized open islands of Polynesia Deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; Expansion of commercial agriculture and agro and Micronesia (Tonga, Samoa, local depletion of coastal fisheries; degradation pollution of run-off; population growth and American Samoa, French Polynesia, of in-land and marine waters. expansion into marginal lands; indiscriminate Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana collection of coral and shells; invasion of exotic Islands) species; overfishing; hunting, particularly of native sea turtles. Small island micro-states (Cook Islands, Vulnerability to natural disasters; water Climate change; groundwater salinization; Kiribati, Tuvalu, Federated States of degradation and limited access to potable water; deficiencies in urban and rural infrastructure. Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Niue, and coastal erosion. Nauru Source: Complied from WRI 1999; UNEP 1999; Counterpart International 1997; ADB 1997 and United Nations 1999 364 SOUTH PACIFIC environment regulate the distribution of plants Table 18.2 Indicative List of Potential Impacts of and animals, and slight, short or long-term Climate Change and Sea-level Rise variations can have dramatic impacts. Requiring Adaptive Responses in the Problems have been witnessed with coral South Pacific Subregion bleaching (see Chapter 16, Box 16.2), and species migration from traditional fishing areas. Coastal zone Inundation and flooding of low-lying areas Cities, villages, agriculture, and infrastructure Coastal erosion are all concentrated in the regions coastal zones, Possible increase in cyclone-related effects which are especially vulnerable to sea level rise. Changes in sediment production due to changes in coral reef systems Determining the severity of this problem is especially complicated by natural and intricate Water Changes in freshwater lenses and other sea level shifts associated with recurring ice resources groundwater resources ages, however there are many potential impacts Salt intrusion of groundwater resources Changes in surface-water resources which will require adaptive policy responses Changes in surface run-off, flooding and (see Table 18.2). erosion Water scarcity and degradation Limited and decreasing supplies of potable waters resources Agriculture Changes in commercial crop yields Changes in subsistence crop yields are threatening many of the regions island Changes in plant pest populations populations (see Figure 18.1). At the same time, Possible changes associated with changes in demand is increasing through tourism and ENSO, drought and cyclone patterns agricultural related developments, and drought Changes in soil quality is a common problem. This is often Fisheries Changes in distribution and abundance of compounded by pollution of groundwater, offshore fish species extensive leakage and clandestine connections Changes in productivity of inshore fisheries to the existing system. Changing weather Changes in fish breeding sites patterns are also a factor, with one of the Ecosystems Coral bleaching and coral degradation (also subregions worst droughts on record recorded possible increased upward coral growth) as a result of the reduced rainfall during the Changes in mangrove health and 1997/1998 El Niño event. distribution Land erosion and degradation Widespread Degradation of sea grass meadows overgrazing in the larger countries, and water Changes in forest ecosystems and wind erosion in the smaller islands, are Changes in wetland systems common causes of land degradation. The Human Health Increased incidence of vector-borne disease increasing pressures from globalization and the such as malaria and dengue fever use of chemicals in commercial agriculture are Increased heat stress and heat-related also degrading land resources, in addition to illnesses entering the terrestrial water and marine Indirect effects on nutrition and well-being secondary to effects in other sectors, such as environments. Pressures on land also stem agriculture and water resources from the rise in urbanization and increasing Deaths, injuries and disease outbreaks developments in the coastal regions. related to possible increases in extreme Deforestation and biodiversity loss The events such as cyclones, floods and droughts biological diversity of the South Pacific Source: SPREP 1999c in UNEP 1999 subregion is some of the most critically threatened in the world (Given 1992). As the economies of many of the countries remain Degradation of the marine environment subsistence based, this is more than an Increasing economic development activities environmental threat. Biodiversity is over the last ten years are placing imminent threatened by large scale deforestation and the threats on the region’s marine environment. pressures on marginal lands imposed through Negative impacts have been observed to increasing population and shifting cultivation. fisheries, mangrove forests, sea grasses, coral Land-based sources of marine pollution are also reefs, and surface conditions, including red thought to be one of the four biggest threats to (toxic) phytoplankton blooms; together with oil marine diversity, together with the introduction pollution, and floating and suspended solid of invasive species, and habitat destruction, wastes. Increasing levels of UVB penetration including dynamiting. are also impacting on fish eggs and plankton 365 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN Figure 18.1 Percentage of Population in Selected Fire’ (a region of severe seismic activity) for Pacific Island Countries with Access to example. The impact of these disasters can be Safe Water highly localized, but severe. In many other countries of the subregion, severe tropical Vanuatu 87% storms and cyclones are accompanied by