McNair Scholars Journal
Volume 13 | Issue 1 Article 6
2009 From Soldadera to Adelita: The epicD tion of Women in the Mexican Revolution Delia Fernández Grand Valley State University
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Recommended Citation Fernández, Delia (2009) "From Soldadera to Adelita: The eD piction of Women in the Mexican Revolution," McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 13: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol13/iss1/6
Copyright © 2009 by the authors. McNair Scholars Journal is reproduced electronically by ScholarWorks@GVSU. http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/ mcnair?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fmcnair%2Fvol13%2Fiss1%2F6&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages References From Soldadera to Adelita: Anderson, E. and M.G. Burg (2007) Synthesis of a HDC-GFP Promoter-Gene Fusion as a Tool to Identify Histaminergic Cells and Examine The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution HDC Regulation. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal 11: 5
Burg, M., Sarthy, V., Koliantz, G., and W. Pak. (1993) Genetic and molecular identification of a Drosophila histidine decarboxylase gene re- Abstract A gun is strapped to her back, as are ban- quired in photoreceptor transmitter synthesis. EMBO J. 12(3): 911-919. doliers across her chest. She wears a flow- Popular images of women during the Mexi- ing skirt, a revealing blouse, and a carefree Burg, M., and W. Pak. (1995) Separation of cis-acting regulatory regions required for photoreceptor and brain-specific expression of the histi- can Revolution (1911-1920) often depict expression on her face. This image has been dine decarboxylase gene of Drosophila. Invest. Ophthal. and Vis. Sci. 36(4): 1979. them as dressed provocatively, yet wearing reproduced repeatedly on t-shirts, calendars, a bandolier and gun. Although the image is address books, advertisements, and even in Fleming J., and T. Wang. (2000) Amino- and Carboxy- Terminal PEST Domains mediate Gastrin Stabilization of Rat L-Histidine Decarboxy- common, its origin is not well known. An ex- the media through movies, songs, and art lase Isoforms. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 20(13):4932-4947. amination of secondary literature and media (see Figure 1). She embodies the image of will show the transformation in the image of soldaderas, or women soldiers, who fought Melzig J., S. Bunchner, F. Wiebel, R. Wolf, E. Buchner, Burg M., and W. Pak. (1996) Genetic Depletion of Histamine from the Nervous System the female soldier (soldadera) over the course during the Mexican Revolution in the years of Drosophila Eliminate Specific Visual and Mechanosensory Behavior. Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 179:763-773. of the Revolution from that of the submissive between 1911 and 1920.¹ At this time in follower into a promiscuous fighter (Adelita). Mexican history, a patriarchal society con- Miller, E. and M.G. Burg (2008) Determination of epitope-labeled Hdc gene expression in transgenic flies of Drosophila, GVSU Student Sum- The soldaderas exhibited masculine charac- strained women and limited their lives in mer Scholars. Delia Fernández teristics, like strength and valor, and for these nearly every aspect. Women’s responsibili- McNair Scholar attributes, men were responsible for reshaping ties to their families and the expectations of Pollack I. and A., Hofbauer (1991) Histamine-like immunoreactivity in the visual system and brain of Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Tissue the soldadera’s image into the ideal (docile, yet the Catholic Church stifled any possibility Res 266:391–398. licentious) woman of the time. of equality with men. Whether intentional or not, becoming a soldadera allowed some Python, F. and R. F. Stocker (2002) Immunoreactivity Against Choline Acetyltransferase, γ-AminobutyricAcid, Histamine, Octopamine, and women to leave behind part of their respon- Serotonin in the Larval Chemosensory System of Drosophila melanogaster. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 453:157–167(2002) sibilities and begin a journey that would ul- timately help them gain equality with men. Sarthy, P.V. (1991) Histamine: A Neurotransmitter candidate for Drosophila photoreceptors. J. Neurochem. 57(5):1757-1768. Over the years, the image of the soldadera has been misrepresented in popular culture. The brave, strong woman who fought for equality, such as the anonymous soldadera depicted in Figure 2, has been transformed into the promiscuous woman often referred to as La Adelita, described above.² Unlike David Stark, Ph.D. the true soldadera, La Adelita hardly seems Faculty Mentor capable of fighting in a war. How and why has the image of the soldadera evolved into that of La Adelita? More importantly, why are the romanticized images of the soldadera perpetuated to this day in popular culture, including corridos (love songs) and movies? This paper examines the transformation of the soldadera into La Adelita. To this end, I provide an overview of Mexico during the Porfiriato (1876-1911), specifically focusing on the plight of women and their status as second-class citizens. Next, I analyze the sol- daderas themselves, including the different types of women who fought and their partic- ipation in the Mexican Revolution. Finally, I
¹ The word soldadera has its origins in the Spanish Conquest. The soldaderas were responsible for aiding the army by finding food and caring for injured soldiers. The term has also been applied to Spanish women who fought during the Conquest. As Spanish became Mexico’s language after the conquest, the term soldadera was used to describe all women who fought and aided in the Mexican conflicts. The first time it appeared in print was 1865. For more information, see Elizabeth Salas’ Soldaderas in the Mexi- can Military: Myth and History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 11-33. ² There are many myths surrounding the identity of La Adelita, however her true identity is unknown.
52 Co-localization of Histamine and eGFP in the Central Nervous System from pHdc-5’-UTR-eGFP Transformants of Drosophila melanogaster GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 53 discuss the evolution of the soldaderas’ image themselves. Their exploitation increased and accomplished all of this while upholding an stories about Villa’s opinion of soldaderas Manuela Oaxaca, who was fifteen years old over time in song and in film. What I found so did their anger at the government that image of innocence and purity, much like the and women in general. One story describes when she decided to follow her boyfriend suggests the romanticized depictions of La ignored them. Díaz’s government also over- Virgin Mary, who dutifully and faithfully ac- Villa as a man who wanted to protect women into the war.¹⁵ Salas describes other young Adelita are a result of men’s framing of these looked women and treated them as second- cepted her destiny without complaint. This and relegate them to “the back of firing line girls, twelve and thirteen years old, who were women soldiers in the way they recorded his- class citizens under the law. The Constitu- was the ideal woman in Mexican society. to places of safety.”⁹ Yet in another story, forced to accompany their parents into war tory. Men sought to recast the soldaderas’ tion of 1857 and Civil Code of 1884 greatly Participation in the Mexican Revolution, Villa orders the massacre of ninety women and later became soldaderas themselves.¹⁶ legacy as strong, assertive, and in some cases, restricted women’s rights. For example, the however, would open an avenue to liberation and children prisoners under his command, There were also women who did not become violent women because these women exhib- Constitution did not define citizenship for from the patriarchal society. believing that one of them conspired to kill soldaderas of their own volition. Some wom- ited masculine characteristics that clashed women, and by law women without citizen- him.¹⁰ Villa’s views on the soldaderas are not en were forced to join the war after they were with societal expectations of how women ship could not vote.⁴ Although suffrage was Who Were the Soldaderas? clear; nonetheless, both stories suggest he kidnapped by men in the Federal Army or the should act. Therefore men downplayed the important for women, their lack of citizen- likely did not want them fighting alongside revolutionary forces.¹⁷ This was a common accomplishments of soldaderas on the battle- ship was more problematic. Without it, One way women were emancipated was his troops. Emiliano Zapata must have felt occurrence; many of the soldaderas joined field and instead emphasized their beauty and women lacked rights and were dependent on by becoming soldiers in the Mexican Revolu- differently about the soldaderas because he the Revolution after seeing this happen to loyalty to the men in their lives. By rendering their husbands or fathers in ways that made tion. As soldaderas, women found they were included many women among his troops. family members and friends. Angela Jimenez female soldiers in a romanticized manner, life difficult. According to the Civil Code of able to rise above some of the limitations in Although some would assume that Zapata’s joined the war after watching her sister kill men effectively neutralized the threat these 1884, married women could not enter into a their lives. When soldaderas left home to forces would attract lower-class women, he a soldier who attempted to rape her.¹⁸ Jime- women posed to their masculinity. contract, sell property, or oversee their chil- take up arms, they left behind their tradi- drew support from women of diverse back- nez’s sister subsequently killed herself after dren’s education.⁵ Moreover, a Commercial Figure 1. Reproduction of Angel Martin's "La tional roles at the same time. Women shed grounds, including farmers and unmarried shooting the officer.¹⁹ This prompted Jime- The Porfiriato and the Plight of Women Code also prohibited them from working as Adelita" on Hecho en México Address Book, 1996. their docile image, strapped on bandoliers professors.¹¹ Venustiano Carranza also wel- nez to avenge her sister’s death by joining her teachers or attorneys for anyone except their and wielded guns – much like men. The idea comed women from all social classes in his father in the Revolution, where she eventu- Porfirio Diaz, governor of Mexico from husband or children.⁶ In 1910, Francisco I. that a woman could take up a non-tradition- army. In addition to their aid in the Revolu- ally attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.²⁰ 1876-1880 and 1884-1911, created condi- Madero, an upper-class land owner, chal- al profession as a soldier was a radical idea. tion, he also looked for women’s support to Additionally, older women entered the war tions that pointed towards revolution. His lenged Díaz in the presidential election but Many women were active participants during advance his political career.¹² In exchange seeking revenge for the death or capture of presidency was marred by deception, cor- was jailed and subsequently lost the election. the Revolution. Though it is not known how for their support, Carranza enacted so- their husband, son, or brother. Examples of ruption, and violence. Upon seizing power Nevertheless, Madero had the support of many women fought, they did so on behalf of cial reforms benefiting women during his such soldaderas include Señora María Sán- in 1876, he espoused an anti-reelection many Mexicans, and the time was right for the federal government (federales) and also presidency.¹³ Regardless of whom they sup- chez, who took her brother’s place in a rebel platform that prohibited consecutive terms a change. The following year, the Mexican on the side of those opposing the dictator- ported, women’s participation was a key army after his death, and Señora Pimental, for a president. Díaz’s successor, Manuel people rose up in revolt against the Porfiria- ship, including the armies of Pancho Villa, component of the Revolution. who freed her son from a Federal prison by González, had the constitution amended to to; the Revolution was underway. Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza.⁷ Women who fought in the Revolution killing two guards.²¹ Thus, women of all ages permit presidential reelection, which allowed Not all people fighting in the Revolution Each of these revolutionary leaders attract- did so for a variety of reasons. Elizabeth Salas actively participated as soldaderas, albeit for Díaz to be elected again in 1884 - a position pursued the same objectives, and neither ed a sizeable following of women soldiers. provides a description of different soldad- different reasons. he held until the outbreak of the Revolution. were they all men. Some men took up arms However, Pancho Villa was not as receptive eras in her book Soldaderas in the Mexican Diverse backgrounds also played a role in Díaz’s policies had a profound impact on in opposition to Díaz’s policies or in support toward female soldiers as the other lead- Military: Myth and History.¹⁴ Some women women’s motivation to take up arms. Most Mexico, mostly benefiting the upper classes of opposition leaders, such as Pancho Villa ers, but they still figured among his troops. fought in support of revolutionary ideals like soldaderas came from the lower rungs of so- as well as foreigners in Mexico. Díaz was well and Emiliano Zapata. There were, however, Because Villa used quick attacks and swift agrarian reform. Others fought because the ciety. Some were the indigenous or mestiza, known for favoring foreign interests over some women who joined in the fighting to troop movements, he did not like to travel men in their lives were fighting, and they of mixed indigenous and Spanish ancestry, domestic ones. This was obvious in the 1906 advance their own causes. Not only were with soldaderas.⁸ There are also conflicting wanted to support them. One example is daughters of farmers or merchants.²² In the Cananea labor strike that killed over twenty women’s lives limited by the law, but gen- people. Díaz allowed the American mine der roles were also constraining to women. owner to pay Mexican workers lower wages A woman remained under the control of a ⁶ Soto, 11. than their American counterparts at the same man her entire life: in her childhood, it was ⁷ There is little information on the number of soldaderas who fought due to the vague definition of who was a soldadera. For mine, which provoked the strike. When the her father; in her adulthood, it was her hus- example, camp aides and women fighters might be counted differently. Also, the wives of soldiers who fought may not have been miners went on strike and violence ensued, band, brother or uncle. If she joined a con- Figure 2. Soldadera. Reprinted from counted. Salas affirms that there were thousands of soldaderas, Salas, 39. A Washington Post reporter remembered over 500 sol- Díaz welcomed the arrival of U.S. troops into vent, her life was regulated by the Catholic Casasola, vol. 1, p. 263. Found in Shirlene daderas in one battle. (“Amazons Under Fire.” Washington Post [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3). Mexico to quell the disturbance, in effect un- Church. Women were expected to serve Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican ⁸ Salas, 45. dermining Mexico’s sovereignty.³ Countless their families faithfully, especially the men Woman Her Participation in Revolution and . Denver, ⁹ Op Cit. indigenous and peasants also suffered under in their lives. Moreover, they were producers, Struggle for Equality, 1910-1940 Colo: Arden, 1990. ¹⁰ Salas, 46. Díaz. They experienced the loss of their lands in that they needed to contribute economi- ¹¹ Soto, 45. at the hands of the landed elite through a se- cally to the family’s income, and reproducers, ¹² Ibid., 49. ries of agrarian laws. The peasants and indig- because they were expected to bear children ¹³ Ibid., 58. enous lacked any feasible means to support and serve as their primary caregiver. They ¹⁴ Salas, Elizabeth. Soldaderas in the Mexican Military: Myth and History, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). ¹⁵ Salas, 72. ¹⁶ Ibid., 73. ³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- ¹⁷ For more information on these soldaderas, see Salas, 40. 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990), 24. ¹⁸ Salas, 71. ⁴ Ibid.,10. ¹⁹ Op Cit. ⁵ Op Cit. ²⁰ Salas, 68. ⁶ Soto, 11. ²¹ "Women Fight on Both Sides." New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3.
54 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 55 discuss the evolution of the soldaderas’ image themselves. Their exploitation increased and accomplished all of this while upholding an stories about Villa’s opinion of soldaderas Manuela Oaxaca, who was fifteen years old over time in song and in film. What I found so did their anger at the government that image of innocence and purity, much like the and women in general. One story describes when she decided to follow her boyfriend suggests the romanticized depictions of La ignored them. Díaz’s government also over- Virgin Mary, who dutifully and faithfully ac- Villa as a man who wanted to protect women into the war.¹⁵ Salas describes other young Adelita are a result of men’s framing of these looked women and treated them as second- cepted her destiny without complaint. This and relegate them to “the back of firing line girls, twelve and thirteen years old, who were women soldiers in the way they recorded his- class citizens under the law. The Constitu- was the ideal woman in Mexican society. to places of safety.”⁹ Yet in another story, forced to accompany their parents into war tory. Men sought to recast the soldaderas’ tion of 1857 and Civil Code of 1884 greatly Participation in the Mexican Revolution, Villa orders the massacre of ninety women and later became soldaderas themselves.¹⁶ legacy as strong, assertive, and in some cases, restricted women’s rights. For example, the however, would open an avenue to liberation and children prisoners under his command, There were also women who did not become violent women because these women exhib- Constitution did not define citizenship for from the patriarchal society. believing that one of them conspired to kill soldaderas of their own volition. Some wom- ited masculine characteristics that clashed women, and by law women without citizen- him.¹⁰ Villa’s views on the soldaderas are not en were forced to join the war after they were with societal expectations of how women ship could not vote.⁴ Although suffrage was Who Were the Soldaderas? clear; nonetheless, both stories suggest he kidnapped by men in the Federal Army or the should act. Therefore men downplayed the important for women, their lack of citizen- likely did not want them fighting alongside revolutionary forces.¹⁷ This was a common accomplishments of soldaderas on the battle- ship was more problematic. Without it, One way women were emancipated was his troops. Emiliano Zapata must have felt occurrence; many of the soldaderas joined field and instead emphasized their beauty and women lacked rights and were dependent on by becoming soldiers in the Mexican Revolu- differently about the soldaderas because he the Revolution after seeing this happen to loyalty to the men in their lives. By rendering their husbands or fathers in ways that made tion. As soldaderas, women found they were included many women among his troops. family members and friends. Angela Jimenez female soldiers in a romanticized manner, life difficult. According to the Civil Code of able to rise above some of the limitations in Although some would assume that Zapata’s joined the war after watching her sister kill men effectively neutralized the threat these 1884, married women could not enter into a their lives. When soldaderas left home to forces would attract lower-class women, he a soldier who attempted to rape her.¹⁸ Jime- women posed to their masculinity. contract, sell property, or oversee their chil- take up arms, they left behind their tradi- drew support from women of diverse back- nez’s sister subsequently killed herself after dren’s education.⁵ Moreover, a Commercial Figure 1. Reproduction of Angel Martin's "La tional roles at the same time. Women shed grounds, including farmers and unmarried shooting the officer.¹⁹ This prompted Jime- The Porfiriato and the Plight of Women Code also prohibited them from working as Adelita" on Hecho en México Address Book, 1996. their docile image, strapped on bandoliers professors.¹¹ Venustiano Carranza also wel- nez to avenge her sister’s death by joining her teachers or attorneys for anyone except their and wielded guns – much like men. The idea comed women from all social classes in his father in the Revolution, where she eventu- Porfirio Diaz, governor of Mexico from husband or children.⁶ In 1910, Francisco I. that a woman could take up a non-tradition- army. In addition to their aid in the Revolu- ally attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.²⁰ 1876-1880 and 1884-1911, created condi- Madero, an upper-class land owner, chal- al profession as a soldier was a radical idea. tion, he also looked for women’s support to Additionally, older women entered the war tions that pointed towards revolution. His lenged Díaz in the presidential election but Many women were active participants during advance his political career.¹² In exchange seeking revenge for the death or capture of presidency was marred by deception, cor- was jailed and subsequently lost the election. the Revolution. Though it is not known how for their support, Carranza enacted so- their husband, son, or brother. Examples of ruption, and violence. Upon seizing power Nevertheless, Madero had the support of many women fought, they did so on behalf of cial reforms benefiting women during his such soldaderas include Señora María Sán- in 1876, he espoused an anti-reelection many Mexicans, and the time was right for the federal government (federales) and also presidency.¹³ Regardless of whom they sup- chez, who took her brother’s place in a rebel platform that prohibited consecutive terms a change. The following year, the Mexican on the side of those opposing the dictator- ported, women’s participation was a key army after his death, and Señora Pimental, for a president. Díaz’s successor, Manuel people rose up in revolt against the Porfiria- ship, including the armies of Pancho Villa, component of the Revolution. who freed her son from a Federal prison by González, had the constitution amended to to; the Revolution was underway. Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza.⁷ Women who fought in the Revolution killing two guards.²¹ Thus, women of all ages permit presidential reelection, which allowed Not all people fighting in the Revolution Each of these revolutionary leaders attract- did so for a variety of reasons. Elizabeth Salas actively participated as soldaderas, albeit for Díaz to be elected again in 1884 - a position pursued the same objectives, and neither ed a sizeable following of women soldiers. provides a description of different soldad- different reasons. he held until the outbreak of the Revolution. were they all men. Some men took up arms However, Pancho Villa was not as receptive eras in her book Soldaderas in the Mexican Diverse backgrounds also played a role in Díaz’s policies had a profound impact on in opposition to Díaz’s policies or in support toward female soldiers as the other lead- Military: Myth and History.¹⁴ Some women women’s motivation to take up arms. Most Mexico, mostly benefiting the upper classes of opposition leaders, such as Pancho Villa ers, but they still figured among his troops. fought in support of revolutionary ideals like soldaderas came from the lower rungs of so- as well as foreigners in Mexico. Díaz was well and Emiliano Zapata. There were, however, Because Villa used quick attacks and swift agrarian reform. Others fought because the ciety. Some were the indigenous or mestiza, known for favoring foreign interests over some women who joined in the fighting to troop movements, he did not like to travel men in their lives were fighting, and they of mixed indigenous and Spanish ancestry, domestic ones. This was obvious in the 1906 advance their own causes. Not only were with soldaderas.⁸ There are also conflicting wanted to support them. One example is daughters of farmers or merchants.²² In the Cananea labor strike that killed over twenty women’s lives limited by the law, but gen- people. Díaz allowed the American mine der roles were also constraining to women. owner to pay Mexican workers lower wages A woman remained under the control of a ⁶ Soto, 11. than their American counterparts at the same man her entire life: in her childhood, it was ⁷ There is little information on the number of soldaderas who fought due to the vague definition of who was a soldadera. For mine, which provoked the strike. When the her father; in her adulthood, it was her hus- example, camp aides and women fighters might be counted differently. Also, the wives of soldiers who fought may not have been miners went on strike and violence ensued, band, brother or uncle. If she joined a con- Figure 2. Soldadera. Reprinted from counted. Salas affirms that there were thousands of soldaderas, Salas, 39. A Washington Post reporter remembered over 500 sol- Díaz welcomed the arrival of U.S. troops into vent, her life was regulated by the Catholic Casasola, vol. 1, p. 263. Found in Shirlene daderas in one battle. (“Amazons Under Fire.” Washington Post [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3). Mexico to quell the disturbance, in effect un- Church. Women were expected to serve Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican ⁸ Salas, 45. dermining Mexico’s sovereignty.³ Countless their families faithfully, especially the men Woman Her Participation in Revolution and . Denver, ⁹ Op Cit. indigenous and peasants also suffered under in their lives. Moreover, they were producers, Struggle for Equality, 1910-1940 Colo: Arden, 1990. ¹⁰ Salas, 46. Díaz. They experienced the loss of their lands in that they needed to contribute economi- ¹¹ Soto, 45. at the hands of the landed elite through a se- cally to the family’s income, and reproducers, ¹² Ibid., 49. ries of agrarian laws. The peasants and indig- because they were expected to bear children ¹³ Ibid., 58. enous lacked any feasible means to support and serve as their primary caregiver. They ¹⁴ Salas, Elizabeth. Soldaderas in the Mexican Military: Myth and History, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). ¹⁵ Salas, 72. ¹⁶ Ibid., 73. ³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- ¹⁷ For more information on these soldaderas, see Salas, 40. 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990), 24. ¹⁸ Salas, 71. ⁴ Ibid.,10. ¹⁹ Op Cit. ⁵ Op Cit. ²⁰ Salas, 68. ⁶ Soto, 11. ²¹ "Women Fight on Both Sides." New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3.
54 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 55 pictures of soldaderas from this era, many of back to health after injury, and carried their objectives. true identity until she was a well-established in ways that went beyond the ideals of the dadera unfettered women in ways that would the women had a darker complexion, most equipment and supplies from one battle to There were women who became soldaderas member of Carranza’s forces. When her se- Revolution. Even if a soldadera took care have been impossible if they had remained at likely indicating their indigenous or mixed the next.²⁵ Among the supplies the soldad- in an effort to improve their own economic cret was revealed, she was awarded command of the troops, she had left her home, where home and were still constrained by males. ancestry. The pictures included in Shirlene eras transported was bedding for the soldiers situations. Such women looked for a way to of an all-women regiment and led them to society wanted and expected her to remain. As much as fighting in the war helped the Soto’s book, Emergence of the Modern Mexi- because they were not supplied with these support themselves in an economy that did many battlefield victories.³⁴ Thus, Herrera is Soldaderas received payment for their work, soldiers, it also helped women advance their can Women, reveal their tattered, worn cloth- materials.²⁶ At this time, the Federal Army not provide for all citizens, and becoming a an example of a woman who believed in the but more importantly, they were released position in society. ing, which may attest to their lower class did not have a department responsible for soldadera did this for them. Women became Revolution and allowed nothing to stand in from the house and the attachment to a Upper-class women found ways to further background or might simply be a reflection these tasks; neither did the revolutionary soldaderas both to serve soldiers and to pro- the way of her participation. man. If she wanted to work for a particular their rights under the law. Although some of inadequate supplies.²³ In most cases, social armies have the organization or manpower vide for their own families. They received There were other brave women like Herre- soldier, she could; if she wanted to move on upper-class women fought in the Revolu- class also dictated the reasons why the wom- to arrange for these. Therefore, armies de- money from the soldiers to buy food and ra, and some of these soldaderas even caught to another for any reason, she could also do tion, most found ways to liberation through en fought. An indigenous woman or mestiza pended on the women to perform these kept some of it for themselves. In doing so, the attention of foreigner observers. María that. There were no rules or expectations political activism. They formed groups seek- woman’s livelihood depended on farming. tasks, especially to set up camp between the women would have enough money to Quinteras de Mares was one such soldad- that governed her movement. She was free to ing to obtain women’s suffrage and greater This woman was more likely to support Zap- battles. Women typically arrived at the camp feed themselves and even their children if era. She was married to a captain in Pancho do as she pleased. By virtue of such actions access to education and contraception, and ata and fight against Díaz or other presiden- site before the men to put up tents and be- they brought them along.³¹ As noted above, Villa’s army, and their daughter accompa- women were able to attain equality with in support of political candidates. Examples tial aspirants who did not embrace agrarian gin preparing the food.²⁷ Without the ben- the women and their children traveled with nied them on all their campaigns. Coronela men in Mexican society, if only in this con- of such groups include the Consejo Femi- reform. However, a woman whose economic efit of a well-supplied army, soldaderas were the troops wherever they went, providing Quinteras de Mares was so committed to the text. Their equality was derived from hav- nista [Mexican Feminist Council] and the situation improved under the government in responsible for procuring food by whatever services the soldiers needed in order to sur- Revolution that she refused to be paid.³⁵ Her ing fought alongside men, taking “machetes Liga Feminista Mexicana [Mexican Femi- power was probably fighting on behalf of the means possible, even if it meant foraging and vive. Although these women did not partici- skills on the battlefield caught the attention and [killing] as many as the federal men…” nist League].⁴² The former worked for “the Federal Army. One example of a soldadera looting. Soldaderas in the Federal Army of- pate in the war because of their ideals or to of many observers in Mexico and the United killed.⁴⁰ Moreover, female soldiers died like economic, social, and political emancipation from a higher class background was a woman ten bought food with a portion of the pay support their husband, lover, or son in the States. In 1914, a reporter from the El Paso their male counterparts, as described in the of women,” while the latter was dedicated referred to as La Neri, who was “a natural that the men received. Meal preparation oc- war, they were still an important part of the Morning Star wrote that she “has led many article “Battle on At Night,” in which a wom- to women’s suffrage.⁴³ These groups exerted leader, with absolute command of her [all- curred whenever and wherever the troops Revolution. desperate charges and her followers have an was bound with her child and thrown into pressure on whatever presidential adminis- women] forces.”²⁴ Because of the conflict- stopped for the day. Women were known The second way women supported the come to believe she is endowed with some a burning building along with other male tration was in power to see that their objec- ing stories surrounding La Neri, it is unclear to start making tortillas in the middle of a war was to fight valiantly alongside the supernatural powers.”³⁶ Soldaderas’ exploits soldiers.⁴¹ Based upon these examples, there tives were met. However, it was not until on which side of the Revolution she fought. desert and even on top of moving trains.²⁸ men. Women who did so did not limit their were also documented in popular American is no doubt that women fought heroically the 1920s and 1930s, after the revolution Due to her upper-class status, one might as- Perhaps what is so remarkable about these participation to tasks that they already per- newspapers like The Washington Post and The and died valiantly, as did men. Women’s con- had ended, that these groups were successful. sume that she fought for the Federales, but it women is that some brought along their formed in the home. Instead, the soldaderas New York Times. For example, The New York tributions and participation in the Revolu- Even though these women were not physi- was common for such women to sympathize families while they tended to the soldiers. took up arms and integrated themselves into Times referred to soldaderas in a 1913 piece tion were a liberating experience, and their cally fighting for equality like the soldaderas, with the revolutionary forces and fight with Soldaderas brought their children with them the Federal Army as well as the opposition entitled, “Women Fight on Both Sides.”³⁷ sacrifice was rewarded with equality. they were still working to obtain freedom their armies. Because of the different reasons to the camp sites and even accompanied the forces. Women were often among the low- The five hundred soldaderas were said to be The soldaderas’ newly acquired freedom and fairness under the law. for which women fought, it is important not troops while pregnant.²⁹ An onlooker who est ranks of the soldiers; nonetheless, skilled, “expert with both knife and rifle.”³⁸ Also, led some women to reject the societal norms Women were an integral part of the Revo- to generalize about the soldaderas. wrote for an American newspaper recorded assertive soldaderas could become colonels another soldadera previously mentioned, La imposed on them. Women were able to en- lution. They aided troops in every way imag- Similar to the diversity in the soldaderas how impressed he was that women would and generals. One example of a capitana Neri, could “shoot and ride almost as well gage in open relationships with men at this inable, allowing the armies to carry out daily and their motivations, the responsibilities of carry all the equipment and their children. (captain) was Petra Herrera. She fought for as men.”³⁹ These women were recognized time. Liberated from the Catholic Church, tasks that made the war possible. In fighting these women also varied as they performed The author remarked, “without these sol- Venustiano Carranza’s forces disguised as a for their talents and contributions at a time many women chose to have sexual relation- alongside men, women matched their brav- many of the necessary jobs that enabled daderas the army could not move...” as fast as man for most of her military career. Using when women in the United States were not ships with men they were not married to ery and valor. Some women ultimately be- the army to function on a day to day basis. they did.³⁰ The women’s role in the war effort the nom de guerre of “Pedro Herrera,” she allowed to participate in armed combat. Al- and had no plans to marry. They could be- came famous colonels and generals. In doing Women were primarily responsible for two was integral, albeit frequently overlooked. rose up through the ranks to become a cap- though these were only a few examples of have like the men who had controlled them so, they challenged common stereotypes of tasks. The first task involved taking care of Without the women’s help, the men would tain and later a colonel.³² She earned fame women who fought, they are representative for so many years. Soldaderas sometimes docile and submissive Mexican women. Both the men, much like the women did at home. have been slowed down with daily tasks that for her fearlessness, skills on the battlefield, of the soldaderas’ motivations for fighting formed sexual relationships with the soldiers as a camp aide or combatant, the women lib- They cooked for the soldiers, nursed them took time away from pursuing their military and temper.³³ Herrera did not reveal her and how their actions were viewed by on- they worked for or soldiers with whom they erated themselves from some of the restraints lookers. fought alongside. These relationships em- in their lives and achieved equality with men. Through their participation in the war, powered women and may have made them Unfortunately for the women, their par- ²² Salas, 70. these soldaderas were deservedly liberated more assertive, which helped in their mili- ticipation is often overlooked, unlike that of from cultural norms and achieved equality tary work. As a profession, becoming a sol- Pancho Villa or Emiliano Zapata. ²³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990). ²⁴ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. The name “La Neri” probably referred to Margarita Neri. There are many stories surrounding her identity as a soldadera, however there are conflicting accounts as to which side of the revolution she fought. For more information on Neri, see Soto, 45. ³⁴ Soto, 49. ²⁵ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁵ Ibid., 42. ²⁶ Salas, 59. ³⁶ Op Cit. ²⁷ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁷ “Women Fight on Both Sides.” New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3. ²⁸ Herrera-Sobek, Maria. The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 80. ³⁸ Op Cit. ²⁹ Salas, 50. ³⁹ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. ³⁰ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ⁴⁰ “Battle on at Night.” Washington Post 23 May 1912: 3. ³¹ Soto, 36. ⁴¹ Op Cit. ³² Ibid., 48. ⁴² Soto, 103. ³³ Op Cit. ⁴³ Op Cit.
56 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 57 pictures of soldaderas from this era, many of back to health after injury, and carried their objectives. true identity until she was a well-established in ways that went beyond the ideals of the dadera unfettered women in ways that would the women had a darker complexion, most equipment and supplies from one battle to There were women who became soldaderas member of Carranza’s forces. When her se- Revolution. Even if a soldadera took care have been impossible if they had remained at likely indicating their indigenous or mixed the next.²⁵ Among the supplies the soldad- in an effort to improve their own economic cret was revealed, she was awarded command of the troops, she had left her home, where home and were still constrained by males. ancestry. The pictures included in Shirlene eras transported was bedding for the soldiers situations. Such women looked for a way to of an all-women regiment and led them to society wanted and expected her to remain. As much as fighting in the war helped the Soto’s book, Emergence of the Modern Mexi- because they were not supplied with these support themselves in an economy that did many battlefield victories.³⁴ Thus, Herrera is Soldaderas received payment for their work, soldiers, it also helped women advance their can Women, reveal their tattered, worn cloth- materials.²⁶ At this time, the Federal Army not provide for all citizens, and becoming a an example of a woman who believed in the but more importantly, they were released position in society. ing, which may attest to their lower class did not have a department responsible for soldadera did this for them. Women became Revolution and allowed nothing to stand in from the house and the attachment to a Upper-class women found ways to further background or might simply be a reflection these tasks; neither did the revolutionary soldaderas both to serve soldiers and to pro- the way of her participation. man. If she wanted to work for a particular their rights under the law. Although some of inadequate supplies.²³ In most cases, social armies have the organization or manpower vide for their own families. They received There were other brave women like Herre- soldier, she could; if she wanted to move on upper-class women fought in the Revolu- class also dictated the reasons why the wom- to arrange for these. Therefore, armies de- money from the soldiers to buy food and ra, and some of these soldaderas even caught to another for any reason, she could also do tion, most found ways to liberation through en fought. An indigenous woman or mestiza pended on the women to perform these kept some of it for themselves. In doing so, the attention of foreigner observers. María that. There were no rules or expectations political activism. They formed groups seek- woman’s livelihood depended on farming. tasks, especially to set up camp between the women would have enough money to Quinteras de Mares was one such soldad- that governed her movement. She was free to ing to obtain women’s suffrage and greater This woman was more likely to support Zap- battles. Women typically arrived at the camp feed themselves and even their children if era. She was married to a captain in Pancho do as she pleased. By virtue of such actions access to education and contraception, and ata and fight against Díaz or other presiden- site before the men to put up tents and be- they brought them along.³¹ As noted above, Villa’s army, and their daughter accompa- women were able to attain equality with in support of political candidates. Examples tial aspirants who did not embrace agrarian gin preparing the food.²⁷ Without the ben- the women and their children traveled with nied them on all their campaigns. Coronela men in Mexican society, if only in this con- of such groups include the Consejo Femi- reform. However, a woman whose economic efit of a well-supplied army, soldaderas were the troops wherever they went, providing Quinteras de Mares was so committed to the text. Their equality was derived from hav- nista [Mexican Feminist Council] and the situation improved under the government in responsible for procuring food by whatever services the soldiers needed in order to sur- Revolution that she refused to be paid.³⁵ Her ing fought alongside men, taking “machetes Liga Feminista Mexicana [Mexican Femi- power was probably fighting on behalf of the means possible, even if it meant foraging and vive. Although these women did not partici- skills on the battlefield caught the attention and [killing] as many as the federal men…” nist League].⁴² The former worked for “the Federal Army. One example of a soldadera looting. Soldaderas in the Federal Army of- pate in the war because of their ideals or to of many observers in Mexico and the United killed.⁴⁰ Moreover, female soldiers died like economic, social, and political emancipation from a higher class background was a woman ten bought food with a portion of the pay support their husband, lover, or son in the States. In 1914, a reporter from the El Paso their male counterparts, as described in the of women,” while the latter was dedicated referred to as La Neri, who was “a natural that the men received. Meal preparation oc- war, they were still an important part of the Morning Star wrote that she “has led many article “Battle on At Night,” in which a wom- to women’s suffrage.⁴³ These groups exerted leader, with absolute command of her [all- curred whenever and wherever the troops Revolution. desperate charges and her followers have an was bound with her child and thrown into pressure on whatever presidential adminis- women] forces.”²⁴ Because of the conflict- stopped for the day. Women were known The second way women supported the come to believe she is endowed with some a burning building along with other male tration was in power to see that their objec- ing stories surrounding La Neri, it is unclear to start making tortillas in the middle of a war was to fight valiantly alongside the supernatural powers.”³⁶ Soldaderas’ exploits soldiers.⁴¹ Based upon these examples, there tives were met. However, it was not until on which side of the Revolution she fought. desert and even on top of moving trains.²⁸ men. Women who did so did not limit their were also documented in popular American is no doubt that women fought heroically the 1920s and 1930s, after the revolution Due to her upper-class status, one might as- Perhaps what is so remarkable about these participation to tasks that they already per- newspapers like The Washington Post and The and died valiantly, as did men. Women’s con- had ended, that these groups were successful. sume that she fought for the Federales, but it women is that some brought along their formed in the home. Instead, the soldaderas New York Times. For example, The New York tributions and participation in the Revolu- Even though these women were not physi- was common for such women to sympathize families while they tended to the soldiers. took up arms and integrated themselves into Times referred to soldaderas in a 1913 piece tion were a liberating experience, and their cally fighting for equality like the soldaderas, with the revolutionary forces and fight with Soldaderas brought their children with them the Federal Army as well as the opposition entitled, “Women Fight on Both Sides.”³⁷ sacrifice was rewarded with equality. they were still working to obtain freedom their armies. Because of the different reasons to the camp sites and even accompanied the forces. Women were often among the low- The five hundred soldaderas were said to be The soldaderas’ newly acquired freedom and fairness under the law. for which women fought, it is important not troops while pregnant.²⁹ An onlooker who est ranks of the soldiers; nonetheless, skilled, “expert with both knife and rifle.”³⁸ Also, led some women to reject the societal norms Women were an integral part of the Revo- to generalize about the soldaderas. wrote for an American newspaper recorded assertive soldaderas could become colonels another soldadera previously mentioned, La imposed on them. Women were able to en- lution. They aided troops in every way imag- Similar to the diversity in the soldaderas how impressed he was that women would and generals. One example of a capitana Neri, could “shoot and ride almost as well gage in open relationships with men at this inable, allowing the armies to carry out daily and their motivations, the responsibilities of carry all the equipment and their children. (captain) was Petra Herrera. She fought for as men.”³⁹ These women were recognized time. Liberated from the Catholic Church, tasks that made the war possible. In fighting these women also varied as they performed The author remarked, “without these sol- Venustiano Carranza’s forces disguised as a for their talents and contributions at a time many women chose to have sexual relation- alongside men, women matched their brav- many of the necessary jobs that enabled daderas the army could not move...” as fast as man for most of her military career. Using when women in the United States were not ships with men they were not married to ery and valor. Some women ultimately be- the army to function on a day to day basis. they did.³⁰ The women’s role in the war effort the nom de guerre of “Pedro Herrera,” she allowed to participate in armed combat. Al- and had no plans to marry. They could be- came famous colonels and generals. In doing Women were primarily responsible for two was integral, albeit frequently overlooked. rose up through the ranks to become a cap- though these were only a few examples of have like the men who had controlled them so, they challenged common stereotypes of tasks. The first task involved taking care of Without the women’s help, the men would tain and later a colonel.³² She earned fame women who fought, they are representative for so many years. Soldaderas sometimes docile and submissive Mexican women. Both the men, much like the women did at home. have been slowed down with daily tasks that for her fearlessness, skills on the battlefield, of the soldaderas’ motivations for fighting formed sexual relationships with the soldiers as a camp aide or combatant, the women lib- They cooked for the soldiers, nursed them took time away from pursuing their military and temper.³³ Herrera did not reveal her and how their actions were viewed by on- they worked for or soldiers with whom they erated themselves from some of the restraints lookers. fought alongside. These relationships em- in their lives and achieved equality with men. Through their participation in the war, powered women and may have made them Unfortunately for the women, their par- ²² Salas, 70. these soldaderas were deservedly liberated more assertive, which helped in their mili- ticipation is often overlooked, unlike that of from cultural norms and achieved equality tary work. As a profession, becoming a sol- Pancho Villa or Emiliano Zapata. ²³ Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910- 1940, (Denver: Arden Press, 1990). ²⁴ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. The name “La Neri” probably referred to Margarita Neri. There are many stories surrounding her identity as a soldadera, however there are conflicting accounts as to which side of the revolution she fought. For more information on Neri, see Soto, 45. ³⁴ Soto, 49. ²⁵ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁵ Ibid., 42. ²⁶ Salas, 59. ³⁶ Op Cit. ²⁷ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ³⁷ “Women Fight on Both Sides.” New York Times [Del Rio, Mexico] 3 Nov. 1913: 3. ²⁸ Herrera-Sobek, Maria. The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 80. ³⁸ Op Cit. ²⁹ Salas, 50. ³⁹ “Mexico City Menaced.” Washington Post 15 May 1911, Special ed.: 3. ³⁰ “Funny Side to Mexican Wars.” Washington Post [Real Mexico] 3 May 1914: M1. ⁴⁰ “Battle on at Night.” Washington Post 23 May 1912: 3. ³¹ Soto, 36. ⁴¹ Op Cit. ³² Ibid., 48. ⁴² Soto, 103. ³³ Op Cit. ⁴³ Op Cit.
56 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 57 The Image of the Soldaderas over Time the sexual behavior of men. The soldadera can Revolution. One of the most prevalent Herrera, the women in these songs were not In this particular excerpt, La Adelita is im- and the prostitute were able to have sexual topics was that of the women soldiers. The mentioned by their first and last name. Of- mortalized for her valor as well as her beauty, The soldaderas’ legacy is clouded by mis- relationships with whomever they pleased. soldaderas were remembered in many ways. ten they were referred to by a nickname and but the rest of the corrido describes how conceptions. Although women made prog- Also, the soldaderas were fighting for equal- Men wrote most of these corridos and, there- were probably fictional characters. The lack much the men desired her. She is described ress by virtue of their accomplishments on ity on the battlefield, while the prostitutes fore, their interpretations are based upon a of a real name for these women downplays as being so beautiful “si Adelita se fuera con the battlefield, the transformations in their achieved equality by other means. Some peo- male point of view. Because these are men’s their significance. However, the woman in otro, la seguiría por tierra y por mar” [if gender roles were not always looked upon ple even saw prostitution as the logical result views of the soldadera, they contributed to this type of song has a more prominent leg- Adelita left me for another, I would follow favorably. Women’s participation and sub- of feminism, which most people associated the depiction of the soldadera that was popu- acy than Herrera. Instead of being the work her by land and sea].⁵⁵ This woman was the sequent success threatened patriarchal struc- with female soldiers. In a review of Rodolfo larized at the time of the Revolution and that of a composer who was impressed by the sol- perfect archetype for a soldadera because she tures. Men were supposed to be the strong Usigli’s play El Eterno Femenino [The Eter- remains popular to this day. According to daderas’ bravery, these songs were written by was brave, although men still idolized her for figure in Mexican society. Successful women nal Feminine], Georges Batailles argues that the research by Rosalva Resendiz, the corri- soldiers who were most likely love sick and her beauty. in the Mexican Revolution had to be remem- “not every woman is a potential prostitute, dos categorized women into different arche- writing about the women with whom they La Valentina is another corrido that de- bered in a way that would not threaten the but prostitution is the logical consequence types: “good mother, goddess, the lover, and wanted to be. Such ballads described the scribed women in the same way. The song men’s masculine characteristics. Therefore, of the feminine attitude.”⁴⁵ Although the the soldier.”⁴⁷ The female soldier is usually extent of women’s beauty and femininity, al- gained popularity in 1914 and describes men recast the image of women in a way that play was written in the 1950s, it shows that remembered in the corridos as either brave luding to the prevailing standard of women’s the depths of love the composer has for this allowed the men to retain their dominance in many people previously equated feminism or a love interest. By examining the different Figure 3. María Félix in Doña Diabla. physical appearance in Mexican society. soldadera.⁵⁶ The lyrics are as follows: society and that subjugated the soldaderas to with prostitution or simply the idea of a depictions of the soldaderas in corridos we Found in Mediating Two Worlds Cinematic There are two popular corridos, not only in a subordinate role. Soldaderas were portrayed “loose” woman. Any unattached woman was can see how they contributed to the roman- Encounters in the Americas, (Annapolis: British Mexico, but in other Latin American coun- “Una pasión me domina in a romanticized manner that was at odds considered “loose” or “easy” in Mexican so- ticized image of La Adelita in history. Film Institute. 1993) 155. tries, that can best be described as tributes Es la que me hizo venir with who they were in real life. The woman ciety. Unmarried soldaderas therefore were The brave soldaderas’ accomplishments to the women soldiers. One particular song Valentina, Valentina in Figure 1 has come to embody the image of also in this category of women. They were as well as their beauty were described in was so popular that the character’s name, La Yo te quisiera decir” the female soldier. Clearly this woman does seen as a potentially disruptive force within corridos. Depending on the composer, the Adelita, has now become a generalized name not resemble the actual soldadera, like the society because they were unable to control portrayal of these women varied. There are Long live Petra Herrera for all soldaderas.⁵² The song titled “La Adel- one in Figure 2. This romanticized depiction their sexuality and thus needed to be under more songs that describe how gorgeous these Long live the Maderistas! ita” was most likely written at the beginning “A passion dominates me of the soldadera highlights her sexuality and a man’s control. The prevailing image of the women soldiers were than how fiercely they Let the baldies (Federales) die! of the Revolution. There are several theories That’s what brought me here omits her bravery. Although the image re- promiscuous soldadera is probably derived fought.⁴⁸ For example, Petra Herrera was With the cowardly Porfiristas! ”⁵⁰ about the identity of La Adelita, including Valentina, Valentina tains the assertive traits of the woman, it also from the sexual behavior associated with the one of the soldaderas whose exploits in war that she was a soldier in Pancho Villa’s army, I wish to tell you so” subtly undermines her with sexual overtones. prostitute. granted her a corrido. Herrera’s song dates In these lyrics, Herrera does not share the his lover, or a nurse who helped a soldier re- Despite the soldaderas’ efforts to support the back to 1911 and the battle of Torreón.⁴⁹ An spotlight with any other soldaderas or male turn to good health after an injury.⁵³ There is The composer’s passion for this woman gives Revolution and pursue equality, their memo- Popular Culture: Corridos excerpt of the song follows: soldiers. This illustrates the esteem the au- no way of verifying who she really was, but the reader the impression that La Valentina ry has been replaced by the idealized one that (Love Ballads) and Film thor had for his female subject. For Her- we are left with the following lyrics excerpted was beautiful. She was inspired by a fierce men have conjured up in their imagination. “La valiente Petra Herrera rera to have a corrido dedicated to her as a from The Mexican Corrido that describe who woman fighter; however, the lyrics do not re- Additional sources for this over-sexual- While prostitution bestowed a promiscuous En el fragor del combate woman, she must have been regarded as val- she could have been:⁵⁴ flect that. It is obvious by the omission of her ized image can be found in another type image upon the soldaderas, the Mexican cor- Aunque cayó prisionera iant as other revolutionary leaders, such as accomplishments on the battlefield that La of woman who broke down gender roles: rido, or love ballad, created a more feminine Ni se dobla ni se abate … Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Accord- “…y una moza que valiente los seguía Valentina was best remembered as a beautiful prostitutes.⁴⁴ Although soldaderas and pros- image of beauty and devotion. The corrido ing to María Herrera-Sobek, Petra Herrera Locamente enamorada de su sargento woman, rather than as a heroic participant in titutes would seem very different, there are was one of the primary methods for spread- Que viva Petra Herrera is only one of three women remembered in Popular entre la tropa era Adelita, the Revolution. many commonalities. For example, prosti- ing information, especially about the war in Que vivan los maderistas corridos by their first and last name.⁵¹ The La mujer que el sargento idolatraba This misrepresentation of the soldad- tutes were some of the most liberated wom- this era. Dating back to the Spanish coloni- Que mueran con los pelones mere mention of this soldadera by her full Porque además de ser valiente, era bonita era fits better with how Mexican society and en in Mexico at the time of the Revolution. zation, the Mexican corrido has maintained Los cobardes porfiristas!” name is indicative of the level of acclaim she men in particular, viewed women at that They rejected the cultural norm that women its validity for disseminating information received, especially from a male composer. time. They were objects of desire, rather than were supposed to be under male control for throughout history.⁴⁶ Although these ballads Unfortunately, the popularity of this type of “And a young woman who valiantly equals on the battlefield. Although it is wide- the duration of their lives, in that they were have been used to circulate all types of infor- “The valiant Petra Herrera soldadera was limited to that time period, as followed ly accepted that these women were fighters, not committed to one man through marriage mation, at the beginning of the twentieth In the heat of the battle there was no lasting legacy of her like there is Madly in love with the sergeant their true legacy has been lost. For example, or sex, as was the case of the soldadera. Also, century they were used to tell stories about And even though she was taken prisoner of the other type of woman soldier. Popular among the troops was Adelita in another excerpt of La Adelita, she is not- these women sought equality by emulating the participants and events in the Mexi- She doesn’t surrender or give up … The inspiration for the famous picture The woman the sergeant adored ed for being respected by the colonel, but of the soldadera (Figure 1) probably has its Because she was not only valiant but the composer goes on to describe how she origins in the corridos that describe how beautiful” is viewed as a love object rather than a sol- beautiful the women were. Unlike Petra dier: “…Y si Adelita quisiera ser mi novia, y si ⁴⁴ Castillo, Debra A. Easy Women: Sex and Gender in Modern Mexican Fiction, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). ⁴⁵ Ibid., 21. ⁵⁰ Op Cit. ⁴⁶ Resendez, Rosalva, “Female Subjectivity and Agency in Popular Mexican Corridos (Ballads): An Examination of Im- ⁵¹ Herrera-Sobek, 94. ages and Representations of Soldaderas (Female Soldiers) in the Mexican Revolution 1910-1920.” PhD dissertation, Texas ⁵² Ibid., 108. Woman’s University, 2001, pg. 7. ⁵³ Salas, 92-93. ⁴⁷ Ibid., 8. ⁵⁴ Herrera-Sobek,107. ⁴⁸ Herrera-Sobek, 103. ⁵⁵ Op Cit. ⁴⁹ Ibid., 93. ⁵⁶ Herrera-Sobek, 109.
58 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 59 The Image of the Soldaderas over Time the sexual behavior of men. The soldadera can Revolution. One of the most prevalent Herrera, the women in these songs were not In this particular excerpt, La Adelita is im- and the prostitute were able to have sexual topics was that of the women soldiers. The mentioned by their first and last name. Of- mortalized for her valor as well as her beauty, The soldaderas’ legacy is clouded by mis- relationships with whomever they pleased. soldaderas were remembered in many ways. ten they were referred to by a nickname and but the rest of the corrido describes how conceptions. Although women made prog- Also, the soldaderas were fighting for equal- Men wrote most of these corridos and, there- were probably fictional characters. The lack much the men desired her. She is described ress by virtue of their accomplishments on ity on the battlefield, while the prostitutes fore, their interpretations are based upon a of a real name for these women downplays as being so beautiful “si Adelita se fuera con the battlefield, the transformations in their achieved equality by other means. Some peo- male point of view. Because these are men’s their significance. However, the woman in otro, la seguiría por tierra y por mar” [if gender roles were not always looked upon ple even saw prostitution as the logical result views of the soldadera, they contributed to this type of song has a more prominent leg- Adelita left me for another, I would follow favorably. Women’s participation and sub- of feminism, which most people associated the depiction of the soldadera that was popu- acy than Herrera. Instead of being the work her by land and sea].⁵⁵ This woman was the sequent success threatened patriarchal struc- with female soldiers. In a review of Rodolfo larized at the time of the Revolution and that of a composer who was impressed by the sol- perfect archetype for a soldadera because she tures. Men were supposed to be the strong Usigli’s play El Eterno Femenino [The Eter- remains popular to this day. According to daderas’ bravery, these songs were written by was brave, although men still idolized her for figure in Mexican society. Successful women nal Feminine], Georges Batailles argues that the research by Rosalva Resendiz, the corri- soldiers who were most likely love sick and her beauty. in the Mexican Revolution had to be remem- “not every woman is a potential prostitute, dos categorized women into different arche- writing about the women with whom they La Valentina is another corrido that de- bered in a way that would not threaten the but prostitution is the logical consequence types: “good mother, goddess, the lover, and wanted to be. Such ballads described the scribed women in the same way. The song men’s masculine characteristics. Therefore, of the feminine attitude.”⁴⁵ Although the the soldier.”⁴⁷ The female soldier is usually extent of women’s beauty and femininity, al- gained popularity in 1914 and describes men recast the image of women in a way that play was written in the 1950s, it shows that remembered in the corridos as either brave luding to the prevailing standard of women’s the depths of love the composer has for this allowed the men to retain their dominance in many people previously equated feminism or a love interest. By examining the different Figure 3. María Félix in Doña Diabla. physical appearance in Mexican society. soldadera.⁵⁶ The lyrics are as follows: society and that subjugated the soldaderas to with prostitution or simply the idea of a depictions of the soldaderas in corridos we Found in Mediating Two Worlds Cinematic There are two popular corridos, not only in a subordinate role. Soldaderas were portrayed “loose” woman. Any unattached woman was can see how they contributed to the roman- Encounters in the Americas, (Annapolis: British Mexico, but in other Latin American coun- “Una pasión me domina in a romanticized manner that was at odds considered “loose” or “easy” in Mexican so- ticized image of La Adelita in history. Film Institute. 1993) 155. tries, that can best be described as tributes Es la que me hizo venir with who they were in real life. The woman ciety. Unmarried soldaderas therefore were The brave soldaderas’ accomplishments to the women soldiers. One particular song Valentina, Valentina in Figure 1 has come to embody the image of also in this category of women. They were as well as their beauty were described in was so popular that the character’s name, La Yo te quisiera decir” the female soldier. Clearly this woman does seen as a potentially disruptive force within corridos. Depending on the composer, the Adelita, has now become a generalized name not resemble the actual soldadera, like the society because they were unable to control portrayal of these women varied. There are Long live Petra Herrera for all soldaderas.⁵² The song titled “La Adel- one in Figure 2. This romanticized depiction their sexuality and thus needed to be under more songs that describe how gorgeous these Long live the Maderistas! ita” was most likely written at the beginning “A passion dominates me of the soldadera highlights her sexuality and a man’s control. The prevailing image of the women soldiers were than how fiercely they Let the baldies (Federales) die! of the Revolution. There are several theories That’s what brought me here omits her bravery. Although the image re- promiscuous soldadera is probably derived fought.⁴⁸ For example, Petra Herrera was With the cowardly Porfiristas! ”⁵⁰ about the identity of La Adelita, including Valentina, Valentina tains the assertive traits of the woman, it also from the sexual behavior associated with the one of the soldaderas whose exploits in war that she was a soldier in Pancho Villa’s army, I wish to tell you so” subtly undermines her with sexual overtones. prostitute. granted her a corrido. Herrera’s song dates In these lyrics, Herrera does not share the his lover, or a nurse who helped a soldier re- Despite the soldaderas’ efforts to support the back to 1911 and the battle of Torreón.⁴⁹ An spotlight with any other soldaderas or male turn to good health after an injury.⁵³ There is The composer’s passion for this woman gives Revolution and pursue equality, their memo- Popular Culture: Corridos excerpt of the song follows: soldiers. This illustrates the esteem the au- no way of verifying who she really was, but the reader the impression that La Valentina ry has been replaced by the idealized one that (Love Ballads) and Film thor had for his female subject. For Her- we are left with the following lyrics excerpted was beautiful. She was inspired by a fierce men have conjured up in their imagination. “La valiente Petra Herrera rera to have a corrido dedicated to her as a from The Mexican Corrido that describe who woman fighter; however, the lyrics do not re- Additional sources for this over-sexual- While prostitution bestowed a promiscuous En el fragor del combate woman, she must have been regarded as val- she could have been:⁵⁴ flect that. It is obvious by the omission of her ized image can be found in another type image upon the soldaderas, the Mexican cor- Aunque cayó prisionera iant as other revolutionary leaders, such as accomplishments on the battlefield that La of woman who broke down gender roles: rido, or love ballad, created a more feminine Ni se dobla ni se abate … Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Accord- “…y una moza que valiente los seguía Valentina was best remembered as a beautiful prostitutes.⁴⁴ Although soldaderas and pros- image of beauty and devotion. The corrido ing to María Herrera-Sobek, Petra Herrera Locamente enamorada de su sargento woman, rather than as a heroic participant in titutes would seem very different, there are was one of the primary methods for spread- Que viva Petra Herrera is only one of three women remembered in Popular entre la tropa era Adelita, the Revolution. many commonalities. For example, prosti- ing information, especially about the war in Que vivan los maderistas corridos by their first and last name.⁵¹ The La mujer que el sargento idolatraba This misrepresentation of the soldad- tutes were some of the most liberated wom- this era. Dating back to the Spanish coloni- Que mueran con los pelones mere mention of this soldadera by her full Porque además de ser valiente, era bonita era fits better with how Mexican society and en in Mexico at the time of the Revolution. zation, the Mexican corrido has maintained Los cobardes porfiristas!” name is indicative of the level of acclaim she men in particular, viewed women at that They rejected the cultural norm that women its validity for disseminating information received, especially from a male composer. time. They were objects of desire, rather than were supposed to be under male control for throughout history.⁴⁶ Although these ballads Unfortunately, the popularity of this type of “And a young woman who valiantly equals on the battlefield. Although it is wide- the duration of their lives, in that they were have been used to circulate all types of infor- “The valiant Petra Herrera soldadera was limited to that time period, as followed ly accepted that these women were fighters, not committed to one man through marriage mation, at the beginning of the twentieth In the heat of the battle there was no lasting legacy of her like there is Madly in love with the sergeant their true legacy has been lost. For example, or sex, as was the case of the soldadera. Also, century they were used to tell stories about And even though she was taken prisoner of the other type of woman soldier. Popular among the troops was Adelita in another excerpt of La Adelita, she is not- these women sought equality by emulating the participants and events in the Mexi- She doesn’t surrender or give up … The inspiration for the famous picture The woman the sergeant adored ed for being respected by the colonel, but of the soldadera (Figure 1) probably has its Because she was not only valiant but the composer goes on to describe how she origins in the corridos that describe how beautiful” is viewed as a love object rather than a sol- beautiful the women were. Unlike Petra dier: “…Y si Adelita quisiera ser mi novia, y si ⁴⁴ Castillo, Debra A. Easy Women: Sex and Gender in Modern Mexican Fiction, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998). ⁴⁵ Ibid., 21. ⁵⁰ Op Cit. ⁴⁶ Resendez, Rosalva, “Female Subjectivity and Agency in Popular Mexican Corridos (Ballads): An Examination of Im- ⁵¹ Herrera-Sobek, 94. ages and Representations of Soldaderas (Female Soldiers) in the Mexican Revolution 1910-1920.” PhD dissertation, Texas ⁵² Ibid., 108. Woman’s University, 2001, pg. 7. ⁵³ Salas, 92-93. ⁴⁷ Ibid., 8. ⁵⁴ Herrera-Sobek,107. ⁴⁸ Herrera-Sobek, 103. ⁵⁵ Op Cit. ⁴⁹ Ibid., 93. ⁵⁶ Herrera-Sobek, 109.
58 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 59 Adelita fuera mi mujer, le compraría un ves- era filmmakers in the United States started woman). For the mostly Catholic Mexican dos, the main characters were soldaderas, but tido de seda, para llevarla a bailar al cuartel” to use Mexican conflicts as inspiration for population, the Virgin Mary is the most ven- the focus of the movie was about the women’s [If Adelita would like to be my girlfriend, If entertainment. Dating back to the onset erated woman in society.⁶⁴ She represents in- relationships. Besides giving less attention to Adelita would be my wife, I'd buy her a silk of the Revolution, the film industry in the nocence, purity, and self-sacrifice. In contrast, the women’s participation on the battlefield, dress to take her to the barrack's dance.]⁵⁷ U.S. had produced many movies that shaped La Malinche is one of the most despised wom- the other popular theme is the domestication The rest of the song goes on to describe her popular perception of the “Mexican wars” en in Mexico. She is the indigenous woman or taming of women’s behavior. Like Ameri- physical appearance, rather than her exploits and society.⁵⁸ Hollywood created lasting ste- who betrayed the Mexican people in help- can and Mexican movies which show the bad in combat. Conservative Mexican society did reotypes of Mexican men and women, the ing the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cor- women transformed into the good women, not want to acknowledge that women broke state of the country, and society as a whole. tez, defeat the Aztecs. Additionally, she was popular films about the soldaderas were no free of the cultural expectations when they One theme that emerged often portrayed Cortez’s lover; their child was the first mes- different. InLa Cucaracha (1958) the main became soldiers, even when some achieved mestizo men as villains, a white American tizo born in Mexico. Therefore, La Malinche character was a rude, violent soldadera that success as fighters. This helps explain why male as the hero, and the Mexican woman represents betrayal and unbridled sexuality. subsequently is passed up as the love interest La Adelita and La Valentina are the models as strong and assertive, yet easily tamed by Mexican movies often portrayed women as of the general because of her behavior. She upon which the popular images of all soldad- the hero.⁵⁹ Moreover, the Americans were either of these archetypes. It is also common only becomes a more appealing woman after eras are based. These songs became popular depicted as peacemakers and the Mexicans as in Mexican movies for the bad woman to be she becomes pregnant. Ironically, after giving throughout Mexico by word of mouth and unreasonable and savage. Many films made portrayed in the beginning, to be tamed or birth she becomes a camp aide and does not also with the invention and the popularity of in this era adhere to this formula, including domesticated as the movie progresses, and return to the life of a fighting soldadera.⁶⁷ Figure 5. Bandidas. The International Movie the radio. The prevalence and appeal of these The Americano (1917) and Captain Alvarez transformed into a good woman by the end Here we see that it was more acceptable for Database. 60 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 61 Adelita fuera mi mujer, le compraría un ves- era filmmakers in the United States started woman). For the mostly Catholic Mexican dos, the main characters were soldaderas, but tido de seda, para llevarla a bailar al cuartel” to use Mexican conflicts as inspiration for population, the Virgin Mary is the most ven- the focus of the movie was about the women’s [If Adelita would like to be my girlfriend, If entertainment. Dating back to the onset erated woman in society.⁶⁴ She represents in- relationships. Besides giving less attention to Adelita would be my wife, I'd buy her a silk of the Revolution, the film industry in the nocence, purity, and self-sacrifice. In contrast, the women’s participation on the battlefield, dress to take her to the barrack's dance.]⁵⁷ U.S. had produced many movies that shaped La Malinche is one of the most despised wom- the other popular theme is the domestication The rest of the song goes on to describe her popular perception of the “Mexican wars” en in Mexico. She is the indigenous woman or taming of women’s behavior. Like Ameri- physical appearance, rather than her exploits and society.⁵⁸ Hollywood created lasting ste- who betrayed the Mexican people in help- can and Mexican movies which show the bad in combat. Conservative Mexican society did reotypes of Mexican men and women, the ing the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cor- women transformed into the good women, not want to acknowledge that women broke state of the country, and society as a whole. tez, defeat the Aztecs. Additionally, she was popular films about the soldaderas were no free of the cultural expectations when they One theme that emerged often portrayed Cortez’s lover; their child was the first mes- different. InLa Cucaracha (1958) the main became soldiers, even when some achieved mestizo men as villains, a white American tizo born in Mexico. Therefore, La Malinche character was a rude, violent soldadera that success as fighters. This helps explain why male as the hero, and the Mexican woman represents betrayal and unbridled sexuality. subsequently is passed up as the love interest La Adelita and La Valentina are the models as strong and assertive, yet easily tamed by Mexican movies often portrayed women as of the general because of her behavior. She upon which the popular images of all soldad- the hero.⁵⁹ Moreover, the Americans were either of these archetypes. It is also common only becomes a more appealing woman after eras are based. These songs became popular depicted as peacemakers and the Mexicans as in Mexican movies for the bad woman to be she becomes pregnant. Ironically, after giving throughout Mexico by word of mouth and unreasonable and savage. Many films made portrayed in the beginning, to be tamed or birth she becomes a camp aide and does not also with the invention and the popularity of in this era adhere to this formula, including domesticated as the movie progresses, and return to the life of a fighting soldadera.⁶⁷ Figure 5. Bandidas. The International Movie the radio. The prevalence and appeal of these The Americano (1917) and Captain Alvarez transformed into a good woman by the end Here we see that it was more acceptable for Database. 60 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 61 The Depiction of Women in the popularized. These corridos created female Language, Culture, Perception and Knowledge Mexican Revolution characters that would later be immortalized in American and Mexican movies as either The popular image of La Adelita does not do the good woman (Virgin Mary) or the bad justice to the real-life soldadera. Glamorous woman (La Malinche). Subsequent depic- characters in movies played by María Felix, tions of soldaderas fell victim to these same Abstract The world without language becomes Penelope Cruz, and Salma Hayek, among stereotypes. Successful films showed talented unimaginable, since language makes the ar- others, are romanticized representations of women-soldiers as they were tamed. Their The complexity of our diverse communi- ticulation of our thoughts and the human the real women soldiers. The true women transformation from the bad woman (sol- ties requires us to reflect on pre-conceived no- experience possible. Through an interactive fighters battled adversity in Mexico at a dadera) to the good woman (mother) satis- tions of understanding that shape worldviews. connection with symbols, signs, and sounds, time when the dominant patriarchal society fied conservative viewers who wanted to see This project examines approaches that exclude language enables us to express complex con- restricted their actions with gendered ex- women in this role. divergent perspectives, while promoting in- cepts while allowing us to process and convey pectations and cultural norms. Becoming a The accomplishments of women on the tolerant ideologies that limit our possibilities the abstract, thus creating an environment soldadera provided these women with an op- battlefield are often overlooked or misrep- for shared learning. It also explores crucial of communication through the exchange of portunity to break away from the control of resented in the media. Women overcame elements that shape our understanding in an ideas. men and assert their equality with their male many obstacles and achieved limited forms effort to expose the limitations created by abso- The human need for expression and con- counterparts. of equality through their participation in the lute frames of mind. This research involves an tact with one another connects us with the The idea of participating in the Revolu- Revolution. However, Colonel Petra Herrera analysis of scientific and religious fundamen- origin of language. Once the connection tion was liberating in itself because it meant is now virtually unknown, while La Adelita Alfredo Hernandez Corsen talist outlooks that negate vital opportunities takes place, the cultural components of lan- the women were not forced to stay at home remains a permanent fixture in our collec- McNair Scholar for discovery through mutual collaboration guage begin to develop an interactive re- in their traditional gendered roles. Although tive memory. Not many people can recall and the acknowledgment of exclusive and in- lationship between our traditions and our some women performed the same tasks on the heroics of Herrera like they can those of complete perspectives that discourage and un- verbal living experiences as a society. It is the battlefield as they did in the home, it Emiliano Zapata or Pancho Villa; instead, dervalue diversity. through this association that our world be- was by their choice. Soldaderas also fought La Adelita has come to embody the myriad gins to take shape, and the perception of our valiantly alongside the men in every rank of women with varying backgrounds, motiva- world becomes outlined by culture and lan- both the Federal Army and the revolutionary tions, and accomplishments who fought in guage. This bond between language and hu- forces. They became feared soldiers and ad- the Revolution. La Adelita represents a sex- man thought becomes our cultural reality, as vanced through the ranks, some even becom- ual yet at the same time brave woman during well as the medium through which we relate ing generals. Though many women gained Mexican cinema’s golden age (1930s-1950s) to one another. Through the interrelated na- acclaim for their accomplishments on the and in the years following. She symbolizes ture of language and its cultural components, battlefield, their efforts were soon forgotten all the characters in the corridos and mov- the way we learn and recognize the world be- or misrepresented after the Revolution. ies that depicted women in that manner. comes predetermined and dependant on our Women’s actions on the battlefield were Even though her image is still controversial, specific system of symbols and sounds used framed in such a way so that they fit with with the birth of the Chicano movement in Judy Whipps, Ph.D. within our communities, developing our societal expectations. As soldaderas, women the 1960s, the name of La Adelita began to Faculty Mentor sense of reality and cultural identity. posed a threat to the male’s dominant posi- represent more of who the soldaderas really My main argument explores the relation- tion in society. Assertiveness, bravery, and were.⁶⁸ Some Mexican women have begun ship between language and its cultural com- violence were male attributes, and their pres- to take pride in La Adelita because she rep- ponents from a linguistic anthropological ence in women made many men uncomfort- resents a strong fighter, working for equality; and philosophical perspective and investi- able. Thus, men began to portray soldaderas if she chooses, she can appear overtly sexual, gates the role language and culture play in in a non-threatening way by emphasizing the but she no longer is forced into that role. She shaping our perception and epistemological female soldiers’ beauty and depicting them stands for independence from any oppressive understanding of the world as well as the de- as objects of desire. The image of the strong force. She is less associated with the image of velopment, recognition, and acceptance of women fighters was neutralized in such a the women in the revealing blouse, than she knowledge. If our cultural identity originates way that coincided with males’ expectations is aligned with her own image of a remark- through language, then the foundation for of women. This resulted in a paradox that able woman, much like who the soldaderas learning and development of worldviews also was at odds with Mexican gender roles. really were. relies on the existence of language. Edward Popular culture, in particular, corridos Sapir¹ speaks about the power of language and films, was an effective way to disseminate and culture as he warns us that our cultural this image of women and the soldaderas over traditions potentially imprison our thoughts the course of the twentieth century. Cor- as well as our acceptance of reality. He states, ridos idolized beautiful, submissive women “Once they had become a part of a linguistic and established the archetype that was system, they would then be more likely to be imposed on it because of the tyrannical hold ¹ Edward Sapir was a student of Frank Boas, who was widely acknowledged as the founder of American Anthropology (The ⁶⁸ Salas, 115-17. Anthropology of Language). 62 From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of Women in the Mexican Revolution GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 13, 2009 63