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Title Magnetic and Sedimentological Analyses of Quaternary Lake Sediments from the English Lake District Name Donald C.H

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Title Magnetic and Sedimentological Analyses of Quaternary Lake Sediments from the English Lake District Name Donald C.H University of • Bedfordshire Title Magnetic and Sedimentological Analyses of Quaternary Lake Sediments from the English Lake District Name Donald C.H. McLean This is a digitised version of a dissertation submitted to the University of Bedfordshire. It is available to view only. This item is subject to copyright. MAGNETIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF QUATERNARY LAKE SEDIMENTS FROM THE ENGLISH LAKE DISTRICT. DONALD C.H. McLEAN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Council for National Academic Awards for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. March 1991 Luton College of Higher Education ~4vit 7/o/2.. - .,,, , "•h ,,,.,h •~ .~,.._ ~/ c,-,. 7q D.McLEAN. MAGNETIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL ANALYSES OF QUATERNARY LAKE SEDIMENTS FROM THE ENGLISH LAKE DISTRICT. ABSTRACT Results of mineral magnetic, mobile clement, and granulometric analyses of Holocene sediments from Buttennerc and Crummock Water (two closely-linked lakes in the north-west of the English Lake District) arc presented. These are used to: (1) identify effects of internal (lacustrine) and external (catchment) controls on sedimentation; (2) establish catchment source-lake sediment linkages and assess the value of mineral magnetic techniques in palaeolimnological studies; (3) identify major catchment environmental changes. Analyses of lake sediment fabrics (using sediment thin sections, SEM clay flake analysis, standard granulometric analysis, and mineral magnetic indicators of grain size change) indicate that river plume sedimentation is the normal sediment dispersal mechanism in these lakes. Thin ($ 3.0 mm) chlorite-rich laminae, found at intervals in the otherwise homogeneous Holocene sediment sequence, arc probably formed by trapping and concentration of fine, platy particles within lake waters. They arc subsequently deposited during lake overturn. This represents an "internal" control on sedimentation. A model of sedimentation processes operating in these lakes is developed, incorporating river plume sedimentation, episodic density surges, and lake thermal structure. Mineral magnetic measurements allow the objective subdivision of the lacustrine lithostratigraphy, identifying broad changes in lake sediment characteristics. Samples from both lake catchments arc clustered into six magnetically distinct groups - despite the lithological complexity or the catchment. Comparison of these with the lake sediments has enabled identification of major sources during the Holocene. Following deposition of relatively unaltered bedrock-derived material during the Late-glacial ("primary" sources), secondary sources (which may include glacial diamicts, soils and stream sediments) dominate the lake sediments. Direct input of topsoil-derived sediment from circa 1000 A.D. onwards (during and following the main period of Norse sculement of the Lake District) is identified by its distinctive mineral magnetic characteristics, (high Xfd% values, >~4%). Industrially-derived magnetic spherules contribute significantly to the mineral magnetic characteristics of the more recent sediments, (mainly those post-dating circa 1900 AD.). These are used to construct a proxy chronology for recent sediments. Catchment environmental changes arc mainly related to stabilisation of vegetation following deglaciation and, from circa 2 000 B.P., anthropogenic effects of deforestation and land disturbance, thus increasing lake sediment accumulation rates. These findings are broadly consistent with the interpretation of the Lake District Post-glacial sediment sequence presented in studies by Mackereth, (1966a), and Pennington, (1981), demonstrating a uniformity of lake and catchment development within the Lake District. A prominent minerogenic layer present in the Buttcrmerc and Crummock Water sediment sequence however broadly correlates with similar horizons dcpositccl in other Lake District lakes from circa 7 400 - 5 000 B.P. These have been previously interpreted as composed of topsoil-derived material derivd from human actions, (Pennington 1973, 1981). In the Bullcrmcre and Crummock Water sediments, this layer is best interpreted as derived from glnciogcnic sediments reworked from within the lake basins, probably following lowered lake water levels during the period circa 7 300 - 5 300 B.P. Thus it is suggested that a re-interpretation or similar Lake District lacustrine sediments using the methods employed in this study would be appropriate. Mud, mud, glorious mud, Nothing quite like it for cooling the blood, So follow me, follow, Down to the hollow, And there let us wallow, In glorious mud. Donald Swann, "The Hippopotamus Song" (Personal communication, December 1990) Acknowledgements, declaration, copyright ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This work was undertaken during receipt of a research studentship based at Luton College of Higher Education, financed by Bedfordshire County Council and Luton College, with additional funds provided by the Bill Bishop Memorial Trust, and the Quaternary Research Association Grants to Young Research Workers. These sponsors, together with Dr.A.A.Morrison, Dr.C.Eccles (who stepped in as supervisor), Prof.F.Oldfield, and Dr.A.Duncan (Director of Studies), who have variously provided some very unusual and essential reading material, and also valuable and patient criticism, are all very gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to: the National Trust for permission to core Buttermere and Crummock Water and to collect samples from their catchments; the Freshwater Biological Association for efficiently collecting the Mackereth long cores at a reduced price (and arranging splendid weather for the occasion); University of Newcastle Department of Geophysics for generously providing very comfortable departmental accommodation, the use of their whole core spinner magnetometer, and Dr.D.Collinson who explained how to use it; University of Liverpool Department of Geography for the use of other coring, mineral magnetics, and computer equipment, Bob Jude and Derek France who explained how to use some of it, and Dr. Lizhong Yu who patiently explained how to use the PATN statistical package; Maz Iqbal and Andy Willets for experimenting with sediment impregnation and thin sectioning; to Celia Hickson for organising supplies of recycled paper; and, for assistance in the field "far beyond the call...", Bob Jude (who saved boat-wreck by steady rowing), Mike Brunskill, Pete Robertson, and Ian "Bones" Jones, (joint providers of field "refreshment"), Julia Brindsley, and Patrick Bonnet, (some of whom became expert in aspects of pneumatic corer design in the process). DECLARATION The material of this thesis is based on the author's previously unpublished independent research. Material used from other sources is acknowledged within the text where applicable. PERMISSION TO COPY Single copies of this thesis, in whole or in part, may be made for study purposes, subject to normal conditions of acknowledgement as unpublished material. -------------------------------------------------------·-------------------------------------------------- PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER Contents Contents Page number Acknowledgements, declaration, copyright Contents 2 List of figures 6 List of abbreviations 9 Chapter 1. Introduction, aims, methods and reviews. 1. 1 Introduction 1 1.2 Aims 4 1.3 Methodology 5 1.4 Application of mineral magnetic techniques to lake sediment studies 8 1.5 Lake sediments and sedimentation processes 14 Chapter 2. Lake and catchment characteristics. Introduction 26 2.1 Catchment characteristics 26 2.1.1 Geology 26 2.1.2 Geomorphology 32 2.2 Regional vegetation history and contemporary land use 38 2.3 Lake characteristics 44 2.3.1 Buttermere 44 2.3.2 Crummock Water 50 Chapter 3. Lake sediment stratigraphy and chronology. 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Methods 55 3.2.1. Stratigraphic division 55 3.2.2. Chronological methods 59 2 Contents 3.3 Results 62 3.3.1. Stratigraphic analyses 62 3.3.2. Chronological analyses 76 3.4. Discussion 83 3.4.1. Stratigraphy 83 3.4.2.Chronology of the lake sediments 85 i) Lithostratigraphic correlation 85 ii) Magnetic spherule record 85 iii) Natural remanent magnetic stratigraphy 89 3.5. Summary 95 Chapter 4. Catchment erosion and source - sediment linkages. 4.1 Introduction 98 4.2 Methods 98 4.2.1 Sediment accumulation and delivery 98 4.2.2 Catchment weathering and erosion 99 i) XRD analysis 101 ii) Chemical analysis 101 4.2.3 Sediment-source linkages 102 i) Mineral magnetic comparison 102 ii) Sedimentary clay composition 104 4.3 Results 104 4.3.1 Sediment accumulation and delivery 104 4.3.2 Catchment weathering and erosion 108 i) XRD results 108 ii) Chemical analysis 111 4.3.3 Sediment-source linkages 114 i) Mineral magnetic-based comparisons 114 ii) XRD source indicators 123 4.4 Discussion 124 3 Contents 4.4.1 Lake sediment accumulation/erosion rates 124 4.4.2 Catchment weathering and erosion 129 i) XRD analysis 129 ii) Chemical indicators of erosion regime 130 4.4.3 Sediment-source linkages 133 i) Mineral magnetic indicators 133 ii) XRD-derived indicators 143 4.5 Summary 144 Chapter 5. Lake sedimentation processes. 5.1 Introduction 146 5.2 Methods 142 5.3 Results 151 5.3.1. Sediment fabrics 151 i) thin section examination 151 ii) SEM examination 156 5.3.2. Between-core grain size variation 156 5.3.3. Sediment focusing 160 5.4 Discussion 163 5.5 Summary 159 Chapter 6. Discussion and conclusions. 6.1 Mineral magnetism in the study of lake sediments 171 6.2 Catchment evolution in the Holocene 178 6.2.1 B uttem1ere and Crummock Water 178 6.2.2 Regional (Lake
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