Chapter 1 an Introduction to Three Global Environmental Issues 1

Notes

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Three Global Environmental Issues 1. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Global Forest Resource Assessment 2005. Web address: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fra2005/site/en. 2. See chapter 6 for a list of these gases. 3. US Department of Energy, Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Voluntary Reporting. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, October 1997. 4. Research findings published in early 2006 indicate that ozone recovery detected in the 1990s may have been at least partially attributable to the intensity of the eleven-year solar cycle. However, although the solar cycle may complicate attempts to determine the effect of decreases in ozone-depleting chemicals, scientists predict that a sustainable ozone layer recovery should be detectable after the sun goes through its next period of minimum intensity in 2008, and may still recover by 2050, as per earlier UNEP predictions. David Adam, “Hole in ozone layer expected to increase,” Guardian, February 16, 2006, 13; also see Naila Moreira, “Ozone ‘Recovery’ May be Solar Trick,” ScienceNOW Daily News, February 13, 2006. Web address: http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2006/ 213/1?eaf. 5. See, e.g., Steve Connor, “The Final Proof: Global Warming is a Man-Made Disaster,” Independent, February 19, 2005, 1; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Current Evidence of Climate Change.” Web address: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/feeling_the_heat/items/2904. php. 6. US official, personal communication, August 2001; British official, personal communication, May 2005.

Chapter 2 A Different Approach to Understanding Environmental Regime Creation 1. My approach is based on the negotiation analysis approach of Sebenius (1991, 1992a, 1992b; Lax and Sebenius 1986) and others and Knight’s (1992) 212 ● Notes

power-based theory of institution building in the context of conflicting interests. See also Krasner’s third definition of bargaining power as the ability to change the values within the game’s payoff matrix (1991, 340). 2. S. Touval and J. Rubin, “Multilateral Negotiation: An Analytic Approach,” Cambridge, MA: Working Paper Series, Program on Negotiation, Harvard Law School, 1987, 1; quoted in Zartman 1994. The same observation can be made about “dilemmas of common aversions” that Stein models with coordination games (1983, 126); also see R. Hardin 1982. 3. The authors acknowledge that the bargaining process itself is a potential source of change in preferences but, justifiably enough, exclude it from the scope of their article. 4. Parties to an agreement include those states that have ratified it or undertaken an equivalent procedure, including acceptances, accessions, and approvals for those states requiring them; in many states this necessitates legislative approval of the executive’s signature on a treaty. 5. A shorter version of this argument appears in Davenport 2005. 6. W. M. Habeeb, Power and Tactics in International Negotiation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988); quoted in Zartman 1991, 68. 7. Snidal (1985b) is optimistic about the chances for successful and stable cooperation among a small group of smaller powers in the absence of a country with overwhelming power superiority. However, his analysis does not address a situation in which a coalition of smaller countries would be required to cooperate in order to coerce cooperation by a dominant power that opposes agreement; the likelihood of this appears very small. 8. Lisa Martin, Coercive Cooperation: Explaining Multilateral Economic Sanctions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); cited in DeSombre 2000 Perceptions may also be affected by the framing effect identified by Tversky and Kahneman (1986; also see Berejekian 1997), or the phenomenon found in numerous studies that costs are generally felt more than benefits. Thus, even if everything else were equal, the costs of manipulating another state’s preferences through incentives might be felt more deeply by the manipulating state than would the benefit be felt by the target state. This might influence to some small extent which form of manipulation is chosen, but it appears that the feasibility of each type of manipulation in specific circumstances has much more to do with which one is chosen than a framing effect. 9. US official, personal communication, December 2001. 10. US official, personal communication, December 2001. 11. See Haas 1992a; also see, e.g., Benedick 1998. 12. Snidal (1985a) is incorrect in calling environmental services “public goods”; see Hardin 1992, 17, fn 4. 13. National interests are not monolithic, of course. Nevertheless, the unitary actor approach may be used in considering policy-makers’ calculations of net costs and benefits of agreement in overall terms. As Snidal points out, “domestic factors shape the preferences that guide states in their interactions. But if the executive has maintained its policy (or implemented coherent policy change) then the unitary actor assumption is sustained” (Snidal 1990, 340–342). Notes ● 213

14. Oye and Maxwell contrast “Stiglerian” situations with “Olsonian” ones in which the converse is true (terms based, respectively, on George Stigler, “The Economic Theory of Regulation,” Bell Journal of Economics 2 (1971): 3–21, and Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965). 15. Australian NGO representative, personal communication, August 2001. 16. See, e.g., Sebenius 1992b, 335. 17. Taken from Nicole T. Carter, CRS Report for Congress. “New Orleans Levees and Floodwalls: Hurricane Damage Protection,” Congressional Research Service Report RS 22238, September 6, 2005. Also see Will Bunch, “Did New Orleans Catastrophe Have to Happen? ‘Times-Picayune’ Had Repeatedly Raised Federal Spending Issues,”Philadelphia Daily News, August 31, 2005. Web address: http://www.editorandpublisher.com. 18. Delegate to International Tropical Timber Council meeting, personal communication, May 1994.

Chapter 3 Ozone Politics 1. Stratospheric ozone is distinguished from ground-level ozone that is itself anthropogenic in origin and is one of the chemicals that contribute to smog. 2. Richard Benedick was the chief US negotiator for the ozone treaties from 1985 till the mid-1990s. 3. Cited in Thomas 1992, 201. 4. See Appendix 4.1 for a detailed list of commitments on ODSs, with targets and timelines. 5. For CFCs as well as for all other chemical groups listed, some exception is made for essential uses. 6. Except where otherwise noted, article numbers refer to articles in the Montreal Protocol. 7. According to Benedick, because many early compliance problems, particularly for developing countries, were due to the great technical complexities in assembling national data on production and trade that was the foundation for monitoring compliance, there was a good rationale for providing an option for “friendly” assistance rather than stigmatization through cautions (1998, 272). 8. Trade sanctions were originally intended to encourage countries to join the Protocol by helping to ensure that markets for CFCs would dry up for non-parties as more and more countries acceded. 9. R. E. Train, EPA, speech to NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, December 3, 1976; cited in Parson 2003, 45, fn 102. Even as early as May 1975 the United States and Canada asked the OECD, which had the authority to negotiate agreements among its member states, to take action on CFCs, but after publishing a staff report examining an aerosol ban in 1980, OECD activity ground to a halt (Parson 2003, 45). 10. Benedick 1998, 41. As of 1990, the United States supplied about 30% of world demand for CFCs, second to the ECs 40% (Jachtenfuchs 1990, 261). 214 ● Notes

11. G. W. Wirth, P. W. Brunner, and F. S. Bishop, “Regulatory Action,” Stratospheric Ozone and Man 2(1981); quoted in Morrisette 1989, 806. 12. Adele R. Palmer et al., Economic Implications of Regulating Chlorofluorocarbon Emissions from Nonaerosol Applications (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corp., 1980); cited in Brown and Lyon 1992, 128. Also see Rowlands 1995, 102. 13. DeSombre (2000, 27–28) is correct that US industry later had an incentive to push for international regulation regarding CFCs in non-aerosol uses, but not until 1986. 14. Reported in Parson 2003, 115. 15. Mostafa Tolba was Executive Director of UNEP from 1976 to 1992. 16. Parson in fact calls the period between 1975 and 1985 a “decade of deadlock” (2003, 245). I argue that the deadlock persisted until negotiations leading to the Montreal Protocol began to produce convergence in positions in 1987. 17. Nigel Haigh, EEC Environmental Policy and Britain, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, 1989), 266; quoted in Benedick 1998, 25. 18. Parson 1993, 32; Grundmann 1998, 206; see also Brown and Lyon 1992, 125; DeSombre 2000, 145. 19. US Environmental Protection Agency, “Stratospheric Ozone Protection Plan.” Fed. Reg. 51 (1985) 1257; cited in Benedick 1998, 49, fn 22. 20. Dudek and Oppenheimer (1986) summarize the findings of a number of these studies. 21. Congressional Record, S7712, June 5, 1987. 22. Testimony of Eileen Claussen (Director, EPA Office of Program Development); and Lee Thomas (EPA Administrator) in Joint Hearing Before the Subcommittees on Hazardous Wastes and Toxic Substances and on Environmental Protection of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, 100th Congress, 2nd Session (1988) at 283, 333, 472, and 525; cited in Shimberg 1991, 2187. 23. ARCFCP Policy Statement, September 16, 1986. In Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy 1987, I-3. 24. See, e.g., Haas 1992a, Benedick 1998, and Porter, Brown and Chasek 2000. 25. 132 Congressional Record, S15, 678–79 (October 8, 1986). Senator Chafee did not actually introduce this legislation until February 19, 1987. 26. Congressional Record S2289 (February 19, 1987); quoted in Shimberg, 2187; Rowlands 1995, 114. 27. Interview with Tony Vogelsburg of DuPont; cited in Litfin 1994. 28. DuPont letter to customer, September 27, 1986; available in Congressional Hearings, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, January 28, 1987, at 172–175; cited in Baldwin 1999, 114. 29. Malcolm Gladwell, “Du Pont Plans to Make CFC Alternative,” Washington Post, September 30, 1988. 30. By April 1987, DuPont had in fact patented some of its safer alternatives (James Erlichman, “Britain Blamed as Ozone Talks Face Breakdown,” Guardian, April 29, 1987). 31. “DuPont Position Statement on the Chlorofluorocarbon/Ozone/Greenhouse Issues,” Environmental Conservation 13:4 (1986): 363–364. Notes ● 215

32. Interview with Joseph Glas, cited in Litfin 1994, 94; also see Doniger 1988; Rowlands 1995, 114. 33. Chemical and Engineering News, November 24, 1986, 49; cited in Parson 2003, 123. 34. Sprinz and Vaahtoranta 1994, 93; also see “Why Toy With the Ozone Shield?” New York Times, December 16, 1986, A34. 35. See, e.g., Alan MacGregor, “Deal Near on Saving World Ozone Layer,” Times (London), April 30, 1987, 10. 36. See, e.g., Thomas W. Netter, “U.N. Parley Agrees to Protect Ozone,” New York Times, May 1, 1987, A1; see also Roan 1989. 37. Litfin 1995, 262; Doniger 1988, 89–90; also see Roan 1989. 38. The original legislation calling for a 95% cut was ultimately added in modified form to the 1990 Amendments of the Clean Air Act, after international regulations were similarly tightened (Shimberg 1991, 2179–2180). 39. Nigel Haigh, in correspondence with Richard Benedick, August 3, 1988; quoted in Benedick 1998. See also Bellany 1997, 149–150. 40. Jim Losey, EPA; quoted in Roan 1989, 210. 41. James Erlichman, “Ozone Layer Hangs on British Thread,” Guardian (London), May 1, 1987. 42. Statement of Senator John H. Chafee, in 132 Congressional Record, S14, 678–679, October 8, 1986. Also see Rowlands 1995, 115; DeSombre 2000, 146; Shimberg 1991, 2186. 43. DeSombre 2000, 237; see also 132 Congressional Record, S15679, October 8, 1986. 44. “Our Planet is Losing Its Ozone Layer,” Le Soir, February 3, 1987; quoted in Shimberg 1991, 2178; also see Parson 2003, 131. 45. Congressional testimony (written), A.D. Bourland, February 8, 1990; cited in Parson 2003, 199, commenting on a subsequent proposal for legislation, HR 2699. 46. Quoted in “Environment: US Criticizes Europe Over Protection of Ozone,” IPS-Inter Press Service/Global Information Network, February 27, 1987. 47. James Erlichman, “Pushing Britain in to a Cheap Solution: Why We Are Ready to Help Stop Ozone Pollution,” Guardian, September 4, 1987. 48. See Benedick 1998, 81; Parson 2003, 145. 49. “Hole in Arctic Ozone is Feared,” New York Times, May 18, 1988, A25; Rowlands 1995. 50. See Benedick 1998, 121; Parson 2003, 161. 51. “Du Pont Sends a Message on Ozone,” New York Times, March 29, 1988, A26; Malcolm Gladwell, “Du Pont Plans to Make CFC Alternative,” Washington Post, September 30, 1988, F5; “Du Pont Produces CFC Replacement on Small Scale,” Journal of Commerce, February 3, 1988, 9B; Rowlands 1995, 118; Parson 2003, 156. 52. Joe Steed of DuPont in an interview with Litfin; quoted in Litfin 1994, 126. 53. Natural Resources Defense Council, “Lawsuit Seeks Full US Phase-out of Ozone-Depleting Chemicals,” NRDC Newsline (November/December 1988): 4; cited in Litfin 1994, 127. 216 ● Notes

54. Litfin 1994, 128, quoting Kevin Fay of the ARCFCP and Stephen Seidel of the EPA, respectively. 55. “Chlorofluorocarbons and their Effect on Stratospheric Ozone,” Department of the Environment, Central Unit on Environmental Pollution, Pollution Paper No. 5 (1976); “Chlorofluorocarbons and their Effect on Stratospheric Ozone” (Second Report of the Department of the Environment), Pollution Paper No. 15 (1979); ICI Mond Division, “Chlorofluorocarbons and the Ozone Layer: An Appraisal of the Science,” October 1986; and U.K. Stratospheric Ozone Review Group, “Stratospheric Ozone,” August 1987; cited in Maxwell and Weiner 1993, 21, 22, and 28 respectively. 56. Indian representative to the Montreal negotiations in 1987; quoted in Benedick 1998, 100–101. 57. Quoted in Rowlands 1995, 170. 58. These were Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico (the only producer country), Panama, Senegal, Togo, and Venezuela (Rowlands 1995, 185, fn 6). 59. These were Egypt, Kenya, Malta, Mexico, Nigeria, Singapore, Uganda, and Venezuela (Rowlands 1995, 185, fn 12). 60. Ziul Rahman Ansari, Indian Minister for Environment and Forests; quoted in Richard North, “Appeal for Fund to Help Third World Cut CFCs,” Independent, March 8, 1989, 6. 61. “History of the Montreal Protocol’s Ozone Fund,” International Environmental Reporter, November 20, 1991, 636–640. 62. “US to Join Fund to Help Curb Ozone Depletion,” Los Angeles Times, June 16, 1990, A27. 63. Ibid. 64. Rowlands 1995, 185, fn 16. 65. UNEP official, personal communication, August 2005.

Chapter 4 Ozone Protection: The Story Continues 1. Depledge et al. 2001; Dan Bilefsky, “ICI Issues Warning on Climate Change Proposals,” Financial Times, May 13, 2000, 4; Brown and Lyon 1992, 129; Parson 2003. 2. Today in developed countries, where CFCs have been phased out altogether, HCFC use represents 13% of all former CFC uses, according to the Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy (formerly ARCFCP). Web address: http://www.arap.org/docs/hcfc-hfc.html. 3. Friends of the Earth, Hold the Applause! (Washington, DC, 1991), 43; quoted in Litfin 1994, 125. The official demarcation of CFCs regulated under the Protocol is “fully halogenated CFCs” (UNEP 1983). 4. Forest Reinhardt, “DuPont FREON Products Division: Prepared as a Harvard Business School Case” (Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation, 1989); cited in Litfin 1994, 125. Notes ● 217

5. Tony Vogelsburg of DuPont; quoted in Litfin 1994, 150. 6. ICI, “HCFCs—The Low ODP Solution,” in “The Ozone Issue and Regulation,” brochure, Runcorn, Cheshire, June 1990; quoted in Benedick 1998, 137. 7. Report of Mop-2 (UNEP/OzL.Pro2/3); Annex VII, section II; quoted in Benedick 1998, 175. 8. Economist, November 28, 1992, 50; quoted in Parson 2003, 219. 9. According to Parson (2003), patented HCFC blends promised prices as much as 10 times higher than those of CFCs. 10. At MOP-11 in 1999, Switzerland and Greenpeace also voiced concerns about industry groups’ over-representation on the TEAP, resulting in a bias in its con- clusions with regard to HFCs and PFCs—both chemicals that could fulfill many of the uses to which HCFCs have been put (Depledge et al. 1999, 13). 11. See “CEO’s to US: Oppose Accelerated HCFC Phase-Out,” Engineered Systems 14:7 (July 1997): 20. 12. NGO observer at Beijing, personal communication, December 2001. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. US manufacturers are now beginning to move away from HCFCs (RAND 2006), at least partly thanks to the fact that production of HCFCs is now frozen in developed countries as of 2004. 16. See web address: http://www.suva.dupont.ca/. 17. Former EPA official, personal communication, July 2005. 18. Ibid. 19. Tom Donahue, atmospheric scientist, University of Michigan; quoted in Dotto and Schiff 1978, 93. 20. Richard Starnes, “Scientists say UN Bureaucrats Rewrote Findings,” Ottawa Citizen, August 28, 1997, A1. 21. UNEP 1997. Corrigendum to the April 1997 TEAP Report. Web address: http://www.unep.org/ozone/teap/Reports/TEAP_Reports/Crigndm.pdf. 22. Don Amerman, “Us Producers Seek to Peel Away Barriers; Phytosanitary Bans Still Prove Biggest Hurdle; Smaller Foreign Crops will Help Sales,” Journal of Commerce, October 17, 1997, 7A; Robert Steyer, “Growers Brace for Jolt From Fumigant Ban,”St. Louis Post-Dispatch, May 5, 1997, 12; Peter Fairley, “Clinton Pressured To Ease 2001 Ban,” Chemical Week, October 16, 1996, 15; Parson 2003, 218. 23. In 1999, funding for the replenishment of the MLF actually decreased, from $466 million during the 1997–1999 triennium to $440 million for 2000–2002. This discrepancy is somewhat offset by the fact that many countries have not ratified the Amendments requiring controls on MB (Oberthür 2000, 40). Ratification by China in particular will have implications for levels of MLF funding, a need that donors will have to address. 24. US EPA, 40 CFR Part 82, “Protection of Stratospheric Ozone: Incorporation of Clean Air Act Amendments for Reductions in Class I, Group VI Controlled Substances,” Federal Register: November 28, 2000 (Volume 65, Number 229). 218 ● Notes

25. Jerry Naunheim Jr., “Strawberry Fields Forgotten?” Chicago Sun-Times, May 11, 1997, 66. 26. Anonymous industry representative, personal communication, December 2001. 27. For CFCs as well as for all other chemical groups listed a small exception is made for essential uses.

Chapter 5 Unconventional Behavior on Forests This chapter draws from and expands upon Davenport 2005. 1. See, e.g., Humphreys 1993, 1996; and Porter and Brown 1996. 2. US government, An International Convention on the World’s Forests, draft of July 5, 1990. This statement was based on FAO assessments of the world’s tropical forests from 1980 and 1990 (Sullivan 1993, 159). 3. Report of the Independent Review 1990, 19, cited in Kolk 1996b, 154. 4. United Nations General Assembly, “Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly [on the report of the Second Committee (A/44/746/Add.7)],” A/RES/44/228. 22. March 1990. 5. Panjabi 1997, 144. None of the three assertions in this claim is correct. While the United States was the first state to propose a convention, the idea had already been mooted. Further, the United States’ proposal neither focused on tropical timber nor called for any ban on logging. 6. Svensson (1993, 174) gives credit to Sweden for “launch[ing] an initiative on a global forest convention” in 1991, calling it a “Swedish initiative,” with no acknowledgment of any of the proposals that were made in 1990. 7. An earlier proposal made by the European Council only called for a protocol to the climate change convention then under negotiation, which would only cover tropical forest protection. 8. In C. Rankin and M. M’Gonigle 1991, “Legislation for Biological Diversity: A Review and Proposal for British Columbia,” U.B.C. Law Review 277 at 303; quoted in Hughes 1996, 105, fn 236. 9. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 10. Industry spokesperson, personal communication, December 2001. 11. US government official, personal communication, August 2001; US government official, personal communication, August 2001; industry official, personal communication, December 2001. 12. Society of American Foresters 1999, 46. 13. USDA Forest Service 2004, 46. 14. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 15. USDA Forest Service 2004, 43. 16. US Census Bureau 2004–2005, 571. Interestingly, even recent US support for international initiatives on forest law enforcement and governance (FLEG) is qualified by the fact that, according to news reports, American industry lobbyists in the United States have resisted moves to certify that timber is legitimately produced and officials in the State Department worked to defeat restrictions on Notes ● 219

timber purchasing being promoted by Britain during its G-8 presidency in 2005. See Paul Brown and Roger Harrabin, “US Tries to Sink Forests Plan: British Initiative on Illegal Logging Opposed,” Guardian, March 16, 2005, 15. 17. US industry representative, personal communication, December 2001. 18. See, e.g., Toronto Star, August 25, 2001, 03; CanWest News Service, May 28, 2003, D1. 19. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 20. American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA) 2002. 21. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 22. United States 1990a. 23. Craig Welch, “A Brief History of the Spotted Owl Controversy,” Seattle Times, August 6, 2000, A12. 24. Anthony Juniper, of Friends of the Earth (London); quoted in Michael McCarthy, “Counting the Trees Brings Confusion,” Times (London), June 2, 1992, 10. 25. Porter and Brown 1996, 126. 26. US industry representative, personal communication, December 2001. 27. US official, personal communication, June 2005. 28. US official, personal communication, August 2001; US official, personal communication, June 2005. 29. See David Runnalls, “Bush Rio Talk to Stress Forest,” Earth Summit Times, June 1, 1992, 1; also see Agarwal, Narain, and Sharma 1999, 227; Johnson 1993, 103; Taib 1997, 78; Kolk 1996b, 155). 30. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 31. Panjabi 1997, 171. 32. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 33. White House Press Release, July 9, 1990. 34. William K. Reilly was director of the EPA and head of the American delegation. 35. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 36. Peter I. Hajnal, ed., The Seven-power Summit: Documents from the Summits of Industrialized Countries/Supplement—Documents from the 1990 Summit (Millwood, NY: Kraus International Publications, 1991), 52; cited in Kolk 1996a, 145. 37. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 38. Ibid. 39. The distinction between “forestry” and “forest” or “forest management” in other contexts has become highly politicized in the years since the convention was first proposed. However, in 1990, when forests were only just coming into the international political forum, many in the US government used the terms interchangeably (incorrectly) (US official, personal communication, October 2001). 40. US Talking Points on the Forestry Convention (unpublished). 41. US official, personal communication, October 2001. 42. Fauziah Mohd Taib served on Malaysia’s delegation to the UNCED-related negotiations. 43. “Too Much, Too Fast,” Newsweek, June 1, 1992, 34. 220 ● Notes

44. John Mukela, “Forests: In Search of Principles,” Developmental Forum, May–June 1992, 11. 45. Quoted in Sergio Federovisky, “Crece el Optimismo: EEUU Daría Marcha Atrás y Firmaría,” Terra Viva, June 14, 1992, 11. 46. In Sailesh Kottary, “Indian Minister Criticizes Forest Text,” Earth Summit Times June 9, 1992, 15; also see Noel L. Gerson, “North-South Agreement on Forests,” Earth Summit Times, June 13, 1992, 9. 47. US official, personal communication, August 2001. To be fair, it was actually the existence of high standards in the United States, particularly the Endangered Species Act, that caused the controversy to arise, because it prevented the government from being able to lease its old-growth forest lands to industry without public input; this eventually allowed a more equitable stakeholder compromise. 48. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 49. Introductory Statement for G-77 Meeting, August 25, 1990; quoted in Taib 1997, 79. 50. The FAO had also offered earlier to provide the forum for UNCED-related forest negotiations, attempting to legitimize its role as the only international organization mandated to deal with global forest issues. Despite the problems of working within the UNCED process, this offer was rejected, due to the poor rep- utation the FAO had established with its TFAP program (Humphreys 1996a, 85–87). 51. “Possible Main Elements of an Instrument (Convention, Agreement, Protocol, Charter, etc.) for the Conservation and Development of the World’s Forests” (FAO draft), Rome, September 18, 1990. 52. PrepCom 2 also took a decision that firmly placed the remainder of the forest negotiations within the UNCED process and precluded any possible shift to the FAO. 53. The concept of “opportunity cost foregone” appeared many times during the UNCED forest debates, beginning with FAO documents prior to PrepCom 2 (e.g., COFO-90/3(a), paragraph 34); see Humphreys 1996a, 91, fn 33. 54. US Statement on Forests to PrepCom 2, Geneva, March 25, 1991. 55. My italics. 56. See “PrepCom II: What Was Accomplished?” Earth Summit Update No. 1., July 1991, 1. 57. This view has been expressed since then as well, and in other fora, such as in the ITTO (personal observation; delegate to the ITTO, personal communication, May 1995). 58. UN document A/CONF.151/PC/WG.I/Misc.3, “Ad Hoc Subgroup, Forests, Draft Synoptic List: Compiled by the Secretariat on the Basis of Informal Consultations,” March 26, 1991, 4; cited in Humphreys 1996a, 91. 59. UN document A/CONF.151/PC/WG1/L.18 Rev.1, “Revised Decision Submitted by the Chairman on the Basis of Informal Consultations,” paragraph 5.3; quoted in Humphreys 1996a, 93. 60. “G-7, Developing Country Communiqués Highlight UNCED Conflicts,” Earth Summit Update No. 2., August 1991, 2. Notes ● 221

61. “US Principles Downplay Primary Forests,” Earth Summit Update No. 1., July 1991, 1. 62. US proposal, “Principles for a Global Forest Convention/Agreement”; quoted in Humphreys 1996a, 94. 63. “US Will Oppose Key Agenda 21 Options at PrepCom 3,” Earth Summit Update No. 2., August 1991, 1, 2. 64. UN document A/CONF.151/PC/65, “Guiding Principles for a Consensus on Forests”; cited in Humphreys 1996a, 93. 65. UN document A/CONF.151/PC/WG.I/L.22, Proposal Submitted by Ghana (on Behalf of the Group of 77), August 16, 1991; cited in Humphreys 1996a, 94. 66. A/CONF.151/PC/WG.I/L.22, principles 12 and 13, 3; cited in Humphreys 1996a, 97. 67. This was defined as “a commitment to provide new and additional financial resources to developing countries, for meeting, inter alia, the commitments under Agenda 21, and other sustainable development concerns” (UN document A/CONF.151/PrepCom/L.41, “China and Ghana (on behalf of the Group of 77): Draft Decision: Financial Resources,” 2; quoted in Humphreys 1996a, 97. 68. UN document A/CONF.151/PC/86, “Proposal submitted by the Delegation of the People’s Republic of China, The Green Fund.” August 15, 1991; cited in Humphreys 1996a, 96. It was envisaged that this Fund would comprise equitable representation from developed and developing countries, deal with local problems in developing countries such as forest preservation and tree planting, be funded primarily by developed countries and international agencies, and provide disbursement to all developing countries without conditionality. 69. Term used by UNCTAD official, personal communication, January 1994. 70. Nicholas van Praag, World Bank; quoted in Joy Elliott, “Jury Undecided on GEF’s First Year,” Earth Summit Times, June 2, 1992, 3. 71. Ibid. 72. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 73. UN document A/CONF.151/PrepCom/WG1/CRP.14/Rev.2, “A Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests,” September 3, 1991 (disputed language is in brackets); quoted in Taib 1997, 82. 74. “US Rejects Targets in Forest Negotiations,” Earth Summit Update, September 1991, 2. 75. Quoted in Humphreys 1993, 50. 76. Ibid. 77. Negotiations on the Agenda 21 chapter on forests did not actually begin until PrepCom 4 (“Issue-by-Issue Summary of PrepCom 3,” Earth Summit Update, Special Supplement, October 1991). 78. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 79. Statement by Ambassador Ting Wen-Lian at UN Briefing for the Press, Rio de Janeiro, June 2, 1992; quoted in Taib 1997, 83. 80. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 222 ● Notes

81. Dr. Mahathir Bin Mohamad, Malaysian prime minister; quoted in Humphreys 1996a, 101. 82. Grubb et al. 1993, 36, fn 15. 83. Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Environment and Development, April 29, 1992. 84. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 85. “US Rejects Targets in Forest Negotiations.” 86. US chief negotiator Curtis Bohlen, in John Vidal and Paul Brown, “Deadlock in Talks about Aid Cash,” Guardian, June 10, 1992, 8. 87. James Gerstenzang, “Bush Proposes Huge Growth In Forest Funding,” Los Angeles Times. June 2, 1992, A10. 88. “Un Susurro en el Bosque,” Crosscurrents, June 5, 1992, 22; see also Sergio Federovisky, “EEUU Quiere Reabrir el Debate,” Terra Viva, June 3, 1992, 2; Earl Lane, “Proposal Doubles Money for Forests,” Newsday, June 2, 1992, 79. 89. After a pilot program in which around $9 million was allocated to three countries, the Forests for the Future initiative dried up under the Clinton administration (US official, personal communication, August 2001). 90. One US official who was involved in the calculations that went into the Forests for the Future proposal has assured me that it did represent new appropriations from Congress to USAID, the US Forest Service, and the EPA for global forest project funding (personal communication, October 2001). 91. Porter and Brown 1996, 199, fn 82. 92. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 93. See Taib 1997, 85; see also “US Singled Out as Eco Bad Guy,” Jornal do Brasil, special edition, June 5, 1992, 1, 6. 94. See Joy Elliott, “Nations Agree to Draft Desert Convention,” Earth Summit Times, June 11, 1992, 3, for a similar report. 95. David E. Pitt, “US Pulls All Stops for ‘Forest Principles’,” Earth Summit Times, June 10, 1992, 1, 16. 96. Thalif Deen, “Desertificacion y bosques: EEUU Esperaba un Canje?” Terra Viva, June 12, 1992, 9. 97. Chakravarthi Raghavan, “Stumbles on Finance, Forests, Air and Deserts,” SUNS (South North Development Monitor) at the Earth Summit, No. 3., June 10, 1992, 1–2. 98. Discussion on another contentious issue—whether a developed country commitment to devote 0.7% of their GNP to official development assistance (ODA), made over 20 years earlier, should have an explicit target deadline—did not include the United States as it had never agreed to that commitment originally, its ODA figure being the lowest of the developed countries at 0.15%. See “US May Veto Key Parts of Agenda 21,” Earth Summit Update No. 7., March 1992, 1, 3; Thalif Deen, “Mecanismos de Financiamiento Dividieron al Grupo de los 77,” Terra Viva, June 9, 1992, 4. 99. David E. Pitt, “Forest...Finance...Frustration,” Earth Summit Times, June 12, 1992, 1, 16. 100. “Nations Have Sovereignty over Forests,” Jornal do Brasil, special edition, June 13, 1992, 6. Notes ● 223

101. Of course, this also meant that the South lost its leverage over Agenda 21, with the result that Agenda 21 did not reflect the South’s positions, on finance in particular. 102. UN document A/CONF.151/6/Rev. 1 (the Forest Principles, final version), Preamble (d), 1. 103. UN document A/CONF.151/6/Rev. 1, quoted in Kolk 1996a, 14. 104. Heissenbuttel et al. 1992, 16. 105. US official, personal communication, October 2001. 106. US industry representative, personal communication, December 2001; also see Heissenbuttel et al. 1992. 107. Total costs of the financial requirements for environmental protection in developing countries were estimated at $600 billion, of which $125 billion would have to come from donor countries—a figure that happened to be equivalent to 0.7% of the GNP of the OECD nations (Kolk 1996a, 16). 108. David Runnalls, “Summit Recap: No Cash, More G-77,” Earth Summit Times, June 14, 1992, 3. 109. The United States was on the opposing side of this dispute within the Agenda 21 negotiations; see Daniel R. Abbasi, “Agenda 21 Disputes Are on the Table,” Earth Summit Times, June 11, 1992, 3. 110. Michael Howard, British Secretary of State for the Environment, June 24, 1992; quoted in Johnson 1993. It should be noted that Sullivan calls them a “modest step forward” (167). 111. US official, personal communication, December 2001. 112. US NGO participant, personal communication, August 2001. 113. “Nations Have Sovereignty Over Forests, 1992.” 114. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 115. Harkavy 1992, 12. 116. Grubb et al. 1993, 36, fn 15. Taib also makes this point (1997, 58). 117. Lane 1992, 79. 118. Ambassador Bernardo Pericas, head Brazilian forest negotiator, quoted in Maria Elena Hurtado, “Northern Obsession with Forests Boggles the Mind,” Crosscurrents, June 5, 1992, 12. 119. Kolk (1996a) sees the softening of the Malaysian position as the result of the retirement of Madam Ting, its “hard-line representative” in Rio, and the inter- ministerial shuffle of Malaysia’s forest portfolio from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Primary Resources, which depoliticized the issue. Malaysia claimed that its shift was due to its new efforts toward producing “environmentally correct” wood (Agarwal, Narain, and Sharma 1999, 244). The primary factor, however, was probably the cooperation that grew between the governments of Canada and Malaysia after UNCED that put to rest Malaysia’s original fear that a convention would legitimize trade discrimination with a new conceptualiza- tion of a convention as legitimizing the trade—perhaps at a low standard of “sustainability” (US official, personal communication, June 1997). 120. Porter and Brown 1996, 118. 121. Senator Albert Gore and Congressman John Porter, Joint Resolution Calling on the President of the United States to Take a Leadership Role in the International 224 ● Notes

Negotiations Toward a World Forest Convention and a Framework Convention on Climate Change, and for Other Purposes (S.J. Res. 181/H.J. Res. 302), Washington, DC. 122. Mukela 1992. 123. Angela Harkavy, “CAPE ’92” (US NGO network), quoted in David E. Pitt, “US Pulls All Stops for ‘Forest Principles’.” 124. In the end, the United States promised $250 million in new funding for all of the actions identified at UNCED (David Runnalls, “Summit Recap: No Cash, More G-77”). 125. President Bush himself called for a contribution of $24 billion in Western aid to Russia just before Rio (Richard Nixon, “Yeltsin Clearly Deserves Help,” Earth Summit Times, June 13, 1992, 15). 126. Fearon 1991, 183, fn 35. 127. As Fearon puts it, the generic counterfactual proposition is “If it had not been the case that C (or not C), it would have been the case that E (or not E)” (1991, 169). 128. Even in the case of the MLF, which the United States did not initiate, US agreement to it was necessary before the anti coalition was willing to come into the Montreal Protocol. 129. In other words, the value of nonagreement to Malaysia was a bit higher than it would have been otherwise, and therefore an agreement would have to be more valuable to overcome the value of the no agreement outcome. 130. Indeed, one US official recalls that it was the United States’ desire for a convention that may have been the most responsible for US opposition to expanding the scope of the ITTA when it was being renegotiated in 1993–1994 (US official, personal communication, October 2001). 131. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 132. US official, January 1994; US official, August 2001; Agarwal, Narain and Sharma 1999, 244. 133. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 134. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 135. The concern that it is the major timber exporting countries have pushed for the convention since Rio has been echoed by many others, including US government officials (personal communication, June 1997). 136. US NGO representative, personal communication, August 2001. 137. US official, personal communication, September 1996. 138. In this context, “open-ended” means that any country may participate. 139. Quoted in Carpenter et al. 1997, 6. 140. The relationship of the CBD to the IFF, for instance, was highly contentious. For example, in 1997 Jaime Hurtubia of the IFF Secretariat made a presentation that infuriated some NGOs as it seemed to suggest IFF supremacy over the CBD on forest biology even though the IFF was only an ad hoc UN body set up under the authority of no binding agreement (Presentation by Mr. Jaime Hurtubia, IFF Secretariat, to the Third Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice of the Convention on Biological Notes ● 225

Diversity, September 1–5, 1997, Montreal, Canada, quoted in William E. Mankin (1998), “Entering the Fray; International Forest Policy Processes: An NGO Perspective on their Effectiveness,” Discussion paper). London: International Institute for Environment and Development. 141. After 1997 the United Kingdom in particular distanced itself from the call for a convention (personal communication, U.K. official, June 1997; see also Humphreys 1996b, 162; Dimitrov et al. 2000, 11, on the EU’s view in 2000). 142. United Nations (2000), “Advance Unedited Text of the Report of the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests at its Fourth Session” (IFF Secretariat, New York: IFF Secretariat); quoted in Dimitrov et al. 2000, 12. 143. UN 2000 (ibid.); quoted in Humphreys 2001, 164. 144. US official, personal communication, December 1999. 145. This is not surprising; another US official comments that “the US generally gets its way” (personal communication, August 2001). Again, though, what this means depends on the costs and benefits of what the United States wants, as demonstrated by the Rio outcome on forests. 146. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 147. Ibid. 148. US official, personal communication, August 2001; US official, personal communication, August 2001; NGO representative, August 2001; Agarwal, Narain, and Sharma 1999. 149. US official, personal communication, August 2001. 150. US industry representative, personal communication, December 2001. 151. Observer at UNFF-5, personal communication, May 2005. 152. Industry spokesperson, personal communication, April 2005. 153. Delegates to UNFF-4 and UNFF-5, personal communications, May 2004, May 2005. 154. Encouragement of substitutes has never been raised as an objective for a convention or in the Forest Principles, although substitutes exist for some uses, such as steel framing for housing. 155. See chapter 3 on the original Toronto Group and EC proposals on ozone. Another example of this appeared in the consumer countries’ side statement negotiated alongside the ITTA 1994, in which tropical-timber consuming countries pledged to do exactly what they were already committed to doing (personal observation; US official, personal communication, December 2001; British official, personal communication, April 2006).

Chapter 6 The Climate on Climate Change 1. Andrew Cave, “Katrina’s Trail of Destruction Spiralling Towards $100bn,” Daily Telegraph, September 5, 2005, 27. 2. “Unnatural Disaster—The Lessons of Katrina,” Worldwatch Institute Press Release. September 2, 2005. Web address: http://www.worldwatch.org/ct/ 20050902/press/news/2005/09/02/. 226 ● Notes

3. Eric Berger, “Keeping its Head Above Water: New Orleans Faces Doomsday Scenario,” Houston Chronicle, December 1, 2001, A29. 4. Dominic Izzo, “Reengineering the Mississippi,” Civil Engineering Magazine, July 2004. Web address: http://www.pubs.asce.org/ceonline/ceonline04/0704feat. html. 5. Recent research shows the intensity of hurricanes, including wind speed and duration, seems to have risen by about 70% in the past 30 years. See P. J. Webster, G.J. Holland, J.A. Curry, and H.-R. Chang, “Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environment,” Science 309 (September 15, 2005): 1844–1846; Alistair Doyle, “Did Climate Change Drive Katrina?” Australian Broadcasting Company, September 12, 2005. Web address: http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1458489.htm. 6. For this reason, the original term “global warming” has been superseded by the term “climate change” to label the full phenomenon. 7. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change: The Greenhouse Effect and the Carbon Cycle. Web address: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/feeling_ the_heat/items/2903.php. 8. In this I follow Bodansky (2001), among others. Bodansky, however, labels this the “global climate change regime.” Given that the norms, principles, rules, and decision-making procedures of this regime are intended to protect the climate, not the phenomenon of climate change, I prefer “global climate regime.” 9. This list does not include GHGs that are already covered by the ozone agreements, such as CFCs. 10. Unless otherwise noted, all article numbers in this section refer to the Kyoto Protocol. 11. Lomborg 2001, 259. 12. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change called for a 60% cut in its First Assessment Report in 1990. 13. The target for each of these countries in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol, “Party Quantified Emission Limitation” is 108%, 110%, and 101% of 1990 emissions levels, respectively (Kyoto Protocol, Annex B). 14. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Decision 27/CMP.1: Procedures and Mechanisms Relating to Compliance under the Kyoto Protocol. In the Report of the Conference of the parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol on its First Session, held at Montreal from November 28 to December 10, 2005, Addendum: Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol at its First Session, 2005b (FCCC/KP/CMP/2005/8/Add.3). Web address: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2005/cmp1/eng/08a03.pdf#pageϭ92; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997 (FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1). Web address: http://unfccc.int/cop3/ 107a01. htm. 15. Richard Black, “Will Kyoto Die at Canadian Hands?” BBC News, January 27, 2006. Web address: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/science/nature/ 4650878.stm. Notes ● 227

16. UNFCCC website. Web address: http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/ convention/status_of_ratification/application/pdf/ratlist.pdf. 17. UNFCCC website. Web address: http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/ kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/kpstats.pdf. 18. Figures taken from Climate Change: PRC Officials Comment At US, PRC, Japan Tech Transfer and GHG Mitigation NGO Seminar: A Report from Embassy, Beijing, December 1997. Web address: http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/ sandt/clmoffic.htm. 19. Monastersky 1990b, 263. Eleven years later, George W. Bush felt confident enough to ignore this warning and question climate change science (see Nancy Dunne, “Bush backs Away from Pledge to Curb Carbon Emissions,” Financial Times, March 14, 2001, 1). 20. Michael Weisskopf, “US Gets Mixed Reviews On Global Warming Plan; ‘Action Agenda’ Lacks Carbon Dioxide Target,” Washington Post, February 5, 1991, A3. 21. “Climate Convention Negotiations Face Difficulties, But 1992 Target Feasible, Chairman Says,” United Nations Chronicle, 02517329, June 1991, 56–57. 22. Quoted in Fred Pearce, “Forum: Captain Eco Rides Again,” New Scientist, October 4, 1997, 4646. 23. Michael Prowse and David Lascelles, “Financing a Green Future in a Planet without Borders,” Financial Times, February 14, 1992, 5. 24. Alliance of Small Island States website. Web address: http://www.sidsnet.org/ aosis/. 25. Paul Brown, “Way Open for Cuts in Greenhouse Gases; Breakthrough Clears a Path for Hard Bargaining on Targets and Implementation Timetables,” Guardian, April 8, 1995, 12. 26. Senate Debate over the Byrd-Hagel Resolution, July 25, 1997. In David G. Victor. Climate Change: Debating America’s Policy Options, 2004 (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 2004), Appendix A, 117–129. Council on Foreign Relations. 27. Senator John Kerry, interview with author, Kyoto, Japan, December 9, 1997. Available at http://www.iisd.ca/climate/kyoto/coverage.html. 28. Senator Trent Lott, quoted in Expressing Sense of Senate Regarding UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Senate—July 25, 1997). Congressional Record: July 25, 1997 (Senate), S8113–S8139. From the Congressional Record Online via GPO Access, DOCID:cr25jy97–97. Web address: wais.access.gpo.gov. 29. Ross Gelbspan, “Bush’s Gambit on Climate,” Christian Science Monitor, April 2, 2001, 9. 30. Senator John Kerry, interview with author, Kyoto, Japan, December 9, 1997. Available at http://www.iisd.ca/climate/kyoto/coverage.html. 31. As of 2005, the idea that the time for finger-pointing was over was still not uni- versally accepted, nor were North-South equity concerns being voiced solely by developing countries. A group of nine institutions from around the world put together a presentation for a side event at UNFCCC COP-11/MOP-1 in 228 ● Notes

December 2005, to consider questions such as responsibility and liability for damages from climate change, atmospheric targets, and allocation of GHG emissions reductions (Rock Ethics Institute, 2005). 32. Senator Chuck Hagel, quoted in Expressing Sense of Senate Regarding UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Senate—July 25, 1997). [Congressional Record: July 25, 1997 (Senate), S8115. From the Congressional Record Online via GPO Access. DOCID:cr25jy97–97. Web address: wais.access.gpo.gov. 33. Senator Robert Byrd, quoted in Expressing Sense of Senate Regarding UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Senate—July 25, 1997). Congressional Record: July 25, 1997 (Senate), S8117. From the Congressional Record Online via GPO Access. DOCID:cr25jy97–97. Web address: wais.access.gpo.gov. 34. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, for instance, noted in 2004 that “there is palpable unease that businesses and jobs are being drained from the United States;” quoted in “David Ignatius, Dishonest Trade Talk,” Washington Post, February 24, 2004, A21. 35. See, e.g., “Kyoto is Dead Duck until US Clambers on Board,” Insurance Day. February 16, 2005. Web address: http://www.insurancedat/insday/ homepage. jsp?pageidϭarticle&articleidϭ20000068436. 36. All of these alternatives are listed in Matthew Paterson, “Global Warming.” In Caroline Thomas, ed., The Environment in International Relations (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1992) chapter 5, 155–198; 88–89. 37. Personal observation, UNFCCC COP-3, Kyoto, Japan, December 11, 1997; Bettelli et al., 1997, 15. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1) and Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Final Draft by the Chairman of the Committee of the Whole (FCCC/CP/1997/CRP.6). The text of the draft article allowed any non-Annex I party to undertake formally a level of limitation or reduction of anthropogenic GHG emissions of its choosing, based on a base year or period of its choosing, and to opt to be bound by such a formal declaration. 38. Senator Robert Byrd. In Senate Debate: Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol. Congressional Record: January 29, 1998, S197. From the Congressional Record Online via GPO Access, DOCID:cr29ja98-20. Web address: wais.access.gpo.gov. 39. Ibid. 40. NGO observers at UNFCCC COP-3, personal communications, December 1997; personal observation. 41. Byrd, Global Climate Change. 42. Senator Larry E. Craig. In Senate Debate: U.N. Global Climate Treaty, Congressional Record: April 20, 1998, S3244. Congressional Record Online via GPO Access, DOCID:cr20ap98–17. Web address: http://frwebgate.access.gpo. gov/ cgi-bin/ getpage.cgi? position ϭ all&pageϭ s3244&dbnameϭ 1998_ record. This was still somewhat lower than the $800 billion that the President’s Council Notes ● 229

of Economic Advisors had predicted in 1990 that it would cost, at a minimum, to cut the United States’ carbon emissions by 20% by the year 2100. US Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1990), 214; cited in Rowlands 1995, 134. 43. Eric Pianin, “US Aims to Pull Out of Warming Treaty; ‘No Interest’ in Implementing Kyoto Pact, Whitman Says,” Washington Post, March 28, 2001, A01. 44. John R. Justus and Susan R. Fletcher. CRS Issue Brief for Congress. IB89005: Global Climate Change. Web address: http://www.ncseonline.org/ NLE/CRSreports/Climate/clim-2.cfm?&CFIDϭ1732361&CFTO- KENϭ90447656#_1_12. 45. William D. Nordhaus, “Economic Approaches to Greenhouse Warming.” In Rudiger Dornbusch and James M. Poterba, eds., Global Warming: Economic Policy Responses (London: The MIT press, 1991); quoted in Rowlands 1995, 138. 46. William R. Cline, The Economics of Global Warming (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1992); quoted in Rowlands 1995, 141. 47. Brazilian delegate, UNFCCC COP-3, personal communication, December 1997. 48. National Academy of Sciences, Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming (Washington, DC: NAS Press, 1991), 106; quoted in Rowlands 1995, 139. 49. Michael Oppenheimer and Robert Boyle, Dead Heat: The Race Against the Greenhouse Effect (London: I.B. Tauris, 1990), 164; quoted in Rowlands 1995, 139. 50. Lawrence Summers of the World Bank, e.g., called for a discount rate of at least 8% in studies regarding climate change (Rowlands 1995, 140). 51. William D. Nordhaus and Joseph G. Boyer, “Requiem for Kyoto: An Economic Analysis,” Energy Journal Special Issue (1999): 93–130; and Richard S.J. Tol, “Kyoto, Efficiency, and Cost-Effectiveness: Applications of FUND,” Energy Journal Special Issue (1999):131–156; cited in Warwick J. McKibbin and Peter J. Wilcoxen, “The Role of Economics in Climate Change Policy,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 16 (2002):107–130.

Chapter 7 Conclusion: A Climate for Future Success? 1. It is also interesting to note that the climate change case also has the issue of sovereignty over natural resources in common with the forest case, illus- trated most forcefully by China’s unwillingness to give up its sovereignty in making decisions on use of its vast resources of “dirty coal” that produces

huge amounts of CO2 and other pollutants. See Mark Clayton, “New coal plants bury ‘Kyoto,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, December 23, 2004, 1; Margaret Kriz, “Fueling the Dragon,” National Journal, August 6, 2005, 2510–2513. 2. Some scholars may take issue with the description of the climate change and deforestation cases as “failed” because both are the subject of an international cooperative regime. I use the term to emphasize that a low level of cooperation is insufficient if it cannot prevent a harmful outcome from continual environmental degradation. By my definition of effectiveness as well as with regard to the deeper question of 230 ● Notes

actual improvement in the environmental conditions that originally prompted the cooperative efforts, international arrangements to address these cases have so far failed. 3. See, e.g., materials on the Costa Rica-Canada Initiative (Final Meeting December 6–10, 1999). Web address: http://www.iisd.ca/sd/crci/final/. 4. Valerie Lawton, “Canada Stays Calm On Kyoto Pullout,” Toronto Star, March 30, 2001. 5. See Scott Barrett, “Kyoto’s Fall”. German-American Relations and the Presidency of George W. Bush, American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, 2002. Web address: http://www.aicgs.org/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/aicgs/ aicgs/research/g2001/barrett.shtml. 6. Indeed, in his documentary, An Inconvenient Truth, released in 2006, Gore admits that even had the Senate been controlled by Democrats in 1998, the result, in terms of the Senate’s rejection of the Kyoto Protocol, “would have been nearly the same.” Quoted in Bret Schulte, “Saying It in Cinema,” US News & World Report, June 5, 2006, 39. 7. United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook, “Climate Change and Extreme Events,” in GEO Year Book 2006. Web address: http://www.unep.org/geo/yearbook/yb2006/009.asp. 8. Steve Connor, “The Final Proof: Global Warming is a Man-Made Disaster,” Independent, February 19, 2005, 1. 9. Geoffrey Lean, “Global Warming Will Plunge Britain into New Ice Age ‘Within Decades’,” Independent, January 25, 2004, 18. 10. “The Most Important Issue that We Face,” Independent, April 18, 2005, 1. 11. Michael McCarthy, “Climate Change Poses Threat to Food Supply, Scientists Say,” Independent, April 27, 2005, 11. 12. Andrew C. Revkin, “In a Melting Trend, Less Arctic Ice to Go Around,” New York Times, September 29, 2005, 1; Steve Connor, “Global Warming ‘Past the Point of No Return’,” Independent, September 16, 2005, 1–2. 13. Charles Clover, “Why the Inuit People are Walking on Thin Ice,” Daily Telegraph, October 17, 2005, 13. 14. Andrew Buncombe, “Global Warming: Will You Listen Now, America?” Independent, August 19, 2005, 1–3. 15. Kate Ravilious, “Global Warming: Death in the Deep-Freeze,” Independent, September 28, 2005, 44–45. 16. Danial R. Abbasi, Americans and Climate Change, Closing the Gap between Science and Action: Synthesis of Insights and Recommendations from the 2005 Yale Forestry and Environmental Studies Conference on Climate Change (New Haven, CT: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 2006). 17. Laurie Goodstein, “Evangelical Leaders Join Global Warming Initiative,” New York Times, February 8, 2006, A12. This trend toward increasing recognition of environmental costs may be bolstered by continually increasing evidence of global warming and its effects, such as reports that Greenland ice cap melting could now be approaching a tipping point toward “explosively rapid” disintegration, Notes ● 231

which appeared almost simultaneously with the announcement of the Evangelical Climate Initiative; see Jim Hansen, “Greenland Ice Cap Melting at Twice the Rate It Was Five Years Ago, Says Scientist Bush Tried to Gag,” Independent, February 17, 2006, 1. 18. “Climate Change Poses Major Threat to US Insurance Industry,” Insurance Journal, September 19, 2005. Web address: http://www.insurancejournal.com/ magazines/east/2005/09/19/features/60454.htm. 19. “Insurers Link Global Warming with Higher Cost of Storms,” Environment News Service, July 28, 2005. 20. Diane Levick, “Insurers Tackle Climate; Industry Urged to Seek New Types Of Coverage,” Hartford Courant (Connecticut), October 28, 2005, E1. 21. Dean Starkman, “A New Worry for Insurers; Firms Looking at Whether Climate Change Could Affect Their Bottom Lines,” Washington Post, October 5, 2005, D1. 22. Climate Change Poses Major Threat to US Insurance Industry,” Insurance Journal, September 19, 2005. 23. “Senior UN Officials, Pension Fund Heads, CEOs, Wall Street Leaders to Discuss Climate Risks, Opportunities at Summit, 10 May,” UN Press Release Note No. 5938, May 6, 2005. 24. “Thirteen Pension Leaders Call on SEC Chairman to Require Global Warming Risks in Corporate Disclosures,” Ceres Press Release, April 15, 2004. 25. UN Press Release Note No. 5938. 26. UNCTAD representative, personal communication, May 26, 2005. 27. Jeffrey Immelt, “Ecomagination,” Statement made May 9, 2005; “GE Launches Ecomagination to Develop Environmental Technologies; Company-Wide Focus on Addressing Pressing Challenges.” Press Release, General Electric Company, May 9, 2005. 28. “Climate Signals,” New York Times, May 19, 2005, 26. 29. GE representative, personal communication, August 17, 2005. 30. “Climate Signals.” 31. Vanessa Houlder, “Climate Change Could Be Next Legal Battlefield,” Financial Times, July 14, 2003, 10. 32. See “Climate Justice: Enforcing Climate Change Law,” 2005. Web address: http://www.climatelaw.org/. 33. Paul Brown, “Rich Nations Could be Sued by Climate Victims,” Guardian, July 10, 2001, 7. 34. David Adam, “50m Environmental Refugees by End of Decade, UN Warns: States Urged to Prepare for Victims of Climate Change: Natural Disasters Displace More People than Wars,” Guardian, October 12, 2005, 24. 35. “Nuisance case: States and NGOs Appeal Dismissal” (December 15, 2005). Climate Justice Programme, 2005/12/22. Web address: http://www.climatelaw.org/ media/US%20nuisance%20appeal. 36. Catherine Trevison, “Suit over Emission Threat Hovers in Legal Gray Zone,” Oregonian, October 5, 2005, C01. 232 ● Notes

37. Jane Kay, “State Seeks 30% Cut in Tailpipe Emissions; Automakers Say They May Sue If 10-Year Plan OKd,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 15, 2004, A1.

38. David Gram, “Vermont Adopts New Rules to Cut Car CO2 Emissions: New Standards Take Effect for 2009 Model Year,” Detroit News Autos Insider, November 3, 2005. Web address: http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/ 0511/03/0auto-370678.htm. 39. Polly Ghazi, “A Storm Brewing: Is Bush Out of Step with US Public Opinion?” Guardian, July 6, 2005, 13, John Holusha, “California Bill Calls for Cuts in Emissions,” New York Times, April 4, 2006, A19.

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the Economic Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol, March 25, 1999. Web address: http://www.umwa.org/legaction/globalwarming/statement.shtml. 47. Subsidies for development of alternative energies extend back to the 1970s; the Energy Policy Act of 2005 would provide more than $11 billion in incentives for the development of nonfossil fuel energy, conservation, energy efficiency, and cleaner technologies, mainly in the form of tax breaks. It should be noted, however, that the US government also subsidizes not-so-climate-friendly activities, such as road construction, oil extraction and production, fossil fuel use, and highway patrols See Barnaby J. Feder, “A Different Era for the Alternative Energy Business,” New York Times, May 29, 2004, C1; Congressional Budget Office, Cost Estimate for the Bill Conference Agreement, H.R. 6, Energy Policy Act of 2005, July 27, 2005. Web address: http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm? indexϭ 6581&sequenceϭ0&fromϭ6; also see US Congress, Energy Policy Act of 2005 (H.R.6/Public Law 109–58), August 8, 2005. Web address: http:// frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi? dbnameϭ109_ cong_bills&docidϭf:h6enr.txt.pdf. Also see UNEP 1999a. 48. Statement by ARCO Chief Executive Officer Michael Bowlin, February 1999; quoted in Lester R. Brown, “The Rise and Fall of the Global Climate Coalition,” Earth Policy Institute, July 25, 2000. Web address: http://www.earth-policy. org/ Alerts/Alert6.htm. 49. Kriz, “Fueling the Dragon”; Lindsey Beck, “China Unlikely to Sign On To Kyoto Emissions Cuts,” Macon (Georgia) Daily Online, November 12, 2005. Web address: http://www.maconareaonline.com/news.asp?idϭ12544. 50. See Margaret Kriz, “Heating Up: Global Warming Moves to a Front Burner, as Demands Grow for Aggressive Action to Limit Greenhouse-Gas Emissions,” National Journal, August 6, 2005, 2504–2508; Ghazi, “A Storm Brewing”; Bang and Froyn 2005; also see Bang, Tjernshaugen, and Anderson 2004; Barkin and DeSombre 2004. 51. Katharine Q. Seelye, “President Distances Himself from Global Warming Report,” New York Times, June 5, 2002, 23; Antony Barnett, “Bush Attacks Environment ‘Scare Stories’: Secret Email Gives Advice on Denying Climate Change,” Observer, April 4, 2004, 22. 52. “Climate Change, Clean Energy and Sustainable Development,” Statement of the G-8, Gleneagles 2005. Web address: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/ Page7881.asp. 53. Gary Younge, “US Official Accused of Doctoring Papers Quits,” Irish Times, June 13, 2005, 11. 54. See Tarek Maassarani, “Muzzling Scientists on Warming,” Topeka Capital-Journal, May 19, 2006. Web address. http://www.cjonline.com/stories/051906/opi_ maassarani.shtml; Andrew C. Revkin, “Climate Expert Says NASA Tried to Silence Him,” New York Times, January 29, 2006, 1. 55. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Report of the Joint IPCC Working Group II and III Expert Meeting on the Integration of Adaptation, Mitigation and Sustainable Development into the 4th IPCC Assessment Report, St. Denis, Reunion 234 ● Notes

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acid rain 125–6, 151, 209 American International Group Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AIG) 202 (AGBM) 182–4 Annex I countries 173–7, 181, 182, Ad Hoc Working Group of Legal and 188–9, 192, 208 Technical Experts for the see also non-annex I countries Elaboration of a Global Annex II countries 175, 181 Framework Convention for Arctic Ocean 200 the Protection of the Ozone Argentina 187 Layer 52–3 Arrhenius, Svante 172 additionality 111, 151, 160, 181, 221 Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean new and additional financial Development and Climate 208 resources 79, 80, 141, 142, Association of British Insurers 202 146, 163, 165, 180–1 Association of Small Island States see Forests for the Future Fund (AOSIS) 182–3 see Global Environmental Facility Atochem 88 (GEF) Australia 33, 90, 144, 173, 183, see Green Fund 184, 203 African Common Position Awooner, Kofi 150 on Environment and Development 145 bargaining power 26–30, 142, 145, After Hegemony (Robert Keohane) 23 148, 212 Agenda 21 127, 140, 144, 146–52, Beijing Amendment to the Montreal 157, 162, 221, 222, 223 Protocol 94 agricultural subsidies 133 Beijing Declaration 142–3 Alaska 200 Benedick, Richard 68–9, 213 Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy Berlin Mandate 182–3 (ARCFCP) 50, 58, 60, 62–3, biological diversity 124–5, 129, 88, 104 138, 144, 34, 35, 124, 139, 146, Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric 163, 224 Policy (ARAP) 104 biotechnology 34 American Forests & Paper Association Blair, Tony 208, 210 (AF&PA) 168 Bohlen, Curtis (‘Buff’) 149, 222 270 ● Index boycotts, consumer 62, 128 commitments 3, 79, 124, 146, 156 Brazil 131, 134, 135, 137, 144, 151, energy protocol, proposed 132, 168 155–6, 163, 184 dispute settlement 174 Brundtland Commission 151 Climatic Impact Assessment Program Bush, George H.W. 80, 100, 112, (CIAP) 108 134, 138, 161, 224 Clinton, Senator Hillary 200 Bush, George W. 11, 193, 185, 189, Clinton, William J (‘Bill’) 131, 183, 199, 203, 207, 227 189, 193, 208, 217 Byrd, Senator Robert 184, 186, 188 Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF) 163, 165 California 110, 115, 202, 204 collective action 16–17, 21 Canada 100, 161, 162, 164 Collor de Mello, Fernando carbon storage 123, 132, 138, 148, Alfonso 134 156, 166, 188 Commerce, US Department of 66, Ceres 201–2 69, 130–1 certified timber 164, 167 Commission on Sustainable Development Chafee, Senator John H. 60, 62, (CSD) 162, 164, 169 66, 68 common but differentiated Chernobyl 177, 209 responsibilities 177, 181, 186 Chile 163 common heritage of mankind 138, China 75, 76, 77, 80, 85, 95, 96, 145, 146 142–3, 175–6, 178, 183–4, 187, commons 2–3, 18–19, 39 198, 205, 207 common pool resources (CPRs) chlorine-loading potential (CLP) 2–3, 10, 18 71–2, 89 Commons, Tragedy of the 4, 5, 6, compare with ozone-depleting 7, 23, 39, 53, 153, 196 potential (ODP) comparative advantage 55, 191 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) compliance 18–25 non-aerosol 49, 54, 56, 60, see also Montreal Protocol, Kyoto 61–2, 214 Protocol in nonessential aerosols 47–55, 58, Concorde 56, 108 60–1, 63, 67, 84, see also supersonic transport regulation of in US, 46–51, 195–6 Conservation Society 165 Cicerone, Ralph 41 Convention on Biological Diversity Clean Air Act (CAA) 49–50, 53, (CBD) 61, 84, 90, 100, 106, 107, 115, biological diversity 129, 215 Costa Rica 163 Clean Water Act (CWA) 129 cost-benefit analysis 51, 192 Climate Change, UN Framework in US regulation (CBA) 32, 36–7 Convention on 174–5 typology of benefits and costs 49, compliance 132–5 50, 55, 59, 61–2, 63, 209 forest protocol, proposed 174–5 counterfactual analysis 10, Financial Mechanism 175–6 157–60, 224 participation 172 Craig, Senator Larry 189, 192, 206 entry into force 173–4 Cuba 163 Index ● 271 deadlock 8–9, 11, 17, 26–9, 40, 54, Finland 90, 161 57, 75, 139 Food and Agriculture Organisation asymmetric 54, 57, 71 (FAO) value-claiming: see value-claiming see United Nations Food and debt-for-nature 133, 156 Agriculture Organisation Denmark 70 Forest Principles (Non-legally Binding Desertification 15, 149, 154, 169 Authoritative Statement of discount rate 6, 35–6, 59, 158, 192, Principles for a Global Consensus 192, 229 on the Management, DKK Scharfenstein 91 Conservation, and Sustainable Doniger, David 66 Development of All Types of donor countries Forests) 124, 146, 148, 168 see Annex II countries Forest Service, US Department of Dow Chemical 100 146, 222 DuPont 48, 50, 63–5, 72–3, forests 80, 82, 84, 88–90, 91, 92, tropical vs. temperate forests 112, 204 125–6, 129, 131, 138, 147 UNCED and FORESTS (intent) Earth Summit Update 141–2 125–7, 129 Economic and Social Council deforestation, causes 125 (ECOSOC) biospheric functions 123 see United Nations Economic and deforestation, relationship to Social Council commons 5 effectiveness Forests for the Future Fund 148–50, as enforcement 18–19 151, 165, 222 conceptions of 17–26 fossil fuels in negotiated outcome 19–23 fossil fuel industry 32–3, 206 emissions trading 101, 173–4, 183, source of greenhouse gasses 172, 187, 188, 193, 204 178, 180 Endangered Species Act 129, 220 US dependence 171, 183, 191, Energy, US Department of 66, 192 195, 232, 206 Environmental Protection framework convention Agency (EPA) 47–50, 52–3, definition and characteristics 1–2, 58–9, 61–2, 65, 73, 74, 79, 97, 152–3 101–2, 107, 109, 112, 113–14, France 56, 108–9, 135 192, 219, 222 Friends of the Earth (FOE) 88 Environmental Resources funding mechanisms (UK NGO) 51 see additionality epistemic community 20, 39, 57 European Community 67, 90, 100, G-7 133–4, 207 108, 144 G-77 (Group of 77 developing countries) European Union 163, 198, 201 132, 136–40, 142, 144 Evangelical Climate Initiative 201, game theoretic models 7–10 230–1 see also prisoners’ dilemma, deadlock Exxon Valdez 177 General Electric (GE) 203, 205 272 ● Index

Geneva Ministerial Declaration 184 Institutional Invester Summit on Germany 54, 74, 128, 134–5, 191, Climate Risk 202 192, 195, 209–10 intellectual property 34 Ghana 163, 216 see also technology transfer Gibbons, David 66 Intergovernmental Forum on Forests Global Climate Coalition (GCC) (IFF) 162–4 206–7 Intergovernmental Negotiating Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Committee on Climate Change 81, 103, 144, 150, 151, 152, 175, (INC) 135, 177–8, 179, 182 181, 188, 208 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate globalization 186 Change (IPCC) 174, 190, 208, Gore, Al 131, 156, 183, 199, 230 226, 233 Gorsuch, Anne 52–3, 208 Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Green Fund, proposal 143–4, 147, (IPF) 162–3, 164 151–2, 221 Interior, US Department of 66 Green Party 209–10 international arrangement on forests greenhouse gases (GHG) 121–2, (IAF) 165 172–3 International Court of Justice (ICJ) Greening of the World Initiative 147 43, 174, 203 Greenpeace 91, 217 International Development Guatemala 163 Association 152 gulf stream 200 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 80, 163 Haas, Peter 57 International Negotiation Committee Hagel, Senator Chuck 184 for Climate Change (INC) halon 58, 63, 72 135, 177 Harkavy, Angela 154, 156–7 International Tropical Timber hazardous waste, transboundary Agreement (ITTA, 1983) 126, movement of 15 134, 139, 224, 225 hegemon 18, 20, 31 International Tropical Timber Hoffman, John 71–2 Organization (ITTO) 126, 137, Houston Economic Declaration 134 152, 163, 220 Howard, Michael 179 Investor Network on Climate Hurricane Katrina 171 Risk 202 hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 88, Ismail, Amb. Razali (Malaysia) 91, 98 138, 141 Israel 108, 109 Iceland 173 issue linkage 26, 28, 33–4, 109, Immelt, Jeffrey 203, 205, 206 148–9 Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) issue salience 10, 125, 166, 200 68, 70, 72–4, 88, 91 Italy 112, 135 India 75, 78, 80, 83, 85, 94, 96, 136, 143, 144, 156, 163, 175, 177, Japan 70, 94, 100, 101, 134, 144, 184, 187 163, 191, 192 Indonesia 137, 139 joint implementation 183, 188 Index ● 273

Kazakhstan 187 participation 45 Kenya 108, 216 relationship to other treaties 45 Kerry, Senator John 184, 185 Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP) Kohl, Helmut (German Chancellor) 134 89, 99–100, 102, 107–8 Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Technical Assessment Panel 72, 88 Convention on Climate Change Technology and Economic 2, 3, 22, 88, 96 Assessment 92, 96, 100, 108, Clean Development Mechanism 109, 110, 113, 115 175, 188 Panel (TEAP) entry into force 189 US withdrawal 185, 189 Nader, Ralph 199 NASA Ozone Trends Panel (OTP) Lang, Winfried 76 58, 71, 73, 60, 63 leadership 32–3 Nath, Kamal 138 benefits, typology of 31–7 National Academy of Sciences 48, economic theory of 12, 29–31, 40 191, 200 Lott, Senator Trent 185, 186 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) 61–2, 73 Malaysia 78, 124, 128, 131, 136–40, Netherlands, the 108, 128 141–2, 143, 144, 147, 151, new and additional financial resources 153–5, 160, 161, 162, 163–4 see under additionality manipulation 26, 29–30, 34–5, 69, New International Economic Order 83, 85, 98, 106, 115, 168, 192, (NIEO) 126 207, 212 New Orleans 171 carrots and/or sticks 67, 70, 77, New York Times 203 83, 198 New Zealand 29, 90, 163, 203–4 McCain, Senator John 200 NGO 4, 101, 127, 150, 161–2, 165, Mexico 163, 184, 216 203, 208 Mississippi River Basin 171 NIPF (nonindustrial private Molina, Mario 41 forestland) 129 Montreal Protocol (1987) on substances non-Annex I countries 175, 183–4, that deplete the ozone layer 2, 3, 187, 192, 228 15, 22, 39, 57–8, 62, 153, 173, Norway 28, 53, 90, 100, 173 175, 177, 186 Article 5 countries 43, 44, 45, 75–6, OECD (Organization of Economic 80, 82, 93, 96, 103, 111, 174 Cooperation and Development) commitments 42–3 135, 183, 213, 223 compliance 43–5 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Economic Assessment Panel 72 Exporting Countries) 183 entry into force 57 Our Common Future 1 Multilateral Fund for the ozone-depleting potential (ODP) Implementation of the Montreal compare with chlorine-loading Protocol (MLF) 45–6, 79–83, potential (CLP) 85, 92, 93, 100, 102–5, 111, 114, 42, 72, 89, 90, 91, 92, 97, 99, 116, 175, 188 102, 114 274 ● Index ozone hole right to development 160 Arctic 95, 102, 195 Rio Declaration 139 see also stratospheric ozone depletion Rowland, F. Sherwood 41 2, 40–2 Ruckleshaus, William 53 problem identification and definition Russia 163, 184, 188, 224 40–2, 58 Antarctic 58, 67, 71–2, 90 Sarawak 136 ozone-depleting substances (ODS) 3, science 50, 59–60 40, 72, 116–20, 121–2 adversarial 55, 57–8, 190–1 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): see political manipulation 39–40, 60, chlorofluorocarbons 107–8, 206–7 carbon tetrachloride (CT) 40, versus economics 39–40 102–6 Second World Climate Conference hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFCs) 135, 177 40, 87–99, 198 Senegal 163, 216 methyl bromide (MB) 40, 106–16 South Africa 108 methyl chloroform (MC) 40, 99, sovereignty 136–9, 143–4, 146, 147, 102–6 153–5, 160–1 Soviet Union 54, 61, 100, 178 Panama 163 spotted owl controversy 131 Perez, Carlos Andres 145 Sprinz, Detlef and Tapani pesticide Vaahtoranta 20–1 methyl bromide (MB) 106–7 State, US Department of 93, 218 Pilot Programme for Brazil (PPB) 134 Stolarski, Richard 41 Poland 163 stratospheric ozone depletion 1–4, 10, polluter pays principle 78 15, 32, 40–2, 47, 55, 59–60, power asymmetry 27–9 71–2, 172 precautionary principle 199 Sununu, John 100 PrepCom 139–140 sustainable development 1, 151, 175 President’s Council of Economic Sweden 51, 53, 90, 92, 109, 218 Advisors (US) 59, 192, 228–9 Switzerland 90, 92, 93, 109, 163 Principles for a Global Forests Symms, Senator Steve 59 Convention/Agreement 143 prisoner’s dilemma 7–8, 18 technology transfer 9, 44, 76, 77, 82, privatization 4 104, 111, 140, 141, 145, 146, public goods 31, 212 152, 160, 163, 180 Ting, Amb. Wen-Lian 141, 153 RAND Corporation 50 Tolba, Mostafa 66, 69, 78, 82, 90, Reagan, Ronald 51, 52, 192 108, 179 regime 2, 16 Toronto Group (ozone negotiations) Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative 53, 54, 56, 64, 67, 71, 225 (RGGI) 204 Toxic Substances Control Act (US Reilly, William (‘Bill’) 133, 148, 1976) 47–9 178, 219 trade 68–9, 70, 75, 76, 77, 94, 147, reservation price 9, 34 151, 195, 198 Index ● 275

Trinidad and Tobago 182 Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) Tuvalu 203–4 126, 152, 220 United Nations Forum on Forests US National Forest Management (UNFF) 163–6 Act 129 United Nations Framework Convention US Securities and Exchange on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Commission 202 3, 172 Ullsten, Ola 127 United Nations Fund for International United Kingdom (UK, Great Britain) Partnerships 202 55, 56, 58, 68, 70, 74, 91, 135, United Nations General Assembly 149, 219, 225 126, 162 United Mine Workers (US) 206 US-Canada Timber dispute 130 United Nations Conference on US Trade Representative (USTR) Environment and Development 130–1 (UNCED) 34, 124, 126, 127, 129, 132, 133, 139–77, 220, value-claiming 10, 33–4, 57, 71, 223, 224 178, 214 United Nations Conference on veto power 77–8, 82, 156 the Human Environment Vienna Convention (1985) for the (UNCHE) 125 Protection of the Ozone Layer 3, United Nations Conference on 39, 43, 45, 56–7, 75, 77, 177 Trade and Development entry into force 57 (UNCTAD) 126 vulnerability 10, 20, 28–9, 178 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Watson, Robert (Chair of the 45, 81, 144 IPCC) 181 United Nations Economic and Weyerhauser 129 Social Council (ECOSOC) White House Council on 163, 164 Environmental Quality 207 United Nations Environment Wirth, Tim 183 Programme (UNEP) 45, 51, 57, World Bank 45, 80, 81, 103, 144, 81, 82, 108, 144 150, 152, 163, 165, 175, 229 Ozone Secretariat 109 World Commission on United Nations Food and Agriculture Environment and Development Organisation (FAO) 126, 127, (WCED) 1 128, 138, 141, 143, 163, 165, World Meteorological Organization 218, 220 (WMO) 41, 60, 63 Committee on Forestry World Trade Organization (WTO) (COFO) 141 69, 131, 139, 163, 198