Hohonu Volume 6

'} 7 ~◊◊~ Academic Journal

University of Hawai'i at Hilo • Hawai'i Community College Hohonu is a publication funded by University of Hawai'i at Hilo and Hawai'i Conununity College student fees.

All production and printing costs are administered by: University of Hawai'i at Hilo/Hawai'i Conununity College Board of Student Publications 200 W. Kawili Street Hilo, Hawai'i 96720-4091 Phone: (808) 933-8823 Web: www.uhh.hawaii.edu/ campuscenter/bosp

All rights revert to the writers upon publication. All requests for reproduction and other propositions should be directed to writers.

ii Table of Contents

1 ...... Animal Sacrifice, by Naveen Magar

3 ...... Clodius Pulcher: Caesar's Willing Puppet The Bona Dea Affair and Its Effect on Cicero and the Fall of the Republic, by La'akea Yoshida

9 ...... An Innovative Approach to Introductory Computer Science Courses, by Yekaterina Kharitonova

16 ...... Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis, by Dane Inouye

19 ...... Darw-in's Gift: Acceptable and Amorally Gifted Verbal Communication or The Evolutionary Phenomenon of PC Language, by Piper Selden

25 ...... Define "Breakwater", by AnthonyO!ayon

30 ...... Full Inclusion: Does One Size Fit All?, by Mariah Molnar

34 ...... Hilcilcomori and School Refusal, by Lindsey Saunders

38 ...... Invention Contention, by Jenna Antilla

41 ...... Literature in Hawaii: Who Gets to Write It?, by Jennifer Lui

44 ...... One With Her Shield, by Diveena Marcus

49 ...... , ...... Paul Matasovski, The Man of The Underground, by Paul B. Janes

53 ...... Polyculture of Fishes in Aquaponics and Recirculating Aquaculture, by Eron Martan

59 ...... The Pope WAS Wrong, But He Wasn't Talking To Muslims, by Timothy Fallis

62 ...... Racist or Righteous: The Kamehameha Schools Admissions Policy, by Vance Tomasu

65...... Revelations of Rome in Virgil's Aeneid, by Tara Vandiver

70...... Sexual Repression and Masturbation, by Whitney Keeton

73...... She Boarded the Arrow of Time, by Benjamin Decker

80 ...... Some Native Hawaiians are Forgotten at Kamehameha Schools, by Mai Fujii

83 ...... Strange Love in Frankenstein and The Murders in the Rue Morgue, by Jennifer Lui

89 ...... The Greater Appeal of Jesus over Socrates, by Timothy Fallis

91 ...... The Human Febrile Response: An Evolutionary Enigma, by Jackwayne Fernandez

97 ...... The Role of the Characters of Dupin and Frankenstein in "Murders in the Rue Morgue" and Frankenstein,_by Tara Anderson

101...... To Be Or Not To Be: Tax-free?, by Kehau A. Hagiwara

103 ...... Male versus female: Vocal Preferences in Popular Music & Appreciation of Music, by Cecily C. Ballio

105 ...... Volcano, Reborn, by Benjamin Decker

107 ...... Waihole Valley-The Time For Change, by Andreas Gaeta

110 ...... Zero-Point Energy and Interstellar Travel, by Josh Williams

iii HOHONU

Aloha,

Welcome to the sixth volume of Hohonu, the student academic journal of the University of Hawai'i at Hilo and Hawai'i Community College. The staff is pleased to bring you this issue, and we are proud of the fine and interesting writing it contains.

Hohonu means "profound" in Hawai'ian, and that word well describes both some of the thoughts expressed within this volume, and the challenges the staff needed to handle this academic year. They worked very hard to not only put together this edition for the Hilo academic community, but also to distribute volume four and to finish the work started the year before on volume five. It was more than anyone had really signed up for, but they carried it off without complaint. There is no better use for this page than to publicly commend the work of Chloe Kubo, Tara Anderson, Yekaterina Kharitonova, Crystal Richard, LeAna Gloor, and Piper Selden. It has been my privilege to work with every one of these talented and dedicated women.

Hohonu would not endure every year without the gentle encouragement of our faculty advisor, Professor Luke Bailey. He has always seen the value of this publication, and made sure it stayed focused in the right direction without exerting his will upon it. The staff and I thank him for his dedication and advice.

The staff of this journal is made up entirely of students; while we mean well and work hard to get submissions and edit them, we are not professionals. To really make this journal happen, we count heavily on the help of LaiSha Delo Santos in the Campus Center; she and her staff have been indispensable with the business end of things, and forgiving when I did not have the paperwork right (which was most of the time ... ).

I want to extend a very personal and heartfelt thanks to Susan Yugawa in the UH Graphics Department. Her patience, skill, and generous enthusiasm have been absolutely essential in this endeavor. She is an extraordinary woman taking quiet pride in what she does, and is an example to me of true service and competence.

A final mahalo is due to the students who contributed their work this year. It is a brave thing to expose one's efforts to other students to evaluate, and to allow one's writing to be published for all to see. We are honored to have had the opportunity to work with the authors, and to bring their work to the community to appreciate.

Please enjoy this edition of Hohonu, and pass it along for others to peruse, as well. This journal is an asset to our collegiate community in Hilo, a chance to see what students have learned and what they have to teach us. I think you will find here some pleasant surprises on both counts.

Aloha,

Timothy Fallis Editor-In-Chief

iv Let me tell you about a poem that I read when I Animal Sacrifice was in high school. It is called Yatri, which means "pilgrim." This poem conveys to us the belief that by Naveen Magar every creature is made by G-d, and therefore G-d is in the hearts of each and every creature. The poet I still clearly remember what my grandfather said. further says that if one wishes to please G-d, he/ He was sitting right next to me and speaking to his she does not need to go looking for G-d in temples, friends. "We have no rain; children are falling ill; the shrines or religious places. There are many lives major cultivating season has passed us by - the gods being lived in suffering, and people begging for help must be angry, and we must prepare to sacrifice some all around us. Helping those who are in trouble and animals for them." At that time, I was perhaps eight who are suffering might make G-d content. Traveling and one of those who were sick. Like other families, long distances is simply wasting energy, money and instead of taking me to the hospital, my parents took time. According to this poem, we can understand me to a shaman. The shaman told my parents the that if we sacrifice animals, we certainly can't achieve reason I was sick was that our ancestors were enraged what we intend because animals are also created and that only by sacrificing two chickens would I by G-d and G-d is in that animal, too. If it is true get well. At that time I certainly believed what my that sacrificing animals would bring prosperity and grandfather and the shaman said. I hoped to recover happiness in our lives, these rites would be practiced soon after the required animals were sacrificed in not only by my community but also by other the name of the gods. However, the bloody event communities throughout the country and indeed did nothing other than frighten me, and eventually throughout the world. I was taken to a hospital only then did I get well. Sacrificing animals at temples is not only Years passed by and I started attending high school meaningless but also costly. My community performs in a faraway town. After I completed tenth grade, worship ceremonies almost three to four times a I headed off to the capital city Kathmandu where I month. Except for a few occasions, they sacrifice attended college. Since then I have never witnessed dozens of animals at these ceremonies .. In addition, the killing of animals at temples. Now I think that the my community believes in many different types of killing of animals at temples is meaningless as well as god and goddesses, and this requires a variety of costly. different animals because each god prefers a different Sacrificing animals at temples seems pointless to animal sacrifice. In order to assemble all those me. My community performs worship rituals almost animals, the poor people of my community have to every week, and they kill various animals such as spend money either to breed or to buy the animals. goats, chickens, pigeons, ducks, pigs and even buffalo, Sometimes, when they do not have adequate animals but in the end they get nothing. Sick people are still to sacrifice, they go searching village to village. In sick; prosperity is even farther away; hot dry days are some cases they even have to go very far which takes still hot and dry. So what's the point of killing those them several days. This requires quite a bit of money animals to bring success, happiness, or recovery? If for their lodging and meals. One medium size pig I feel a bit of headache or fever I take Tylenol, and normally costs 2,000 to 3,000 rupees, while goats cost I of course expect to be relieved. However, if the even more than that. Chickens on average cost about symptoms persist, I try some other medication or 100 to 150 rupees per kilogram. You can imagine how go to see a doctor. Here is my question to you. "Do much money my community spends per year if they you think it is a good idea to pursue these activities sacrifice a minimum of four dozen pigs or goats, and to gain favor from the gods?" "Do you think people their annual income per household is 10,000 rupees of my community are happy and enriched because on average. As a result, many young children have they sacrifice animals at temples?" Since I am from had to abandon their education due to these costly that community and many of my relatives are still rites. Because their parents spend all the money for dwelling there, I think the answer to this question is their beliefs, they can't afford even to buy some basic 11 No." No, they have neither become rich nor healthy school supplies for their children. nor successful. They are still in the same condition as I believe that everyone has the right to worship they were years ago.

1 as they wish - that is a fundamental and sacred right of competing gods battling in the heavens and for all of us. I have chosen to leave pantheism behind. throughout the planets, as some Hindu legends have The worship of multiple gods creates confusion and it. One god is a more peaceful thought to me, and chaos, as I've seen in my own community. It even in fact I believe this god embodies all the gods we creates a competitive feeling between individuals worship, be it Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim and communities who adhere to different gods, even or otherwise. I hope that one day my community though all are from the same religion, especially will come together in a more unified worship, joining Hindu. The demand of different gods for the the modern age by setting aside animal sacrifice as sacrifice of different animals is one example of this meaningless and costly, and worshiping one supreme confusion and chaos. To me, the worship of one G-d who demands only peace, and not the killing of god is enough, and creates a clearer vision for me of any living thing. a creator responsible for the universe, not a variety

2 Each year in the month of December, the Vestal Clodius Pulcher: · Virgins' gathered at the residence of a prominent senator to perform sacred rituals to the Bona Caesar's Willing Dea-literally translated it means "Good Goddess". It ordinarily refers to the deity Fauna who was Puppet The Bona Dea worshipped in Rome as the goddess of healing and fertility. The services were confined to women only. Affair and Its Effect on Men were not allowed to see any part of the rituals, to the extent that male animals were also removed Cicero and the Fall of from inside the residence. Other than these sparse facts, our knowledge of the Bona Dea rituals is quite the Republic limited. We can acknowledge that they must have been immensely important due to the religious and by La'akea K. Yoshida political status of the individuals who participated in them. Acknowledgements In 62 BCE, observance of the Bona Dea took place at the home of praetor urbanus and Ponifex I extend the deepest thanks to Dr. Jennifer 2 Maximus , Caius Julius Caesar. The ceremonies were Wheat for her guidance in locating, and loaning interrupted when Publius Clodius Pulcher, a young of, numerous research sources which were deeply patrician of the Clodii family, was discovered trying beneficial to the development of this paper. to gain entrance to the Bona Dea rituals. Dressed I would also like to thank Professor Michael as a woman, Clodius attempted to gain admittance Skinner and Jessica Gard for their reading and by pretending to be a musician. Sneaking in at proofreading of this paper. night, he became lost in the hallways of the house and was discovered by a slave. Cicero writes in a letter to Atticus, "I imagine that you have heard Clodius Pulcher: Caesar's Willing that P. Clodius, son of Appius, was caught dressed Puppet up as a woman in C. Caesar's house at the national The Bona Dea Affair and Its Effect on Cicero and sacrifice, and that he owed his escape alive to the the Fall of the Republic hands of a servant girl" .3 Clodius was undoubtedly fortunate to escape with his life because such an act In the 1" century BCE, the Roman Republic was considered desecration of a sacred ceremony. was approaching a state of flux. The fall of the Religion in Roman society served a vital purpose Roman Republic was at hand and the birth of the to all aspects of culture. It pertained to private life, Roman Empire under Augustus was near. Though military, government and trade-virtually every the Republic began to fall in 48 BCE when Caesar aspect of existence.4 defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus, the civil There is little explanation giving a definitive war was not the beginning of the conflict. It found roots in a rarely discussed religious and political 1 Encydopredia Britannica. Vestal Virgin. 2007. Encyclopredia event, the Bona Dea affair. Publius Clodius Pulcher, Britannica Online. (12 Nov. 2007). http://www.search. eb,com./eb/article-9075182. "Vestal Virgin in Roman religion, the patrician at the center of this scandal, became a any of the six priestesses, representing the daughters of the means to control Caesar's interests and enemies in the royal house, who tended the state cult of Vesta, the goddess senate during his Gallic campaign. Clodius' s affect of the hearth....Chosen betvveen the ages of 6 and 10 by the pontifex maximus ("chief priest"), Vestal Virgins served for 30 on the senate enabled Caesar to continue his path to years, during which time they had to remain virgins" dictatorship, mostly unrestrained. Clodius became a 2 The Columbia Encyclopedia. ( 2001-04). "Pontifex Maximus'' willing 'puppet' to Caesar because of the Bona Dea The highest priest of Roman religion and official head of the college of pontifices. affair. It was Clodius' s path to political redemption 3 Att (1.12.3) and avenue to voice distain for Cicero, in which 4 Further reading see: William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Caesar shared a common interest. Ancient History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II, pp. 9-15; 289; Livy, T11e Histon; of Rome, by Titus Livius, trans. D. Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds, (New York G. Bell & Sons, 1892). 3 answer to the reasons Clodius attempted to enter Within a month of the incident, Clodius was the home. The commonly accepted view is that proposed for trial and the senate began delegation he was engaged in an affair with Caesar's wife over jurisdiction. The trial proposition seemed Pompeia. Geffcken writes that perhaps this may a delicate and confusing task because who had have been a "foolish prank" and nothing more governance over the trial needed to be defined. 5 12 than a joke. This would suggest the behavior to be Piso , who represented Clodius in the senate, argued nothing more than a bout of youthful exuberance. that laws pertaining to the Bona Dea were under Such a joke, nonetheless, led to Caesar's divorce of stringent religious authority and not under the veil 13 Pompeia. Later, Caesar justifies his divorce stating: of the senate • However, the optima/es, led by Cato "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion".6 It is not the Younger-and a strong fixation for tradition­ stretching to infer that Clodius, having an affair with argued for his case to be brought to trial within the 14 Pompeia, broke into the Bona Dea to see her-such senate • Ultimately, Clodius began to understand the we can attribute to youthful disposition leading him seriousness of his condition and began pleading to to such a foolish act. The excuse of 'youth' would members of the senate. "The honest men are yielding not safeguard him from the possibility of senatorial to Clodius's pleas and dropping out,"15 Cicero wrote repercussions, however. Soon after, Clodius would as Clodius began to swing support his way. be charged with sacrilege and brought to trial. Cicero labored heavily against Clodius because Cicero's involvement in the trial became apparent he believed that he could convince the senatorial at the beginning because his intimate knowledge of body of Clodius's guilt easily. He also wanted to use the Bona Dea compelled him to action. As Consul the the Senate floor to increase his personal and political previous year, the festivities of the Bona Dea were standing in the senate. Throughout the trial, Cicero held at his home. His duty, as Consul, was to serve as spoke adamantly against the actions of Clodius to guardian and to oversee the safety of the Republic.' the senate. Clodius's alibi was that he was away the Thus, the position he assumed on the Clodius night of the Bon Dea, in Interamna. 16 In Cicero's trial issue appeared to be one of religious 'protection.' testimony, he stated Clodius visited his home that Conceivably, in this event, he felt the need to do day, hours before the incident occurred, implying that so again. Standing firmly against such behavior, it this fact discredited the alibi because the distance was became a constant subject in his letters to Atticus8, far too long a trip to be made in a single day. Cicero and his determined opinion on the Bona Dea affair continued his attack on Clodius unrelentingly during stemmed from his personal experiences with it. his speech to the senate, saying: Clodius's actions affected not only Cicero, but 0 extraordinary prodigy! 0 you monster! Are you Caesar as well; yet, Caesar's reaction to the affair not ashamed at the sight of this temple, and of this appeared mild. The Bona Dea occurred at Caesar's city, nor of your life, nor the light of day? home, making the offense on the home of the Do you who were clad in woman's attire, dare to Pontifex Maximus himself. Caesar's relaxed attitude assume a manly voice-you, whose infamous lust and adultery, united with impiety, was not delayed to the event is of immense interest. "Caesar," notes even by the time required to stubborn witnesses to Christian Meyer, "declared himself ignorant of the procure your acquittal?17 9 whole affair" • However, Cicero mentions in a letter Volume IV. Chapter XLW: Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence. to Atticus that the Vestal Virgins needed to repeat "A Roman accused of any capital crime might prevent the the ceremoniesIO_ This implied that Clodius's actions sentence of the law by voluntary exile, or death. Till his guilt made the rituals unclean. Would Caesar, as Pontifex had been legally proved, his innocence was presumed, and his person was free" Maximus, be lenient to religious pollution of his 12 Att I.14.5 Roman Senator and Consul in 61BCE home and allow a young patrician under suspicion of 13 Att., 1.13.2 having an affair with his wife, go unpunished? This 14 Dio, Cicero 46.1; Encyclopredia Britannica. Optimates and Popularcs. Encyclopredia Britannica Online. 23 Nov. 2008). led to a senate decision to review Clodius's actions http://www.search.eb.com/eb/ article-9057235. and pursue punishment11 for his behavior. Optimates tried to uphold the oligarchy; the Populares sought popular support against the dominant oligarchy, either in the 5 Geffcken, Katherine A Comedy in the Pro Caelio: With an interests of the people themselves or in furtherance of their Appendix on the IN CLODIUM ET CURIONEM. (1973) p.59 own personal ambitions. Finally, it is well to remember that 6 Att 1.13. [fooh10te] 8 the Senate's authority was based on custom and consent rather 7 Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A Histon; of Rome from than upon law. 133 B.C. lo A.D. 68. (1959). p.133 15 Alt., 1.13.2 8 Cicero's friend and colleague, with whom he studied rhetoric 16 Att., 1.21.5. Interamna is modern day Terni, located in central in Athens. Italy about 90 miles north of Rome. 9 Meier, Christian. Caesar, Translated from the German by David 17 Crane, Gregory R. Perseus Digital Library Project. Tufts McLintock. (1982) p.181 University. The Speech of M.T.Cicero Against Publius Clodius 10 Att. 1.13.2 and Caius Curio. 11 Edward Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 4 Cicero also knew that his involvement in the trial the prosecution" .23 Epstein presents the opinion that could be a politically advantageous event; a senator Cicero knew, or at least believed, the trial had become in Rome had much to gain by taking political stances. corrupt. Upon realizing this he backed off, believing 11In Cicero's Rome", Bell writes, 11 the competitive he had done all he could. Inevitably, Cicero must routines of civic visibility were particularly intense, as have accepted that the strength of money held greater men strove to occupy positions of prominence before weight than his rhetoric. the attentions and judgments of crowds in houses and Caesar viewed the desperation of Clodius as a streets, at the games, or in the Forum."18 way to get to a broken man. The acquittal at the close In a staggering change of events, a case that of the trial did not release Clodius from scrutiny. appeared easily prosecuted proved the opposite; There still existed a contingent of senators deeply the senate cleared Clodius of all the charges against offended by his actions. Hence, he was 'free', yet him. Cicero believed the senate, though being "strict still unable to perform his family tradition of senate and courageous"19, had lost the trial due to poor service. This put his shame not only on himself, but management. In place of a standard trial, a bill his entire family, the Clodii-his father was Appius, a proposed by the senate enacted a "special tribunal"20 former Consul of great respect. Caesar recognized his to determine the fate of the young patrician. Cicero advantage in the situation. By not bringing Clodius believed the case failure rested upon the result of two to trial for the accusation of adultery he, in essence, primary factors. First, the rush to convict Clodius was offered him mercy. a mistake; more time should have been afforded to the The trial was not the end of Clodius and Cicero's' case and selection of a jury-stating a more traditional fight, and their distain for one another became form of prosecution should have been pursued. progressively public. They verbally confronted each Second, and possibly most important, Clodius used other in the streets and the senate, where 11Cicero monetary means to secure his freedom. aimed not just to criticize Clodius but to annihilate Cicero's attempts to secure a guilty verdict were him through incentive and wit."24 It is evident beyond his control due to corruption in the senate. Clodius lacked the eloquence of Cicero, or the respect. A large number of the tribunal received payments, Why would Clodius attack a man of Cicero's skill bought off with money supplied to Clodius from and admiration? That he acted in such a way, one Crassus-a member of the first Triumvirate." "A may conclude that he felt safe in making such bold more raffish assemblage," Cicero wrote to Atticus, transgressions. Pocock writes that several years "never sat down in a low-grade music hall. Flyblown later he "knew very well that he was safe"25 when he Senators, beggar Knights, and Paymaster Tribunes focused his attacks on Pompey after Cicero was exiled who might have better been called 'Paytakers'." from Rome in early 58 BCE. Although his arguments Cicero believed the senators who took the bribes were present events years after the Bona Dea affair, I contest responsible for making a farce of the religious and the that Clodius' s attitude was the sarne during the moral fibers that continued to hold the Senate, and aftermath of the Bona Dea. In both instances, he had Republic, intact." the support of Caesar; this backing could empower an Cicero's testimony was spiteful enough to individual, such as Clodius, to speak so loudly against create an irreparable rift between Clodius and established powers. himself. We know Cicero's testimony from the Cicero, betrayed by the senate, felt the debacle trial attacked Clodius's respect for religion, his of the Bona Dea had passed him by. Caesar, on the family and sexual deviance. However, as the trial other hand, found himself in a position of leverage wore on it is conceivable that Cicero softened his due to his 'manipulation' of the trial. The Triumvirate stance upon realizing that he may not win. There had provided the funds for Clodius to 'purchase' exists speculation about Cicerds involvement once votes in the senate. Caesar, though insulted by the corruption in the trial was evident. Epstein argues, Bona Dea affair, did not bring charges against Clodius "As soon as the trial became inevitable, Cicero sensing for adultery-a serious offense to commit against a a corrupt jury. cooperated only half-heartedly with patrician of Caesar's standing. Caesar, as previously 18 Bell, Andrew J.E. Cicero and the Spectacle of Power The discussed, acted 'ignorant' to the entire affair, yet had Journal of Roman Studies, Vol 87. (1997) p.1 19 Att..1.14 reasons to secure Clodius's freedom. Caesar could 20 Everitt, Anthony. Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest 23 Epstien, D.F. Cicero's Testimony at the Bon Dea Trial. Classical Politician. (2002 Philology, Vol 81, No.3. (1986) p. 232 21 Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A HistonJ of Rome from 24 Geffcken, Katherine A. Comedy in the Pro Caelio: With an 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. (1959) p.116. The First Triumvirate was a Appendix on the IN CLODWM ET CURTONEM. (1973) p.62 political union between Caesar, Pompey and Crassus; it was 25 Pocock, L.G. Pvblivs Clodivs and the Acts of Ceasar. [Publius unofficial, but influential. Clodius and the Acts of Caesar]. The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 18, 22 Att.1.16.8 No 2. (Apr., 1924) p.60 5 not have crafted the outcome of the trial; however, he resourceful manipulation which Caesar could offer. had a hand in it enough to see if it would play into his C.Herennius, a Tribune 33 and supporter ofCaesar, interests, which it did. proposed to make Clodius a 'pleb' by having him adopted Caesar's distaste for Cicero evolved as the into a lower class plebian family-a process known product of another trial, the trial of Caius Antonius26• as "transition ad plebem". 34 As a rule, this was done Antonius was charged with the governorship of circumstantially when a patrician had more to gain from a Macedonia after his consulship came to an end-a 'societal' change of class. post made possible at the request of Cicero.27 During Cicero was fully aware of the reason for which this time Antonius "inflicted many injuries on the Clodius was to be transferred to the 'plebs'; that is, subject territory as well as upon that which was in so he might become a Tribune. His transfer remained alliance with Rome, and had suffered many disasters under scrutiny and spent several months being in return."28 In correspondence to Antonius in 61 deliberated on by the senate, backed by Herennius. BCE, Cicero advised him of the growing concerns Cicero disbelieved Clodius sought to become Tribune for his safety. Antonius was under investigation and delivered speeches against him in the senate. for his role in the 'Cataline conspiracy'" to which He aggressively challenged Clodius by recalling Cicero writes, "Your future, believe me", writes his sacrilegious actions, insulting him about his lies Cicero, "stands in need of much greater zeal on my at the Bona Dea trial. Amid all Cicero's objections, part, greater firmness and greater labour." Antonius Clodius was eventually cleared for adoption. Cicero eventually faced the senate for "extortion"30 and wrote to Atticus in April 59 BCE, "What, deny that his inability to maintain control of his governed Publius [Clodius] has been made a plebian? There's territory. Cicero's fears came to fruition when he was tyranny ifyou like, absolutely intolerable!"35 The convicted in March 59 BCE for his participation in the adoption certainly had an amount of orchestration 1 Cataline conspiracy' • Cicero, greatly outraged by the to add insult to injury. The man that would adopt conviction, blamed the Triumvirate for the outcome. Clodius was much younger than him-obviously a He believed Caesar to be the true instigator of the rare occurrence. Cicero would later say in a speech verdict. Personally, Cicero found it offensive because condemning Clodius's adoption "that the man who it was his appointment, and therefore his suggestion has adopted you as your father might, as far as his age of governorship, that was offended as well. For went, have been your son."36 this offense, Cicero made a "most bitter attack on Once a plebian, Clodius won election as a Tribune Caesar ."32 of the Plebs in October 58 BCE. The power of his new Remembering Cicero's attack on him in the appointment put Clodius in a position to negatively Senate, Caesar identified Clodius as his way to put affect Cicero in the senate. As Tribune, Clodius had a 'thorn' in the side of Cicero. The most effective authority to call the proposal of laws and manage the method Caesar could devise was to install Clodius closing of senate sessions. But most importantly, a into the senate. Clodius, politically crushed by Tribune was able to veto the motions of other senators; Cicero's testimony in the senate, needed the "they could even veto another's veto."37 Here lies

26 He served his consulship with Cicero in 63 BCE. Caesar's most desired tool against Cicero and the 27 Plutarch. Fall of the Roman Republic. (1958) p. 323 senate, the ability to challenge their legal motions. A 28 Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Roman History: by Cassius Dio, man as inexperienced as Clodius in the senate places Book 39-40; English translation by Ernest Cary. P217 29 The Cataline conspiracy was the conviction and public himself in a political corner. Due to the problems that execution of five supporters of Cataline during Cicero's continued to linger over his head from the Bona Dea, consulship. Further reading see; G. Hardy The Catilinarian and the hatred many in the senate had for him, he Conspiracy in Its Context: A Re-Study of the Evidence. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 7. (1917), pp. 153-228 was outmatched. Yet, the benefit he gained from the 30 Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Letters to His Friends, English situation outweighed the issues he may have had if he translation by W. Glynn Wllliams; Vol. 2. (1958) p.xvi 33 Tribunes were Senate representatives of the Plebians in 31 Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Roman History: by Cassius Dia, Ancient Rome. In the 1st century BCE twelve Tribunes served Book 39; English translation by Ernest Cary. P217. http:// in the Senate. penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/ 34 Scullard, H.H. From the Cracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from Cassius_Dio /home.hhnl. Antonius is brought to trial for 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. (1959) p. 120. As a rule, this was done his inadequate governorship of Macedonia; however, he is circumstantially when a patrician had more to gain from a convicted for his involvement in the Cataline conspiracy. 'societal' change of class Cicero believed that Antonius was mislead and would not 35 Att. 1.30.1 have traveled to Rome if charged for this crime, fearing for his 36 Crane, Gregory R. Perseus Digital Library Project. Tufts life. University. M. Tullius Cicero, Orations: for his house, Plancius, 32 Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Roman HistonJ: by Cassius Dia, Sextius, Coelius,Milo, Ligarius, etc. (ed. C. D. Yonge). http:// Book39; English translation by Ernest Cary. P217. http:// www.perseus.tufts.edu. penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Cassius_ 37 Everitt, Anthony. Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Dio/home.html Greatest Politician. New York Random House, 2002. 6 were unwilling to work with Caesar. was led by Clodius in the senate's persecution of Caesar and Clodius desired the same thing; they Cicero! Clodius also proposed that Cato be sent to wanted to see Cicero ousted or discredited in the Cyprus to handle matters pertaining to the Egyptian senate. It is documented by Dio that Cicero, though aristocracy's role in piracy.41 This left Clodius to also a brilliant Senator and Statesman "made for himself be the "check" on Pompey" who, for all intents and bitter enemies by always striving to get the better of purposes, proved to be mildly inept in the Roman even the most powerful men and by employing an political arena. unbridled and excessive frankness of speech toward Clodius' s role was to disrupt the leaders of the all alike".38 Clodius's sacrilege at the Bona Dea senate, which would prevent Cicero, Pompey and the destroyed any future that may have been possible for Optima/es from coming together in Caesar's absence. him in Roman politics. Cicero's testimonies were, This was important for Caesar to achieve because arguably, enough to persuade most against Clodius he would be at war in Gaul for many years. The and secure his displacement from government plan unfolded well and worked for some time, until positions. For this reason, Clodius had the motive Clodius grew tired of being manipulated for power. to assist Caesar; specifically, political and personal With Caesar's distance from Rome and the power redemption. he gained, he no longer "considered himself a mere Caesar, bothered by Cicero's attack on him during tool of the men in power."43 His behavior became the trial of C. Antonius, regarded the entire affair as a increasingly tyrannical. He ordered the homes of means to plant a 'seed' in the senate. He ingeniously high ranking senators located on, or next to, sacred constructed a web of reasons coinciding with his grounds confiscated and had these homes gutted and own needs. The monetary backing of the Triumvirate burned. secured Clodius's freedom and Caesar never formally Cicero eventually returned to Rome in August accused Clodius of adultery-which most likely 57 BCE under protection of Pompey who, along with saved Clodius from death or exile. Caesar and the several other senators, had grown weary of Clodius' Triumvirate 'arranged' his adoption into a plebian behavior. Cicero's return to Rome brought him family and made him a Tribune. Caesar essentially face-to face with the 'gang-warfare' type conditions granted him clemencywhich gave him back what in Rome, a byproduct of Clodius' s incessantly vile he lost and offered him power from nothing. Caesar behavior. Such conditions were the result of fighting knew Clodius shared a common opinion of Cicero, between Clodius and various aristocratic factions. which was the tie that bound the two conspirators Clodius, ousted from the senate for his conduct and against the master rhetorician. political failure, was murdered in 52 BCE by Milo". Clodius' s service in the senate became essential In the wake of his murder, Clodius' s followers to Caesar's future plans. Caesar soon left for his "burned his body in the Senate House, which itself conquest of Gaul, with Clodius as his hand in the was burned down."'15 The violence in Rome caused senate. Interestingly, Caesar offered Cicero a post the senate to elect Pompey as sole Consul and used under his command, and Cicero refused.39 Cleverly, him to protect the citizens-declaring "martial law."46 he tried to keep Cicero under his personal watch At this point in Roman history, Caesar stood at while at the same time intending to keep him at 'arms the doorstep of conquering Gaul. It was too late for length'. Clodius then enacted a series of four laws40 Pompey, Cicero and Cato to effectively work tog~ther designed to increase the backing of the common on their concerns about Caesar's growing power and people. These laws were designed to promote popularity. Pompey found himself in a position of positive public opinion of Caesar in Rome. Cicero absolute senatorial power in Rome, which instigated unsuccessfully stood against these laws and under political feuds among senate factions who differed in scrutiny for his part in the Cataline conspiracy was 41 Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from exiled from Rome~in an ironic reversal, the senate 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. (1959) p.121 42 Pocock, L.G. Pvblivs Clodivs and the Acts of Ceasar. [Pub/ius 38 Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Roman History: by Cassius Clodius and the Acts of Caesar]. The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 18, Dio, Book 39-40; English translation by Ernest Cary. http:// No 2, (Apr., 1924) p.61. penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Cassius_ 43 Pocock, L.G. Pvblivs Clodivs and the Acts of Ceasar. [Pubfius Din/home.html. Clodius and the Acts of Caesar]. (Apr., 1924) p.61. 39 Att. 1.38.4 44 Milo was a Patrician who led the aristocratic factions against 40 Scullard, RI-t From the Gracchi to Nero: A Histon; of Rome Clodius. He was the ruling class 'puppet' much like Clodius from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. (1959) p.120 "(a)censors should expel was to the Triumvirate. He would be exiled to Massilia in 52 senators only when both were in agreement and after judicial BCE for the murder of Clodius. inquiry; (b) no magistrates should stop public business by 45 Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A HistonJ of Rome from observing ill-omens; (c) corn was to be distributed free to 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. (1959) p.124 citizens ... ; and (d) collegia which had been suppressed six 46 Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Letters to His Friends, English years before, were to legalized" translation byW. Glynn Wllliams; Vol. 2. (1958) p.xxiv 7 their opinions about a singular Consul. This continued The fall of the Republic is related closely to the for several years while Caesar achieved unequivocal civil war between Caesar and Pompey. However, power and the love of the common people. Clodius the impact of Clodius on the senate during Caesar's had served his purpose as a 'check' on the senate absence was central to the fall of the Republic and and its various factions; he had been able to divide rise of the Empire. In a bizarre political paradox, the senators long enough for Caesar to achieve his Clodius's sacrilege during the Bona Dea led to his military and public objectives with little influence own rise to power. It was Clodius's willingness to from the Roman government. By the time Pompey, be Caesar's 'puppet' that resulted in being provided Cicero and Cato had come to an understanding, the tools to attack Cicero. Without the aid of Clodius, Caesar had begun his march to Rome-crossing the Caesar's political adversaries may have brought his Rubicon in 49 BCE, Caesar began the civil war. quest for dictatorship to a premature end. Bibliography

Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Letters to Atticus, English translation by D.R. Shackleton; Vol. 1-4. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Letters to His Friends, English translation by W. Glynn WIiliams; Vol. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958. Caesar, Caius Julius. The Galic War, English translation by H.J. Edwards; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1917. Caesar, Caius Julius. The Civil Wars, English translation by A.G. Peskket; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1914. Plutarch. Fall of the Roman Republic; London, England: Penguin Group, 1958 Meier, Christian. Caesar, Translated from the German by David McLintoc/c; New York, NY: HarperCollinsPublishers, 1982 Everitt, Anthony. Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician. New York: Random House, 2002. Syme, Ronald. The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. Jones, Adnah David. Cicero and His Friends: A Study of Roman Society in the Time of Caesar. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1970. Lacey, W.K. Cicero and the End of the Roman Republic. New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1978. Scullard, H.H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A Riston; of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. London: Methuen & Co. LTD, 1959. Wood, Neal. Cicero's Social and Political Thought. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Geffcken, Katherine A. Comedy in the Pro Caelio: With an Appendix on the IN CLODIUM ET CURIONEM. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1973 Bell, Andrew J.E. Cicero and the Spectacle of Power The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 87. pp. 1-22. (1997) Tatum, W.J. Cicero's Opposition to the Lex Clodia de Collegiis. The Classical Quaterly, New Series, Vol. 40, No. 1. pp. 187-194. (1990). Brunt, P.A. Cicero's Officium in the Civil War. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 76. pp. 12-32. (1986). Collins H.P. Decline and Fall of Pompey the Great. Greece and Rome, Vol. 22, No 66. pp. 98-106. (Oct., 1953). Ehrenberg, V. Caesar's Final Aims. Harvard Studies in Classical Philogy, Vol. 68. pp. 149-161. (1964). Epstien, D.F. Cicero's Testimony at the Bon Dea Trial. Classical Philology, Vol 81, No.3. pp. 229-235. (1986) Pocock, L.G. Pvblivs Clodivs and the Acts of Ceasar. [Publius Clodius and the Acts of Caesar]. The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 18, No 2, pp. 59-65. (Apr., 1924) Crane, Gregory R. Perseus Digital Library Project. Tufts University. The Speech of M.T.Cicero Against Publius Clodius and Caius Curio. http:/ /www.perseus.tufts.edu.

8 Crane, Gregory R. Perseus Digital Library Project. Tufts University. M. Tullius Cicero, Letters XVII (F V, 5). http:/ /www.perseus.tufts.edu. Crane, Gregory R. Perseus Digital Library Project. Tufts University. M. Tullius Cicero, Orations: for his house, Plancius, Sextius, Coelius, Milo, Ligarius, etc. (ed. C. D. Yonge). http:/ /www.perseus.tufts.edu. Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Roman History: by Cassius Dia, Book 39-40; English translation by Ernest Cary. http:// penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio /home.html. Thayer, Bill. Lacus Curtius. Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries by Rodolfo Lanciani; Houghton, Mifflin and Company Boston and New York, (1898). http:/ /penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/ home.html. Thomas, Steve. eBooks@Adelaide, University of Adelaide. Plutarch: The Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans; Cicero. http://etext.library.adelaide.edu/p / plutarch/lives/complete.html. Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume IV. Chapter XLIV Idea Of The Roman Jurisprudence. http:/ /www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/asbook09.html#Roman%20Law Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vestal Virgin. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. (12 Nov. 2007). http:/ /www.search. eh.com/eb/ article-9075182. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Optima/es and Populares. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 23 Nov. 2008). http:/ /www. search.eh.com/eb/ article-9057235. William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Ancient History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II, pp. 9-15; 289; Livy, The History of Rome, by Titus Livius, trans. D. Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds, (New York: G. Bell & Sons, 1892) G. Hardy The Catilinarian Conspiracy in Its Context: A Re-Study of the Evidence. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 7. (1917), pp. 153-228

9 computers" (as cited in "Technology facts"). Because Overview of issues in computer and programming skills are becoming so essential, especially for business and sciences, it is computer science and crucial to provide necessary Computer Science (CS) education for everybody. recommendation for In her doctorate thesis proposal, Caitlin Kelleher indicated that even those who will learn the basics teaching Computer of programming but will not choose to pursue a career in a computer-related field will still benefit Science Classes from programming experience. To some extent every An Innovative Approach to student will have to work with computers or interact with computer scientists, programmers and engineers. Introductory Computer Science Basic programming skills and knowledge about how to create a program will be very valuable for students Courses who will have to work with computer professionals. by Yekaterina Kharitonova This knowledge will contribute to their successful University of Hawaii at Hilo Computer Science major communication and productive work (2003, p.3).

Abstract Significance This report proposes a new approach to According to Harry Henderson, in the last decade introductory computer science courses by suggesting the number of people needed to fill computer jobs, a 3D graphic programming environment called Alice. such as Computer Scientist, Database Administrator The overall drastic decline in the CS enrollment is or System Analyst, roughly doubled. However, in mainly caused by strong stereotypes and gender­ 1998, computer industry executives stated before based issues. In addition to the social issues Congress that 300,000 jobs were not filled "due to the ' programming languages' intricacy adds unnecessary lack of qualified workers" (1999). As presented by confusion and frustration to the freshmen the Bureau of Labor Statistics, "the US economy is undergraduate struggle in computer science courses. expected to add 1.5 million computer and information In order to teach the students the basic concepts related jobs by 2012, while the country will have behind programming it is suggested to implement only half that many qualified graduates" (as cited in an interactive programming class using the Alice Computer Science Teachers Association, 2006). program for middle school students. The Alice A survey carried out by the Higher Education program's easy and fascinating design, combined Research Institute (HERO reveals that "the percentage with the successful research study conducted by of incoming undergraduates among all degree­ Caitlin Kelleher and with Alice summer camps for granting institutions who indicated they would major middle school students at Calvin College, prove in CS declined by 70 percent between fall 2000 and that schools will benefit from adding this class to its 2005" (Vegso, 2006). This decline is also deepened curriculum. by the decrease in the enrollment of females, who are roughly half of the population. According to the American Association of University Women Background Foundation "women receive less than 28 percent of In our technology-dependent world, computers the computer science bachelor's degrees, down from and everything connected with them are of a high of 37 percent in 1984. Computer science is the significant importance. Our extensive usage of only field in which women's participation has actually computer technology suggests a greater dependence decreased over time" (as cited in "Technology facts"). on computer science and a growing need for To help prevent further exacerbation of this professionals who will develop and operate it. appalling trend, computer education should start According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics at an early age. As stated by Mary Moss, principal "nearly 75% of tomorrow's jobs will require use of of Mott Hall II School in New York, "middle school

10 is a critical point in a studenfs academic career. the computer chip, which is used on the band around Computer use makes learning interesting and gives a newborn's ankle at the hospital, allows tracking students skills needed to be successful in high school the baby's location at all times. On the last day, one and the work world" (Fung, 2005). will probably have "a computer monitoring ... vital signs." The authors further show that life expectancy Purpose will be a lot longer due to the computer aided This report is intended to discuss the issues in CS technological advances, such as 11computer-controlled and to suggest the implementation of an innovative brakes and airbags in our cars, and computer 3D graphic programming environment called Alice. modeling that allows us to design new drugs to fight Sources and Limitations diseases like AIDS" (p.3). It is impossible to underestimate the role CS plays This report uses U.S. statistics and information in any aspect of one's life. Without exaggeration, from accredited educational websites. Specifically computer science is the ultimate tool for the focused on Alice, this report doesn't cover other development of future research and technology. possible programs or teaching approaches that are used in the U.S. or other countries. Current Issues Regarding Computer Science Overview Nationwide there has been a dramatic decrease After presenting a formal definition of Computer of CS undergraduates. Below are the most significant Science, this report will discuss the most common factors that have contributed to this trend. issues regarding CS and highlight how the Alice Stereotypes. According to the Merriam-Webster program can help to invert these problems and benefit Dictionary Online, one of the meanings of the word schools. stereotype is "something conforming to a fixed or general pattern; especially : a standardized mental COMPUTER SCIENCE AND RELATED picture that is held in common by members of a ISSUES group and that represents an oversimplified opinion, Definition and Significance of Computer prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment." It is Science astounding and very upsetting how many different stereotypes people have about computer science and The concise and clear definition of Computer its scientists. Science was given on the web-page of the School of The main stereotype is a very strong "perception Computer Science in South Africa: that computer technology is primarily for certain Computer Science is concerned with the study of individuals" (Hanson, 1997; Butler, 2000). There are problem solving with computers. It is a field that plenty of other fields, like music or art, where the tries to deal with questions like: person is expected to have a "talent" or specific skills -How can we use computers to solve certain to perform well in the selected major; however, one problems? cannot be born with a set of computer science skills -What makes some problem solutions better than or talents. Mathematical background and interest in others? sciences are the favorable skills for those planning to -How do we verify that we have a correct solution major in computer science; yet, one doesn't have to be to a problem? Einstein to become a computer scientist. -What problems can and can't be solved by a Another common stereotype is an incorrect computer? (2006) picture of a computer scientist. As Figure 1 shows, a computer programmer is portrayed as a weird­ Computer Science is one of the youngest and most looking, out-of-this-world kind of person with very rapidly developing sciences. Computers, software and thick glasses, who locks himself (notice, it is never the Internet are becoming an increasingly important, herself) in a small dark room where he sits in front almost necessary, part of our daily routine. Kelleher of his beloved computer screen for several days and indicated in her work that "8 of the 10 fastest growing nights in a row forgetting about sleep, food and occupations between 2000 and 2010 will be computer showers. related" (2003, p.2). As Wanda Dann, Stephen Cooper and Randy Pausch (2006) point out "if you were born tomorrow you might be interacting with a computer from your very first day to your very last." They explain that 11 Stereotypical careers combined with a historical tendency for men-scientists, don't play in favor of women who would like to be involved in CS. Prejudges and discrimination against the females who choose the computer science path exacerbate a double challenge they face: the complexity of computer Fig. 1: Misconceptions about computer scientists and their science and the necessity to fight unfairness and prove working conditions Source: Laurie Williams presentation that women can succeed in this field. Thus, the trend "Debunldng the Geek Stereotype with Software Engineering presented in Figure 3 is not accidental -- less and less Education" undergraduate females choose a career in CS. Fig. 3: Portion of the CS degrees granted to women, Despite the ridiculousness of this so-called "geek 1966-2003. stereotype" and a perceptual change that "geeks" are not merely nerds but very useful experts, for a lot of """="s =•.=,Ms; young people who are choosing a career this sort of ~,"·~• PhD image is repulsive and may deter them from entering the CS field. Gender issues. A drastic difference between male and female enrollment and a decrease in the number of female students enrolled in CS are of a major concern. Because females are underrepresented in Note: According to NSF, data are missing for Bachelor's and 11 computer science a historical and "cultural bias that Master's degrees granted in 1999 because detailed national data were not released for the academic year ending 1999 by the technology is a 'male' domain" (as cited in Butler, National Center for Education Statistics."Adapted from CRA 2000) remains true. Maria Enderton (2003) highlights http://www.cra.org/info/education/us/women.html the importance of this issue in her honors thesis: The decrease in the total number of women "History is filled with instances of men (and graduating in CS is more dramatic than the decrease sometimes women) characterizing woman by in the total number of CS degrees granted to men emotion and man by reason, and therefore, by even though there is no real difference in women's intellect. These "superior" reasoning talents of man then also imply heightened mathematical abilities to do math and science. The following and scientific abilities, including computer science information is taken from "A Guide for parents abilities. (. ..) The belief, accurate or not, that women grades 4-7: Science can take her places" supported by have a diminished reasoning ability has serious the National Science Foundation: implications in various spheres of life. One such * In mathematics, there was virtually no sphere is the realm of computer science" (p.3). difference in scores between girls and boys in 4th, 8th, As Figure 2 indicates, from six selected academic and 12th grade (1990 through 2005). disciplines, computer science was the only field with * In science, the results fluctuated: in 1996 there a steadily decreasing number of women earning was no gap between 4th or 8th grade girls and boys; bachelor's degrees. boys scored slightly higher in 2000. In 12th grade, Fig. 2: Percent of bachelor's degrees earned by women in boys scored only slightly higher in 1996, and the gap selected fields, 1966 -2001 narrowed further in 2000 (Ride, 2006, p. 5). Keeping in mind that computer science is concerned with the study of problem solving, tl1e exercise conducted at University of Hawaii at Hilo in the Introductory to Computer Science course shows that females can naturally outperform males. During this exercise the students were divided into male and female groups that were asked to plan a party. The female groups outpaced male groups presenting fast, concise and detailed solutions. Source: Computing Research Association http:/ /www.cra. Butler indicated in her research an obvious org/info/education/us/women.html Note: According to gender difference in the attitudes toward and the use National Science Foundation (NSF), data are missing for of computers. Several studies indicated that "boys II Bachelor's degrees granted in 1999 because detailed national tend to prefer games, essentially random play, and data were not released for the academic year ending 1999 by girls seem to prefer goal-oriented computer use." Also the National Center for Education Statistics." 12 girls usually lack previous programming experience ALICE --A TooL To SOLVE COMPUTER and prefer "group work and collaboration to working SCIENCE ISSUES alone" (as cited in Butler, 2000). Because CS is currently dominated by males the gender differences What is Alice? in teaching CS courses are not taken into close Alice is a graphic programming environment consideration. that allows students to learn the concepts behind Complexity of programming languages. This programming by creating 30 virtual worlds and is the most important obstacle for the first semester animating characters. Developed by Carnegie Mellon college freshmen with no previous programming University, this software revolutionizes traditional experience. Most programming languages, such as approaches of teaching object-oriented programming C++, Java and Action Script "tend to drag the focus by allowing the visualization of abstract concepts. of the course away from solving problems using a Why is it called Alice? The book "Learning programming language toward interface design" to Program with Alice" explains that it is not an (Chan et al.). acronym and it doesn't denote anything. The system Most of us will not immediately notice the was called Alice "in honor of Charles Lutwidge difference between the C ++ commands presented Dodson, an English mathematician and logician who below: wrote under the pen name Lewis Carroll. Carroll Incorrect: if (variable1 = variable2) wrote Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the

{ Looking Glass. Just like people who built Alice, Lewis Carroll was able to do complex mathematics and variable1 + 1; logic, but he knew that the most important thing was vraiable2 = variable2 + variabel1 - 3) to make things simple and fascinating to a learner" (Dann, 2006, p.7). } Alice is a graphic programming environment that Correct: if (variable1 -- variable2) allows students to learn the concepts of programming

{ by creating 30 virtual worlds and animating characters. Developed by Carnegie Mellon University, variable1 ++; this software revolutionizes traditional approaches of variable2 = variable2 + (variable1 - 3); teaching object-oriented programming by allowing }A mere typo, misspelling or omission of a semicolon, the visualization of abstract concepts, as shown in which should end every program command, can Figure 4. cause the program to 11crash" or not work correctly. This adds unnecessary complexity to the CS course and is often a major source of students' frustration, which may cause them to drop the class or not take any more of the CS courses. C++ is considered as the "industrially relevant language, leading students and some educators to believe that learning C ++ contributes significantly to employability upon graduation" (Chan et al.). However, its obscurity doesn't aid in understanding of the basic concepts and unnecessarily complicates the problem solving process. Fig. 4: 3D world animation that visually represents the These are one of the most important and common concepts of an object and an array. This particular animation issues in computer science. Overcoming these demonstrates the concept of permutation of the items inside the array. Source: Created by Yekaterina Kharitonova, 2006. problems can visibly change the current situation in CS attracting more students and making it easier to Why Use Alice in Middle School? understand the basics of programming. According to Butler, middle school is a turning point for boys and girls, which is definitely the case with computer science (2000). According to the researches the "seventh grade was the point at which boys increased their use of computers compared with

13 girls" (as cited in Butler, 2000) and ''by eighth grade, Alice presents CS concepts through visual objects twice as many boys as girls are interested in pursuing the students are able to explain the most complicated science, engineering, or technology based careers . ... ideas using every-day terms and examples. For By late high school many girls have already opted instance, to explain all possible permutations the out of the math and science classes that would make student can just run the animation mentioned in it possible for them to pursue a mathematical or Figure 4, which will visually demonstrate number scientific major" (as cited in Kelleher, 2003, p.4). This rearrangement. is also the time when middle school students are not Gender issues -- Flexibility in usage. The Alice yet inhibited by various social stereotypes and are program, uses the concept of storytelling, which is enthusiastic about learning. very attractive to all students in general. As a form of Last but not least, successful experimental study self-expression the Alice program allows role-playing, of using Alice with middle school students at Calvin which is one of the main ways that teenagers develop College ("Alice activities ... ," 2005) and in Kelleher's "their own identities" (Kelleher, 2003, p. 12) research projects allows us to believe that making Complexity of programming languages -- Alice is Alice part of the curriculum will establish even more syntax-error free! The most common and frustrating positive results. part of most programming languages is syntax error, Why Use Alice At All? occurring when the student mistypes something. Alice's drag-and-drop graphic environment makes If a graph could say "I love you," if it could sing a students' programs virtually free of syntax errors child to sleep, then from this struggle I might find some by a letting the student use the mouse and drag the benefit to reap. "rounded-rectangular tiles that represent commands" (Kelleher, 2003, p. 10) into the programming area. But all this wishful thinking only serves to make things worse,when I compare my dearest love with your numeric verse. For if mathematics were a language, I'd succeed, I'd scale the hill.I know I'd understand, but since it's not, I never will. (as cited in Hanson, 1997, p. 13) This poetry suggests a great new approach to the settled concepts of sciences, in our case, to the intricate concepts of computer science. These verses show how much inspiration one gains when something that is complex is represented in a familiar tangible way. ---!1···------·---•-·:1 This is exactly what the Alice program does. Allowing a programmer to focus on the concepts behind Fig. 5: A screen shot of the Alice system; each interface area is programming, the Alice program uses intuitive labeled. Descriptions of each area are below. commands in natural language. It is much easier to read and understand a command that says "Object 1: The object tree displays a list of objects in the current Alice move forward 1 meter" than to comprehend the same world and allows students to select objects. statement in C++ that says "Object.xVar =Object.xVar 2: The details area displays the properties and methods ... for + 1;". Figure 5 shows the Alice program's appealing the currently selected object. graphic interface and gives a brief explanation of the 3: The scene editor displays the 3D world and allows students to place objects and navigate through the virtual world main interface areas. 4: Stndents can build animations ... by dragging program tiles The main reason for using the Alice program from the details area. is that it can overcome some of the problems that 5: Students use behaviors to associate methods with events discourage students from taking CS classes. Having such as mouse clicks. identified the major issues in CS we can see how Source: Kelleher C., (2003, p.11). teaching with the Alice program can address these topics. Advantages of Having Programming Stereotypes -- Eliminate ignorance. Stereotyping with Alice Class is natural when people do not have current and valid information about the subject. Because CS is Benefits for the students a very technical field it is very hard to explain what • An interesting and fun class it is about, without sounding like a "geek." Because 14 • Better preparedness for CS introductory courses • Remain the leader in technology • Higher academic performance in college CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION • Scholarship opportunities The decline of Computer Science professionals • Job opportunities and career advancement suggests that we should improve computer education. Benefits for schools Middle school representing a watershed in the • Reputation as a school "in-tune" with the latest students' development and perceptions is the best information and technology time for teaching introductory computer science • Reputation as a good school for college class using the Alice program. I recommend the preparation u Successful alumni implementation of this program for Spring 2007 at Parker School. This program's proven simple and Benefits for the United States fascinating approach to programming will attract • Increase CS enrollment students' interest and increase CS enrollment at • Have better prepared college freshmen Parker School and at the university level.

REFERENCES

1 Alice activities at Calvin College. Retrieved June 2, 2006, Web site: http://cs.calvin.edu/alice/index.html 2 Butler, D. (2000). Gender, girls, and computer technology: what's the status now?. The Clearing House. 73.4, 225 3 Chan, C., Estreich, C., Parker, A. & Garg, A., (2006). High school computer science education (HSCSE) Statistics. Retrieved June 6, 2006, from http://cse.stanford.edu/class/cs201/projects-03-04/high-school-cs/ statistics.html 4 Computer science teachers association. (2006, January 27). Cisco supports program to provide IT careers information. Retrieved June 7, 2006, from Computer science teachers association January 2006 Archives Web site: http://blog.acm.org/archives/csta/2006/01/index.html 5 Dann, W., Cooper S. & Pausch R. (2006). Learning to program with Alice. New Jersey: Pearson. 6 Enderton, M. (2003, May 4). Women in computer science: two studies on the effects of stereotypes. Retrieved June 8, 2006, from Honors Thesis: Women in Computer Science Web site: http://www.enderton. com/maria/honors/honors2003.html 7 Fung, A. (2005, August 8). Computers part of school program. Crain's New York Business, 21, Retrieved June 8, 2006, from eLibrary online database on the World Wide Web: http://elibrary.bigchalk.com/ 8. Kelleher C., (2003). Motivating Programming: using storytelling to make computer programming attractive to more middle school girls. Carnegie Mellon University thesis proposal retrieved June 7, 2006, Web site: http:/ /www.cs.cmu.edu/ ~caitlin/papers/kelleherProposal.pdf 9 Hanson, K. (1997). Gender, discourse, and technology. Retrieved June 8, 2006, from Gender and diversities institute Research to action report Web site: http://www2.edc.org/GDI/publications_SR/ gendisctechwp.pdf 10 Henderson, H. (1999). Career opportunities in computers and cyberspace. New York: Facts On File. 11 Parker School on the Big Island of Hawaii. College prep education. Retrieved June 2, 2006, Web site: http://parkerschool.net/ 12 Ride, S. (2006). A Guide for parents grades 4-7: Science can take her places. Retrieved June 8, 2006, Web site: http://www.sallyridescience.com/pdf/Parent_handbook_eng_2006.pdf 13 School of computer science. Retrieved April, 2006, Web site: http://www.cs.unp.ac.za/ 14 Technology facts. Retrieved June 8, 2006, from Gender, diversities and technology institute Web site: http://www2.edc.org/GDI/Technology_Facts.htm 15 Vegso, J. (2006, March). Drop in CS bachelor's degree production. Retrieved June 2, 2006, from Computing Research News Web site: http://www.cra.org/CRN/articles/march06/vegso.html

15 around 60 documented cases in the United States and around 300 worldwide (3). Since it is a genetic Congenital disease, CIPA is more likely to occur in homogeneous societies. While there may be very few reported cases, Insensitivity to Pain many studies have been done on these individuals. It is hard though, to get information on adults with Anhidrosis because many individuals do not live past the age of 25. Mardy was the first to study CJPA in-depth. by Dane Inouye Published in 1999 in the American Journal of Genetics, Mardy identifies the cause of CIP A, allowing for a Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis better screening process in identifying individuals (CJPA) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder. It with this disease (4). is part of the hereditary sensory and autonomic Another study was done by Guo, on two neuropathy diseases (HSAN); specifically it is known Taiwanese brothers, both diagnosed with CJPA. Guo as HSAN type IV. CJPA is characterized by the basically studied myelination and axon thickness in absence of reaction to noxious stimuli, the inability the two brothers, comparing it to normal myelination. to sweat, hyperpyrexia, mild retardation, and self­ He first took DNA samples from the two brothers mutilating behavior. Thus the name congenital, and mother. Then electrophysiological studies were meaning present from birth; insensitivity to pain, done. Using an electromyograph, Guo tested motor meaning inability to feel pain; anhidrosis, the inability conduction on the median, ulnar, tibial and perineal to sweat. This inability causes the hyperpyrexia or nerves. Then he took sensory conduction of the high fever because the individual isn't able to give off same nerves. Lastly, he did a sural nerve biopsy heat through sweating. and counted the number of myelinated neurons, and Many would feel that it would be a great thing compared axon size. The brothers were both male, not to feel physical pain. Pain though, is a way one's ages 18 and 20. The 20 year old was slightly retarded body tells it that something is wrong. An individual while the 18 year old had a normal IQ (2). touching a hot stove wonld feel instant pain, forcing The tests revealed a loss of small myelinated and them to pull their hand away before causing too much unmyelinated fibers but normal large myelinated damage. An individual with CJPA would keep their fibers in the sural nerve (2). It was also noted that hand on the hot stove because they cannot feel it the axon size was larger than normal in both patients. burning their hand. This is an important disease to Guo discusses that there appears, like in many study because by studying it, individuals can learn congenital diseases, no increase in the loss of small more about genetic diseases, how neurons and nerves myelinated fibers with age. This study is interesting work and communicate with the body and maybe because it shows that the body tries to cope with less find a cure for this disease. myelinated fibers by increasing the size of the axons. CJPA is a fairly recently discovered disease. The only problem is that with CJPA there is a loss of Within the past 10 years it has been found that the sensory nerves in the dorsal root ganglia. This is CIP A is caused by a mutation to the TrkA (NTRKl) what causes the patient to lose the ability to feel pain. gene. This gene is responsible for encoding the Rosentsveig, looked at surgical records of 20 receptor tyrosine kinase for nerve growth factor (6). patients with CIPA. He studied anesthetic procedures Nerve growth factor is critical for the formation of done on patients with CJPA. It has been noted that autonomic neurons and small sensory neurons in the patients with CJPA have a decreased peripheral dorsal root ganglia. TrkA is part of the TRK proto­ and central norepinephrine activity (7). This can oncogene family and is expressed in neurons that lead to hyperthermia and hypotension during the sense temperature and noxious stimuli which is why perioperative period. What was found was that there a mutation to this gene causes the inability to feel were no cases of hyperthermia in the 20 files looked pain (6). Mardy first reported that there is a lack of at. One patient did go into cardiac arrest but that was innervation with eccrine sweat glands which affects unrelated to hyperthermia or hypotension. It was the individual's ability to sweat (4). noted though, that there were many cardiovascular CIPA is a very rare disease; there are only complications during surgery (7). This was uruelated 16 to the anesthetic drug used, so a complete conclusion "Ms. C" died prematurely at the age of 29, from was unable to be drawn from this study. Rosentsveig infections in her knees, hips and spine. An interesting recommends that surgery 11carries a significant risk of note though, "Ms. C" reported painful sensations cardiovascular events" so special attention should be during her last months of life (3). The cause of this given to these patients when surgery is performed (7). phenomenon is still unexplained. In a study done in 2002, Miranda studies a Most children dream about being a superhero specific mutation to the NTRKl gene, the gene when they are young. CIPA patients can be responsible for this disease. It has been identified that considered Superman because they don't feel physical there are at least 37 mutations among different ethnic pain but it is ironic that what gives them their "super groups (5). The mutation looked at in this study, was powers" also becomes their kryptonite. Living with the M581V mutation, prevalent in Japanese families. CIPA is not an easy task. Patients are forced to live The study found that the M581 V gene suppresses the a sheltered life. They must constantly be checked NTRKl gene and thus is an important residue for for scratches, bruises, bumps, anything that would receptor activity (5). It can account for some of the indicate they are hurt. Before they eat, food must be nerve growth factor effects, which is the main cause of checked to ensure it is not too hot. There are often the insensitivity to pain. dental and blood pressure problems which must Probably the most documented case of CIPA constantly be monitored. Whenever they wake up in was done on a Canadian woman named "Ms. cu. the morning CIPA patients must check their eyes to Her father was a physician and became aware of ensure that they did not scratch their retina while they her disease when she didn't respond to pain stimuli were sleeping. They must be kept within a relatively as a baby. "Ms. C" lived a relatively "normal" cool temperature so that they do not get a heat stroke. life, attending college at the McGill University in Even speaking and chewing can be dangerous as gum Montreal. When she was a younger, "Ms. C" received and tongue damage often occur. There is an endless third-degree burns when she leaned on a radiator and list of checks that must be done throughout the day. also severed her tongue while chewing. Many tests Cuts that formed must be taken care of diligently were done on "Ms. C". She did not respond to electric because they have the possibility of becoming shock, boiling water, ice baths, pinched tendons, or infected. There must be physical therapy to treat histamine injections. No physical changes in her body and manage neuropathic joints, bone infections and were observed and she reported no pain. She also spinal curvatures (3). CIPA patients don't realize how reported that she couldn't remember ever sneezing much damage they are doing to their body and must or coughing. This could be attributed to the fact that be refrained from dangerous and violent activities. coughing and sneezing are bodily functions which are Individuals with CIPA often associate their lack of caused by sensitivity and small pain to the throat and pain with immortality, which is why many patients nose. Since she was unable to feel pain, her body did die prematurely. not respond to these stimuli either. Unfortunately, WORKS CITED

1. Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis. Retrieved April 15, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wild/Congenital_insensitivity_to_pain_with_anhidrosis 2. Guo, Y., Kwong-Kum, L., Bing-Wen, S., Tsai, C., Niu, D., Hsian-Ying, L., Lin, K. (2004). Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis in Taiwan: A Morphometric and Genetic Study. European Neurology. 51(4), 206-214. 3. HSAN Type IV: A Life Without Pain. Retrieved March 21, 2007, from http://www.nwabr.org/studentbiotech/ winners/studentwork/2006/WJ_BA_Aalami.doc. 4. Mardy, S., Miura, Y., Endo, F., Matsuda, Lr Sztriha, L., Frossard, P., Moosa, A., Ismail, E., Macaya, A., Andria, G., Toscano, E., Gibson, W., Graham, G., Indo, Y. (1999). Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis: Novel Mutations in the TRKA (NTRKl) Gene Encoding A High-Affinity Receptor for Nerve Growth Factor. American Journal of Human Genetics. 64(6). 5. Miranda, C., Selleri, S., Pierotti, M., Greco, A. (2002). The M581V Mutation, Associated with a Mild Form of Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis, Causes Partial Inactivation of the NTRKl Receptor. Journal of Investigative Drematology. 119(4), 978-979.

17 6. Moqrich, A., Earley, T., Watson, J., Andhazy, M., Backus, C., Martin-Ainca, D., Wright, D., Reichardt, L., Patapoutian, A. (2004). Expressing TrkC from the TrkA locus causes a subset or dorsal root ganglia neurons to switch fate. Nature Neuroscience. 7(8), 812-818. 7. Rozentsveig, V., Katz, A., Weksler, N., Schwartz, A., Schilly, M., Klein, M., Gurman, G.M. (2004). The Anesthetic Management of Patients with Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis. Pediatric Anesthesia. 14(4), 344-348.

18 more and more prevalent, showing a consistency with Darwin's Gift: the hypothesis of environmental adaptation. By 1986, half of the moths were light colored, even in the most Acceptable and industrial cities (Hickman 12). The moth study has me wondering: is it possible Amorally Gifted to apply the theory of evolution to language? I think so. If we consider that language is the moth Verbal Communication and culture is the environment, then perceived appropriateness could be the tree. The environment or The Evolutionary in England affected the trees, which enabled the moth to adapt. So, we could extrapolate from the scientific Phenomenon of PC example that changes in a culture affect what is deemed appropriate or politically correct, thereby Language allowing a language to adapt. I believe the peppered moth analysis offers a reasonable model for the by Piper Selden evolutionary phenomenon of language, including that of political correctness. A Buggy Issue: When a person recently referred to my autistic Defining the Indefinable: son as being handicapable, it took me a few moments The occurrence of politically correct language to translate what was being said. This ultra politically is fascinating, regardless of your view on moths. correct term struck me at once as being both strange Some linguists believe that political correctness is a and interesting. Randi-capable? How on earth did the method of language reform that makes improvements word handicapped become handicapable? I believe that by replacing socially inappropriate, insensitive, the language evolved. or offensive words or phrases with those that are The Theory of Evolution was Darwin's gift to more acceptable. This reform attempts to eliminate mankind. In simple terms, it can be explained as language that is seen as sexist, racist, ageist, and adaptation to a change in environment (Campbell the like (Beard 3). My understanding is that PC is a 442). This evolutionary concept was used in the 1960s descriptor, something used to describe people, places, to help explain wing color variation in populations things, events, and states of being. It can also be used of the British peppered moth (Biston betularia). In to convey an underlying opinion about the words or industrial areas of England with heavy air pollution, phrases it replaces~social status, politics, gender, moths collected for the study displayed a dark wing race, and more. pattern with white splotches. The same species PC is a term which often leads to confusion. What collected in rural areas with little or no air pollution makes it PC and not something else? What about had white wings with black splotches (the original euphemism? The Encarta online Dictionary defines "peppered" look). The wings of the city moths euphemism as "a word or phrase used in place of weren't dirty or covered with grime; they were a term that might be considered too direct, harsh, actually a darker color. Scientists wanted to know unpleasant, or offensive" ("euphemism"). How is this how and why the light colored moths had developed fundamentally different from PC? It isn't. Perhaps dark colored-wings in urban areas (Hickman 11). euphemism is, in fact, a euphemism for PC. The The British peppered moth hypothesis suggested line between the two terms is fuzzy; both are used that the darker moths were able to blend with the to replace one word or phrase with another that is soot-covered trees in their polluted environment, perceived to be more appropriate. unlike the lighter moths of the same species. This PC language and euphemism have at least one form of camouflage made the darker moths less likely other thing in common: they obscure meaning, to be seen and eaten by birds. Scientists guessed sometimes entirely shading the truth. Consider the that the dark-winged moths had adapted to their euphemism collateral damage. It means "the injury environment. When air pollution decreased and the to civilians during a military operation" ("collateral tree bark lightened, the white-colored moths became damage"), yet the phrase gives little indication of the 19 human lives involved. Collateral damage sounds 1940s, linguist Edward Sapir described language abstract, like inanimate objects that are damaged, not as "a guide to 'social reality'." Together with people. One could also make the case that collateral Benjamin Whorf, the pair developed the Sapir-Whorf damage is a PC term, replacing what might be seen as hypothesis (SWH), a premise that world view is socially inappropriate. Sadly, in the current political shaped by language and "powerfully conditions all administration, a citizen is either for the wars we our thinking about social problems and processes" support (read: administration) or is seen as not being (Frank 109). As I understand it, SWH also suggests patriotic. I don't need any trouble; so let's not talk that the very structure of a language may determine about dead people. Collateral damage sounds so much how people understand the world around them: nicer, doesn't it? work, school, home, politics, religion, etc. Language that guides reality is a powerful idea. History: PC Past and Present In her book, Language, Gender and Professional What is the history of political correctness? One Writing, Francine Frank says: of the earliest citations can be found in the U.S. Language combines the functions of a mirror, a Supreme Court decision Chisholm v. Georgia in 1793, tool, and a weapon. [It] reflects society[ ...] human but refers to political accuracy, rather than rhetorical beings use it to interact with one another [and] language can be [used] by groups that enjoy the meaning: privileges of power to legitimize their own value The states, rather than the People, for whose system by labeling others 'deviant' or 'inferior'. sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects (Frank 108) which attract and arrest or principal attention [...] The underlying idea that thought is influenced Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, by language is described in the book 1984 by George language. [.. .] 'The United States,' instead of the Orwell. First published in 1949, this story is a 'People of the United States.' This is not politically futuristic tale and a warning about the effects of correct. (Chisholm v. Georgia) idealistic brainwashing. 0 Newspeak," a totalitarian Senator Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette linguistic regime, has replaced "Oldspeak," which was one of the first to record the usage of political refers to Modern English. In effect, Orwell says correctness in the twentieth century. In 1912, the that if something can't be said, it can't be thought. Wisconsin Republican published his life story, La Therefore, other choices and rebellious behavior Follette' s autobiography: a personal narrative of (thoughtcrime) disappear, making revolt impossible. political experiences. In it, he speaks of incorrect "Newspeak" works in 1984 by simply removing political views and his education at the University of the offending words; the structure of the language Wisconsin: becomes a way to secure mind control over the In those days we did not so much get correct people: political and economic views, for there was then It was intended that when Newspeak had been little teaching of sociology or political economy adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, worthy of the name, but what we somehow a heretical thought [... ] should be literally did get, and largely from Bascom, was a proper unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent attitude toward public affairs. (La Follette 24) on words. (Orwell 68) It wasn't until the late 1960s that the term Although 1984 is a work of fiction, there are real politically correct held more of a recognized promise consequences related to mind control through the use for language to persuade, influence, or offer opinion. of language. In that case, it might be helpful to look at Expressions involving political and sexist causes, specific examples and try to examine meaning behind specifically Marxism and Feminism, used a more metaphor. To investigate purpose, application, rhetorical form of language in the hopes of changing and possible motives behind PC language, I have social structure (Beard 22). Raised awareness and supplied PC examples and will offer possible reasons increased fields of study (women's studies, ethnic for the phenomenon in language. The politically studies, gay studies, etc.) in colleges and universities correct examples I use come from a list of PC oddities helped bring the PC movement into the 80s and and their approximate meaning, a list that I have beyond (Beard 23). lovingly collected over the years. PC phenomenon Linguistic Application: has been an interest of mine for quite some time; the Politically correct language can be studied as understanding and applications noted here are based a linguistic model by examining the Sapir-Whorf on my own cultural interpretations and obtained from hypothesis, which holds that there is a relationship research, personal experience, and travel. between language and thought (Kodish 383). In the The topic of PC begs debate. There may be deeper explanations or reasons for terms that have 20 yet to be uncovered. While it is difficult to make inflammatory terms, such as these, are modified due definitive conclusions based on personal experience, to increased understanding and awareness among we can certainly make observations. That said, I offer speakers of a language. Expressions evolve. For my ideas as a conversation opener and encourager of example, dark-skinned people were once called a wider discussion about the wonder of PC. coons in some parts of the United States. Eventually, another slur became the more "accepted" racial slur: A Medley of Metaphor and Meaning: the "N" word. Still a hot and racially-charged term, First, let's look at PC language as a device to the word nigger was eventually replaced by negro and soften, avoid offense, or downplay significance, then African-American. Negro and African-American sometimes to the point of "sugar coating" the new are used more as descriptors, but note the evolution word or term. Note that these PC descriptors can of the language. Likewise, the once descriptive term modify an object, event, state of being, or person. For nip became a more derogatory term for people of example, a manhole cover becomes a maintenance cover Japanese descent (nip for Nippon). During World to avoid sexist language. Used cars are replaced by War II, Jap was a much more common term, followed previously owned vehicles to downplay the significance by Oriental and then Asian-American. of the word used. Bombs become antipersonnel devices An interesting side note: insulting terms are for a similar reason, to downplay significance. The sometimes reclaimed by members of a group as a Food Research and Action Center (FRAC), USDA, way to desensitize the slur and take "ownership" of and other policy-making organizations do not refer it. I might greet my sister by saying, "Hey Babe!" But to hunger anymore; they talk about food insecurity, a a strange man addressing me the same way, "Hey state of being. In a similar way, depression or recession Babe!" would have a different, much more demeaning are often labeled as economic downturns. Crazy people feeling. I have heard African-American men greet now have mental illness and prisoners are really clients each other with the "N" as a harmless remark. What of the correctional system. Best yet, instead of war we do you suppose would happen if a white man greeted have the protection of democracy. Hooray! a man with dark skin color that way? "Hey, what's Second, PC language can function as a means to up nigger?" Would the reaction be the same? I doubt remove disparaging remarks or slurs from language it. Lastly, let's not forget the five gay men who call and help empower the previously disenfranchised. themselves queers on national television. Their show This creates awareness necessary for social change. Queer Eye for the Straight Guy has forever changed In many ways, PC is a form of language PR (public the culture of fashion for straight-men in the U.S. The relations) in that it allows redefinition. People once queer guys offer personal hygiene, clothing, cooking, called midgets are now little people, a big distinction. decorating, and home decoration tips lo men who are Likewise, disabled or handicapped follalter-abled or, my personal favorite, the Ageist and classist examples of PC have to do handi-capable. with age and economic status. We no longer have Disparaging remarks come in many strengths old people, we have seniors and mature individuals. and social uflavors." A sexist term may be revamped We have no more hobos or bums on our streets; we with a new gender neutral version of itself: Chairman have homeless people. Poor folks are often referred to becomes chairperson or just chair. A sexist is now as economically disadvantaged, just as the rich upper­ gender biased and a woman becomes a womyn to class are economically maximized. George Carlin has a disassociate from the maleness of the word~w/ o­ wonderful quote that illustrates the economic side of man, without man. PC language: On the other hand, sexist terms may be related I can remember when I was young that poor to sexual orientation or occupation. There are ways people lived in slums. Not anymore. These to soften even these strong words. The insulting days, the economically disadvantaged occupy substandard housing in the inner cities. It's so sexist word queer evolved to fag or dyke, then homo, much nicer for them. (Carlin 73) homosexual, and gay. In a similar fashion, the oldest A third reason to use PC language might be profession has advanced from whore to prostitute to to eliminate words or descriptions that carry with sex-worker, and finally, body entrepreneur. The newest them a negative connotation or social stigma. This term makes selling the human body sound like a type of politically correct language may serve to lucrative business venture. Perhaps it is. bring awareness for social change, but could also be Racist slurs are some of the most transitioned used to push a social, moral, or political agenda. Of PC terms, changing as often as our cultural course, this is true of any PC language, but changing understanding does. It is important to note that a perceived negative into a positive is a challenge that 21 spin doctor's know and love. Spin doctors as a group Incorrect -> Alternative answer interpret the "truth" and bend it by emphasizing Ignorant -> Factually unencumbered certain facts and minimizing others to agree with Redneck -> Rustically inclined their preconceived view of the world. This is an area Tired -> Rest challenged of language where politicians brush elbows with advertisers to bring us a kinder, gentler version of the While we might enjoy a good chuckle over these truth. Examples of this type of PC are everywhere we uber-PC terms, they serve an important function: to look: work, home, school, and of course, on the news. keep us in check, showing an extreme to remind us Terrorists are portrayed as bad people with guns that politically correct terms can be over-applied and in one country; while freedom-fighters and insurgents misused. In that light, I would like to discuss some of are the good guys... but they also carry guns. Garbage the positive and negative effects of the PC language men have been promoted to the rank of sanitation phenomenon. engineer, but drive the same big trucks and pick up our trash. For the most part, station-wagon driving The Effects of PC: Good, Bad, and Ugly: housewives like June Cleaver have disappeared, Beginning with the positive, politically correct replaced by stay-at-home moms who swing through language makes an attempt to be more sensitive and pick-up windows in their SUVs and order gourmet thoughtful of others, their feelings, and beliefs. For coffee from a female server, not a waitress. example, the PC terms BCE and CE (Common Era Kids with divorced parents no longer come from and Before Common Era) are beginning to replace broken homes, but live in non-traditional families. We the traditional western practice of dividing time, don't have drunks anymore; we have alcoholics. A measuring events in relation to the life of Jesus Christ drunk sounds lil Follicularly challenged definition. 'Tm a black American; but I'm originally Insult -> Non-traditional praise from the Bahamas, not Africa. Telling people I'm a Bag boy -> Agricultural product organizer black-skinned Caribbean-American is too much," he Dead -> Metabolically challenged said. "And what about my kids? Are they black-

22 skinned Caribbean-Hawaiian-Portuguese Americans? estate flyer that describes a rustic cottage, perfect for Why can't we just say we're black?" This is a case the weekend handyman, are we really looking at a for individuals originally from the Caribbean, South dilapidated shack that needs a wrecking ball more America, India, and other locations around the world: than a hammer? black skin color, American citizens, but not originally The last negative effect of PC language that I will from Africa. discuss is, I believe, one of the most dangerous­ Trevor's point about black-skinned Caribbean­ mandated legislation and its impact on our freedom. Hawaiian-Portuguese-Americans is a perfect Bill Lind, in a recent speech given at to Accuracy in example of another concern and negative effect of Academia, echoes my concern: PC language--that it can be awkward, confusing, The totalitarian nature of Political Correctness is and cumbersome. How far is too far? Should the revealed nowhere more clearly than on college campuses, many of which at this point are small study of history be renamed herstory to avoid offence? ivy covered North Koreas, where the student When a businessperson refers to the chair in the or faculty member who dares to cross any of boardroom, is she referring to a piece of furniture the lines set up [by the administration] quickly or the presiding officer in the company? In another finds himself in judicial trouble. Within the example, comedian George Carlin illustrates both the small legal system of the college, they face formal cumbersome effect of PC language and its evolution charges-some star-chambered proceedings-and punishment. (Lind 1) overtime: Language as a crime in a society that prides itself There's a condition in combat-most people know it by now. It occurs when a soldier's nervous on the notion of free speech is a dangerous concept. system has reached the breaking point. In World Mandated appropriateness forces us to ask the War I, it was called shell shock Simple, honest, question: who decides what is appropriate? We need direct language. Two syllables. Shell shock. not look to North Korea or the former Soviet Union Almost sounds like the guns themselves. That to see totalitarianism in action. Some, like Mr. Lind, was 1917. Then, during the Second World War, the very same combat condition was called battle believe that we live it within the borders of the United fatigue. It takes a little longer to say, stretches States. Perhaps PC has stepped beyond language it out. [... ] More time passed and we got to reform. Perhaps more people should read or reread Korea, 1950. [Now] the same condition became Orwell's 1984 and ask what lessons we can learn from operational exhaustion. It had been stretched out it today. to eight syllables. [... ] Finally, we got to Vietnam. Realistically, all language is rhetorical, whether it [... ] the very same condition was renamed post­ traumatic stress disorder. (Carlin 39-40) is used to persuade, influence, or entertain. Politically Comedy and satire, such as Carlin's, shows correct language, specifically, can serve as a cultural a growing resistance and intolerance for overly- timeline, a map which reveals changing societal PC language. Again, it serves as a wake-up call, sensibilities--the evolution of language as it reflects pointing out the sometimes absurd nature of political culture through time. PC language may be used correctness. to describe people, places, or things and is able to Along those lines, PC language should keep us convey underlying opinions about the culture in on our toes. We should keep a close eye on image which it lives. Language, lil,e the British peppered and policy-makers-the advertisers, marketers, moth, is a living thing, constantly evolving to fit bureaucrats, politicians and the like. We should current needs and sensibilities. So, is it political not forget to examine language with a rhetorical correctness or is it acceptable and amorally gifted verbal eye, (which is good thing) to sniff out the possible communication? Any way you say it, language is a motive or hidden agenda. When we pick up a real marvelous thing! WORKS CITED

Beard, Henry and C. Cerf. The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook. New York: Villard Books, 1993. Campbell, Neil, and Jane Reece. Biology. 7th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education Inc., 2005. Carlin, George. When Will Tesus Bring the Pork Chops? New York: Comedy Concepts, Inc. 2004. "Chisholm v. Georgia." UCS Louisiana Law. University of Louisiana at Lafayette. 27 Nov 2006 http://www.ucs. louisiana.edu/~ras2777/conlaw/chisholm.html. "collateral damage." MSN Encarta: Online Dictionary. http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search. aspx?q=collateral+damage "euphemism." Webster's II New Riverside Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1991. Frank, Francine and P. Treichler. Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1989. Hallacher, Leon. Personal interview. 9 Nov 2006. Hickman, Cleveland, L. Roberts, A. Larson, and H. I'Anson. Integrated Principles of Zoology. 12th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2004. Kodish, Bruce I. "What We Do With Language -- What It Does With Us." ETC: A Review of General Semantics 60 (2003): 383-395. La Follette, Robert. La Follette' s autobiography; a personal narrative of political experiences. Madison: The Robert M. La Follette co., 1913. http://www.wisconsinhistonJ.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=750 Lind, Bill. "The Origins of Political Correctness" Lectures/Lind. Accuracy in Academia. 2000 http://www. academia.org/lectures/lindl .html Orwell, George. 1984. New York: Plume, 1983. Wright, Trevor. Personal interview. 14 Nov 2006.

24 "ports" were situated in locations where they would Define uBreakwater" be naturally protected from the sea's winds and waves, so breakwaters were not always necessary. As by Anthony Olayon Charles Lentheric mentions: In early times there were very few artificial Water covers more than 70 percent of the Earth's harbors, surrounded by quays, divided into surface, It is a driving force of life and an element of basins, and protected by jetties, breakwaters, and destruction. As a society, we humans seem to have fortifications, as in many modern seaports . ... The ancients chose as a rule, for their ports, a small the urge or need to be in control of our environment. natural gulf or inlet, sheltered from the fury of For people living on the edges of water bodies the open sea, and provided with a gently inclined around the planet, the need to control the water beach upon which their vessels could be drawn affecting "their" shorelines has been substantial. up." (qtd. in Ludlow 192) Humans have modified coasts using various methods. When it was not possible to make use of a Coastal modification schemes are implemented in naturally sheltered coastal area as a port or when order to preserve portions of coastlines or to create there was need for more room for storing boats, an expansion of property, in this water dominated people were forced to build breakwaters in order to planet. provide protection from the elements, A breakwater is a classic example of a coastal According to Marriner et al (1525), an increase modification scheme, So what exactly is a breakwater? in international trade during the Late Bronze Age If you split the word breakwater in two you have the (1200-1000 BC) triggered the era of the artificial words "break water," which basically describes what harbor and the beginning of coas.tal modification. a breakwater does. In its simplest form the definition Further advancements in technology, specifically the of a breakwater is exactly what the two words say and Romans' discovery and use of hydraulic concrete, that is to break water. allowed coastal populations to construct concrete Changes through time have slightly altered breakwaters. As a result, environment no longer the purpose of a breakwater; however, the basic determined where coastal populations situated their underlying definition of a breakwater for the majority ports and the deformation of coastlines by way of of its existence has been to provide a barrier or human modification was initiated, protection from waves for boats and other watercraft To confirm this trend of human modification involved in maritime trade or fishing, Within the on the coastal environment we can look at the last 100 years, improvements in technology and the breakwater here in Hilo, Hawai'i. Its construction changing focus of society have triggered certain was completed by the US Army Corps of Engineers in groups of people to redefine this definition. Although 1929. It stretches out from shore along Blonde Reef for their purposes may vary, the common link between a lengthy 10,080 ft (3km or l.9miles) to provide for the them all is their use as a means of some sort of Hilo Bay, The definition of this breakwater, as well protection, as most from ancient times, is to provide a port with Some of the different uses of a breakwater protection from waves. include, and are not limited to, port protection Some say the breakwater was built as a barrier from waves in order to provide a safe landing for for protection against tsunamis. That position fails to water vessels, protection from submarine attacks, recognize, or remember, that the construction of the the protection from waves in order to create breakwater was completed in 1929, well before the an archipelago, and the proposal for the use of first tsunami hit Hilo in 1946, Tsunami protection or breakwaters as a way to harness the energy of ocean not, as we have seen with the last two tidal waves, the waves, and transform it into electricity. breakwater did not do its job if that was what it was Before discussing these different definitions, a built for. Nevertheless, the Hilo Breakwater plays a brief history of human modification of coastlines and very important role in our local economy. the beginning of the breakwater is necessary. Human Its protective barrier from waves creates a safe modification of coastlines had been taking place as zone for vessels involved with the transportation early as 4,000 years ago at ancient sites throughout of commercial goods and more recently the arrival the Mediterranean Sea. In the Mediterranean, coastal of numerous cruise ships that bring some tourism

25 to East Hawai'i. Without the breakwater in Hilo as protect the US Naval Fleet from submarine attacks well as Kawaihae in Kohala, the two major ports on is now out of use and placing a burden on these Hawai'i, this island probably would have developed concerned members of the Long Beach area. much more slowly and possibly would not be as In essence these members of the Surfrider prosperous, as we are today. Sure, airplanes could Foundation have created their own definition of transport commodities to the islands, but ships are a breakwater. Instead of being something that responsible for the majority of the freight reaching stimulates the economy or provides some sort of Hawai'i. positive element of protection, the breakwater has Although the conventional reason for creating turned a once clean and surfable beach into a under a breakwater has been to provide protection for utilized contaminated beach. watercraft from breaking waves, changes in military Some might ask, "What is the importance of a technology leading into the WWII era prompted beach?" According to Tami Abdollah, prior to the the US Navy to establish its own definition of a construction of the breakwater, "Long Beach was breakwater. This specific definition brings us to the something of a surfing Mecca, with wave-pounding West Coast of the United States of America on the beaches where legends like Duke Kahanamoku held shores of California. the first national surf contest in 1938" (Abdollah). The Long Beach Breakwater is one of three Today, the Huntington Beach area, a few miles south segments of breakwaters that protect the ports of Los of Long Beach, claims to be internationally acclaimed Angeles and Long Beach in the San Pedro Bay area of as "Surf City." According the Official Website for the California. The three segments make up the world's City of Huntington Beach, 11 million tourists visit largest man-made breakwater with a length of 8.14 their beaches during the summer months "to watch miles. The Long Beach Breakwater was constructed professional sporting events as the U.S. Open of around the time of the Second World War between Surfing, A VP Pro Beach Volleyball and the Surf City 1935 and 1949 to protect what was then the Navy's USA Marathon" (City of Huntington Beach). Local entire Pacific Fleet from the threat of submarine and Surfrider Foundation members don't want to rival the torpedo attacks. Huntington Beach area. They just want to restore their The breakwater is about 200 feet wide at its beloved Long Beach to a more natural state. In order base, 20 feet wide at the top, about 50 feet high, to do so they must convince others that their new which makes it stand between 10 and 13 feet above definition of the Long Beach Breakwater, as a negative the surface of the ocean, depending on the tide. impact on the area, is going to help the future of the Underwater nets lined across the entrances were in Long Beach locality. place to prevent submarine invasions. Perhaps one of the newest definitions of a This mammoth wall, built with the idea of breakwater is currently being written in the Persian it playing a role in national defense and future Gulf just off the coast of United Arab Emirates' expansion of ports, is now a target of destruction since Dubai. Nakheel, the premier development company it is no longer home to the Long Beach Naval Station of Dubai, is building a collection of islands that are (as of 1994) and no apparent plans for port expansion shaped as the continents of the world. The US $1.8 to currently exist. Surfrider Foundation members of the 3 billion archipelago project, called The World, will Long Beach Chapter are advocating for a portion of cover an area 9 kilometers in length and 6 kilometers the breakwater to be taken away in their "Sink the in width consisting of 300 islands built up from Breakwater" campaign (Abdollah). sand that will be protected by an oval breakwater. Speaking of the breakwater and its defunctness Individual islands will be sold to clients who will then today, Seamus Ian Innes, a coastal engineer and develop the islands' look based on the actual country. member of the Long Beach Chapter of the Surfrider The use of a breakwater in this case is still foundation, says, "the only real impacts of the to provide protection from waves but takes the Long Beach Breakwater have been negative ... The definition to another level by allowing the creation breakwater has ruined the waves, which has added of a group of islands in an empty gulf of water. The to pollution by depriving the water of the cleansing islands might be able to be created without the aid action of circulating tides. The dirty water and flat of a breakwater but would most likely erode and surf have reduced beach usage-from local citizens disappear at an accelerated rate. The sand islands to vacationers to conventioneers-which hurts [sic] would wash back into the sea similar to the process businesses. There's also evidence that it has depressed that all naturally occurring islands undergo. home values" (qtd. in Wielenga). A breakwater that The need or urge to control our environment is redefined its historical purpose by being designed to extremely evident in this definition of a breakwater. 26 The tiny percentage of extremely wealthy people on head on a common turbine wheel. The multi­ this planet are creating a project which Jesse Walker stage technology will minimize the number of says start/stop sequences on the turbine, even if only Reflect[s] a separate but closely related one water reservoir is suppl[y]ing water to the development: a species of polished enclaves for turbine, resulting in a high degree of utilization. (WAVEenergy AS, Working Principle) the rich that the webzine TrendWatching.com . / calls "nations light." These private dominions, Th1s technology, in the form of a breakwater, TrendWatching writes, are "a light version of a creates the potential for a breakwater to be a multi­ country or society, like a Diet Coke, stripped of purpose facet of our economy here in Hilo. The SSG annoying 'features' like crime, bad weather and Breakwater Construction would harvest the energy excessive taxes. Which leiJ_ves the good things of waves while maintaining its original purpose, like sun, nice villas and glittering shopping malls. (Walker) breaking the force of the waves entering Hilo Bay. In effect, the breakwater allows the creation of The most appealing aspects of this form of the islands, which in turn creates a utopian paradise harvesting wave energy are that its construction will where the rich can feel safe from crimes, bad weather use the existing breakwater's foundation, it will not and the other "annoying" facets of the 'real' world. interfere with offshore navigation routes, and its As we have seen, a breakwater can take on many proximity to the Hawaiian Electric Light Company's different forms or definitions. Different groups of (HELCO) grid. Other forms of wave energy people have different ideas of what a breakwater converters require buoys or other devices that float, should or should not be. Some create breakwaters as are placed on the ocean floor or built into the coast. a means of achieving wealth, some to protect their An advantage of turning our breakwater into a Wave wealth and others as a requirement for fulfilling their Energy Converter (WEC) is that the structure already way of life. exists and does not require much new construction, As a citizen of this world, I would like to propose except for removing portions of the breakwater yet another definition of a breakwater. To add to fit it for capturing wave energy. Currently, diversity to a breakwater's definition, I am proposing only one research project dealing with the conversion the research for determining the potential for of waves into electricity exists in the state of Hawai'i. harvesting ocean wave energy as a renewable energy This project involves the use of a WEC in the form source at the Hilo Bay Breakwater. of a buoy off the coast of Kaneohe Bay on O'ahu. The Hilo Breakwater, as mentioned above, was However, in order to produce a substantial amount of completed in 1930 and stretches 10,080 feet into energy hundreds of buoys must be deployed. A plan Hilo Bay. Given Hawaii's geographic isolation, we for the development of an offshore power plant using are extremely dependent on importing fossil fuels the Pelamis WEC (120m long and 3.5rn diameter) to produce our electricity. We are also very capable would require the deployment of 180 individual units of harvesting various forms of Renewable Energy to meet target energy outputs. Sources. Yes, they are great sources of energy, but the Enter the Norway based group, WAVEenergy general public will most likely argue that it ruins the AS, who developed a conceptual design for a aesthetics of our beautiful ocean. The aesthetic impact breakwater that utilizes a concept called the of converting our breakwater into a WEC would be Seawave Slot-Cone Generator (SSG). According to minimal compared to placing hundreds of buoys in WAVEenergy AS, the SSG concept is; the open ocean. That is why, locally, converting our The Seawave Slot-Cone Generator (SSG) concept is breakwater into a WEC should be considered. an [sic] wave energy converter based on the wave Placement of offshore plants requires au overtopping principle utilizing a total of three underwater cable to transfer electricity from the WEC reservoirs placed on top of each other, in which devices to shore for consumption. If the breakwater is the potential energy of the incoming wave will be stored. The water captured in the reservoirs used as a WEC, there would be little or no need for an will then run through the multi-stage turbine. underwater cable and HELCO' s nearest power plant Using multipl[e] reservoirs will result in a high from the point where the breakwater is connected overall efficiency. The SSG is built as a robust to land, would be located at the Shipman Power concrete structure with the turbine shaft and the Plant just across from Suisan. Grid connectio;, for the gates controlling the water flow as virtually the breakwater WEC is ideal. only moving parts of the mechanical system. The SSG concept makes use of the innovative Now one of the most important questions of this patent pending multi-stage turbine developed proposal: how much electricity would the breakwater by WAVEenergy AS. The multi-stage turbine has WEC be able to produce? Using data from the first the advantage to utilize different heights of water and only complete Wave Energy Resource And 27 Economic Assessment For The State Of Hawaii, by In order to move forward with this proposal, George Hagerman, I was able to get an approximation further research must be conducted to see whether of the potential output of electricity for our the installation of a breakwater of this type is breakwater WEC. economically and physically feasible. Site specific Based on George Hagerman's statewide analysis wave energy data must be acquired for the Hilo of wave energy, average wave power for the Hilo Bay area, as current data is based on calculated Bay area is approximately 6 kilowatts/meter at a analyses from buoy readings throughout the state. depth of 5 meters (approximate depth of waters on Communication with WAVEenergy AS must be ocean facing side of Hilo breakwater). According maintained since their conceptual design has not to WAVEenergy AS, a 500 meter installation of the yet been created at full scale and placed in an actual SSG Breakwater Construction exposed to an average working environment. wave power of 6kw /m would be able to produce In conclusion, the harvesting of wave energy approximately 100 gigawatt hours of electricity per should be implemented in Hawaii to reduce our year (gWH/year) or 100,000 megawatt hours per year dependence on fossil fuels. More forms of renewable (mWH/year). energy must be available in order to reduce the actual According to a Hawaii County report, the costs of creating renewable energy. Wave energy entire island of Hawai'i consumed 916,310 mWH potential in Hawaii is enormous and could provide of electricity in 1999. Based on that data, if we were more than substantial amounts of electricity. I do not to convert just 2000 meters of our breakwater into expect to have a breakwater producing electricity in a WEC device we would be able to produce 40,000 Hilo anytime within the next 10 years, but I would mWH of energy per year, almost 5 % of the entire like to see people considering and preparing for the island's energy needs (60,000mWH/year or 7% if all potential redefining of our breakwater. 3km of the breakwater were converted). At first it Humans have adapted the definition of a seems like an insignificant amount of energy based breakwater based on the needs of the specific on the islands needs, but every percentage counts and time. Today, we are faced with dwindling fossil it would turn a single-purpose breakwater into an fuel supplies and a warming planet. Wave energy energy converter. This would slightly reduce our need harvested from a redefined Hilo Breakwater will to rely on imported fossil fuels for electricity and our alleviate some of these problems if put into action. contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. What are you waiting for? Let's give the Hilo Breakwater a new definition! WORKS CITED

Abdollah, Tami. Sea wall stops, yet makes, waves." Los Angeles Times 24 July 2007, home ed.: Bl. City of Huntington Beach, "Welcome to Huntington Beach Surf City USA®." Huntington Beach Official City Website. Orange County California. 10 Dec 2007 http://www.ci.huntington-beach.ea.us/. County of Hawaii. 2006 County of Hawaii Data Book. Hawaii: County of Hawaii, 2006. Hagerman, George. Electricity Innovation Institute.E2I EPRI Survey and Characterization of Potential Offshore Wave Energy Sites in Hawaii. Hawaii: Electricity Innovation Institute, 2004. Hagerman, George. SEASUN Power Systems. WAVE ENERGY RESOURCE AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT FOR THE STATE OF HAWAII. Alexandria, Virginia: SEASUN Power Systems, 1992. Hawaii. Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism. Feasibility of Developing Wave Power as a Renewable Energy Resource for Hawaii. Honolulu: Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2002. Hawaii. County of Hawaii. Energy. Hawaii: County of Hawaii, 2005. Hilo Main Street Program. Downtown Hilo: Walking Tour of Historic Downtown. 1999. Ludlow, Thomas W. "The Harbors of Ancient Athens." The American journal of Philogy 4(1883): 192-203. Marriner, Nick, Christophe Morhange, and Claude Doumet-Serhal. "Geoarchaeology of Sidon' s ancient harbours, Phoenicia." Journal of Archaeological Science 33(2006): 1514-1535. "Performance Curves." WAVEenergy. WAVEenergy AS. 10 Dec 2007 http://waveenergy.no/PerformanceCurve.htm.

28 Previsic, Mirko. E21 EPRI and Global Energy Partners, LLC. System Level Design, Performance and Costs - Hawaii State Offshore Wave Power Plant. Hawaii: E21 EPRI and Global Energy Partners, LLC, 2005. Walker, Jesse. "Building a New World." Reason July 2005: 17. Wielenga, Dave. "Make or Breakwater." District Weekly [Long Beach] 05 Tuly 2007 "Working Principle." WAVEenergy. WAVEenergy AS. 10 Dec 2007 http://waveenergy.no/WorkingPrinciple.htm.

29 restrictive environment for every special needs child, Full Inclusion: Does and therefore more consideration needs to be placed on the individual student as to whether or not they One Size Fit All? are placed in an inclusive education system. This effort to make special education more by Mariah Molnar inclusive is called the Regular Education Initiative, or REI. As its name implies, the REI works to place more 'In the field of special education the term students with special needs into general education "inclusion" is sure to spark debates among both classes. The overall goal is "to merge special and general and special education teachers. Inclusion general education to create a more unified education is a method of teaching special needs children that system" (Kavale, Forness 281). In other words, the is "seeking to create schools that meet the needs of goal of the REI is inclusion. all students by establishing learning communities In their effort to advance inclusion, the REI was for students with and without disabilities, created under several assumptions about students educated together in appropriate general education and education. The assumptions made by the REI are: classrooms..." (Kavale, Forness 279). To put it another students are over identified as handicapped; students' way, inclusion is an approach to teaching special failures can be largely attributed to teachers; general needs students in which both students with and education teachers can be trained so that special students without disabilities are taught in the same education is not necessary; and lastly, physically classroom. separating students is discriminatory (Kauffman, The debate over inclusion began in 1975 when the Gerber, and Semmel 6; Kavale, Forness 281). These Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) was passed. assumptions form some of the basic arguments used This act mandates that students with disabilities be by the REI for inclusive education. provided with an education based on their individual The first argument the REI makes is that students needs in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) and are over-identified as being handicapped. This that they are educated with non-disabled peers to the means that students are unnecessarily placed into maximum extent appropriate (Kavale, Forness 281). special education classes because they are placed in Although the ideal situation is for every special education by being inaccurately labeled as special education student to be educated in general handicapped. Current data supports this position. In education, not every student's least restrictive the past two decades there has been a tremendous environment is a general education classroom. increase in the enrollment of special education. As According to the Department of education, 95% of of the 2003-2004 school year, 13.7% of students were students with disabilities are educated in general being served under the Individuals with Disabilities education classes to some extent, and over 50% of Act ("Fast Facts"). In 1976, when IDEA started, that included students spend 80% of their day in general number was 8.3% ("Fast Facts"). The percentage education classes (Kavale, Forness 279; "Contexts of of students requiring special education has been Elementary and Secondary Education"). Special needs continually increasing. One reason for this is"... students are included in general education in varying the lack of definitional integrity; it is suggested amounts, but supporters of full inclusion believe that the classification is so vague that it can be used "...all students, regardless of his or her disability, for learning difficulties caused by motivational, should be in a regular classroom/program full time, constitutional, environmental, or any of these and all educational services the child needs should factors" (Biklen, Zollgers 579). Given these loose be provided to the child in the general education classifications, it is said that ".. .80% of school-age classroom" ("Inclusion"). Although inclusion remains youngsters could be eligible for special education" a very popular way to educate disabled students, full (Biklen, Zollgers 579). This underlines the fact that inclusion may not be the best method for providing classifications for special education students are an appropriate education for every special needs unreliable and ambiguous. Part of the reason there student. Inclusion should not be the blanket method are so many students in special education is that the for teaching all special education students, because definitions of handicaps and learning disabilities are the general education classroom isn't the least inappropriate, but in no way should this ambiguity be 30 used to support inclusive education. why should retraining be necessary? Furthermore, this argument doesn't legitimately A final argument the REI makes is that separating support inclusion. All that this argument really says special education students and regular education is that there is a problem with how students are students is inherently discriminating. The term placed into special education. Putting over-identified discrimination generally refers to some sort of unfair students back into general education classes through treatment. Is it unfair to place disabled students into inclusion doesn't get at the real issue. The reason for classes that are appropriate for them even if they are putting a disabled child in special education should separated from other students? Or would it be even be that it is the best learning environment for them, more unfair to place a disabled student into a learning and not that they were mistakenly placed in special environment that didn't take their unique needs into education. This should be viewed as a problem account? In addition, "...the greater the diversity with identification, not as a reason for inclusion. of ability among students, the more difficult and Over-identification is an unrelated issue that cannot unlikely it is that good teachers will be able to teach legitimately be used to support inclusion. most effectively ... " (Kauffman, Gerber, and Semmel The next argument the REI gives for inclusion is 10). Discrimination or not, a separate education might that a student's failures are the result of a teacher's be the least restrictive environment for some students failures. According to the REI a good teacher can with disabilities. teach any student (Kavale, Forness 281). The REI fails On the surface these appear to be good to see that there is a lot of training special education arguments, but there is absolutely no support for teachers go through that general education teachers them, because "... [REI] is based on unexamined, don't. Regardless of how good a teacher is, there is implicit assumptions that provide a poor foundation necessary training for teaching disabled students. for attempting to reorganize education for Also, this puts all of the responsibility for a student's handicapped and other difficult to teach students. success, or failure on the teacher. As one proponent It promises only an uncertain future" (Kauffman, of the REI mentions, "The assumption underlying Gerber, and Semmel 11). In their effort to make this theme is that the problem of student failure is all special education inclusive they overlook the not created by deficits in schools- when a student individual needs of each student. When treated as a does not learn or behave appropriately, the fault is collective, few students with special learning needs, with the teacher" (Kauffman, Gerber, and Semmel will actually be placed in the educational setting that 7). On the other hand, it is just as inappropriate to works best for them. place the blame solely on the student. The position An important factor to keep in mind when REI takes overlooks the joint responsibility that the discussing inclusion is that an inclusive education students and teacher share in the student's learning. affects both the special needs students and general Furthermore, "Absolving students of all responsibility education students. Some studies have been done for their learning appears likely to contribute to the to explore the effects of placing disabled students view of students as helpless victims of a social system into general education classes because, uvalid to which they do not contribute" (Kauffman, Gerber, reservations relate to the possible detrimental effects and Semmel 8). Using this line of thinking to support on other students and on the maintenance of safe inclusion is really nothing more than blame shifting. school environments" (Heflin, Bullock 106). One such The REI also makes the argument that if general study focused specifically on the teacher's attitude education teachers were retrained to teach special towards inclusion, which is something that often needs children, who are often more difficult to teach gets over-looked when speaking about inclusion. and are usually taught by qualified special education In order to gain insight into teacher perceptions of teachers, they could be placed into general education inclusion related issues, the Council for Children classes. This view assumes that special and general with Behavioral Disorders brought teachers together education students are more alike than they are to look into some of these concerns. Within this different, and takes a one-size-fits-all approach to study, several different Texas schools of various education. It also fails to take the teacher's opinions sizes attempted inclusion on a trial basis. Upon into view. A certain amount of resistance should completion of the study, general education teachers be expected when many teachers are told they are "...reported varying degrees of skepticism and fear. in need of retraining. In addition, a good general They were willing to try including students with education teacher doesn't necessarily make a good special needs as long as the "appropriate support" special education teacher. Going back to the previous was in place, they said, but they were skeptical that argument, if a good teacher can teach any student, the support would continue beyond the initial trial

31 period" (Heflin, Bullock 108). As far as the students up academically with the rest of the class, and are concerned, the special needs students were neutral three of four students do so. However, almost 20 about the experience with a few exceptions (Heflin, percent of students with disabilities in general Bullock 104). In the smaller sized schools involved education academic classes do not meet performance in the study, the general education students were expectations ("Inclusion"). If 20% of disabled students protective of the special education students. At the aren't doing well in general education classes, that larger elementary schools, it was reported that the must mean they are not receiving an education unpopular general education students made efforts to in their least restrictive environment, which the interact with the special education students. Overall, Individuals with Disabilities Act mandates they "None of the professionals reported unequivocal receive. acceptance of the special education students; as one Although IDEA doesn't explicitly require teacher stated, "They were treated as special, but inclusion, it does "require that children with treated well"" (Heflin, Bullock 104). However, it was a disabilities must, to the maximum extent appropriate, different story at the middle and high schools. As the be educated in the least restrictive environment0 study indicated; ("Inclusion"). However, "IDEA considers the general "...two teachers reported that some of the students education classroom to be the least restrictive who were included became the class environment" ("Inclusion"). scapegoats; at the high school some general education students convinced one special The Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) is a education student to snort ketchup ... The middle vague term that has a different definition for every school special education teacher reported that student. The broad meaning of a least restrictive the special education students told her they felt environment is the educational setting that works rejected by their peers" (Heflin, Bullock 104). best for a student depending on his or her own In the end, less than a third of the teachers said strengths and weaknesses, in which they are most that general education classes were an appropriate likely to succeed in. General education may be the placement for special education students. LRE for one student but not for another. IDEA makes The study also cited some of the teacher's the assumption that every student's LRE is general concerns about full inclusion. Some of the concerns education. were: insufficient time and training, being unable Over time, the way LREs have been fleshed-out to meet the needs of the included special education has changed considerably. Consequently, "As the students, behavior management, and the imbalance interpretation of least restrictive environment has between special and regular education students changed, the proportion of students with disabilities (Heflin, Bullock 109). This demonstrates the fact that included in general education has increased there is a rift between the assumptions and reality of dramatically" (Villa, Thousand 20). As of the inclusion. One teacher included in the study attests 2004-2005 school year, 52.1 % of special needs children to this by saying, "full inclusion is laudable in theory, spent 80% of their day in general education classes but falls short in practice" (Heflin, Bullock 109). ("Contexts of Elementary and Secondary Education"). After concluding this study, when referring to As mentioned earlier, 20% of these included students the appropriateness of inclusion half of the teachers are failing to meet expectations. This would mean used the phrase "case-by-case" (Heflin, Bullock 109). that the LRE for at least 20% of included students This seems to be the most sensible way to approach obviously, isn't general education. inclusion. As this study indicated, inclusion seemed to Rather than placing every special needs student in produce some positive effects at some schools, while only general education classes, partial inclusion might in other schools and in different situations inclusion provide a good alternative. Placing disabled students didn't work There are a lot of factors involved in in classes like art, gym, or music would give students whether or not inclusion will be successful or not. the social interaction supporters of full inclusion Overall, inclusion is not going to work as the blanket hope for without as many academic consequences. solution for educating special needs students. Those Alternatively, some special needs students might who suggest that inclusion is the best way to educate succeed in general education science classes, but not disabled students as the REI does, need to place more in general education math classes. Disabled students consideration on the needs of the individual child. excel in different classes at different amounts, and In a perfect world general education would should be placed into general education classes in provide an appropriate education for every disabled which they can do well. This approach would give II student. It is unfortunate, however, that Almost more consideration to each student's individual all students with disabilities are expected to keep strengths and weaknesses.

32 Full inclusion fails to account for the fact students for failure. The theory behind inclusion is that "Students with disabilities are an extremely admirable and can be successful if applied to students heterogeneous group, varying by type and severity of appropriately. The degree to which students are disability, as well as by the many variables found in included needs to be based on a student's unique the population at large.... " (Terman 6). To place every disability and his or her strengths and weaknesses, special education student in general education classes not as a cheap cop-out for special education. ignores this fact, thereby setting up many included

Works Cited

Biklen, Douglas, and Nancy Zollgers. "The Focus of Advocacy in the LC Field." Journal of Learning Disabilities 19(1986): 579-586. "Contexts of Elementary and Secondary Education." National Center for Education Statistics. US Department of Education. 3 Dec 2007 http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2007/section4/table.asp?tableID=717. "Fast Facts." National Center for Education Statistics. US Department of Education. 3 Dec 2007 http://nces.ed.gov/ fastfacts/display.asp?id=64. Heflin, L. Juane, and Lynda! M. Bullock. "Inclusion of Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: A Survery of Teachers in General and Special Education." Preventing School Failure 43(1999): 103-112. "Inclusion." Council for Exceptional Children. Council for Exceptional Children. 1 Dec 2007 http://www.cec.sped. org/Content/NavigationMenu/Newsissues/TeachingLearningCenter/ProfessionalPracticeTopicsinfo/Inclusion/ default.him. Kavale, Kenneth A, and Steven R. Forness. "History, Rhetoric, and Reality: Analysis of the Inclusion Debate." Remedial and Special Education 21(2000): 279-296. Kauffman, James M., Michael M. Gerber, and Melvyn I. Semmel. "Arguable Assumptions Underlying the Regular Education Initiative." Journal of Learning Disabilities 21 (1988): 6-11. Terman, Donna L., Mary B. Larner, Carlos S. Stevenson, and Richard E. Behrman. "Special Education for Students with Disabilities: Analysis and Recommendations." The Future of Children. 6(1996): 4-24. Villa, Richard A., and Jacquline. "Making Inclusive Education Work." Educational Leadership 61(2003): 19-23.

33 needed, 3) citizen's discourse, as resistance - higher Hikikomori and authorities feel the problem is not with the students but with the schools and society in general, which School Refusal calls for higher political change, 4) and the socio­ medical discourse, as burnout - the problem lies with by Lindsey Saunders the school's societal structure, and urges children to rest when academic demands and high pressure social Life in Japanese schools can be a horrid situations cause them to panic (Yoneyama, 2000). experience. Bullying, entrance exams, and constant Many cases of hikilwmori in fact start out as peer pressure are just some problems that children school refusal, or toukoukyohi. Those afflicted with face. This could be said of schoolchildren in different toukou/cyohi, whatever the cause, often show signs countries as well, but the children in Japan have a of exhaustion and also panic attacks or anxiety unique response to school related pressure. This disorder. Toukoukyouhi is often related to school manifests in an interesting phenomenon called phobia, which includes fear of going to school, hikikomori. You may have heard this word from the emotional disturbance, and being in the safety of news, due to some of the most extreme cases. The parents (Yoneyama, 2000). However, many school general definition of hikikomori is "those that shut refusals result from academic burnout on the part of themselves in their rooms", or another part of their the student. These students lack the desire to continue house, and refuse to come out no matter what for at down what is seen as an impossible path. least 6 months. However, what you may not realize is Tomohiro Itsuno states that as for toukoukyouhi, that most hikilwmori are lethargic rather than violent. the usual precursor to hikikomori, several factors are They feel they wouldn't be able to handle failure in probably to blame. He differentiates between family Japan's success-oriented society. In most cases they and school problems. Family problems include may not have to because of the large dependency on advanced home technology taking away from the parents. Another problem that occurs in Japan is the domestic training that usually comes from parents to student refusing to attend school and is called school children. This denies children the parental bond that refusal, or toukoukyohi, which could lead to hikikomori. develops through such training. Another possibility However, it is usually just centered on school, with could be the shrinking size of Japanese families - students being either afraid to go or just lacking the children don't experience the sharing and relating that energy to keep up with the high-paced education comes with siblings. Because of this the social persona system. develops later than normal. Also, the Japanese family In Japan, school is considered a fundamental part is centered around the child, relating the message of society, and many students and the population that the parents are only there to serve the child and in general believe that if you can make good grades therefore the child doesn't feel any responsibility. This and get into a good school, the rest of your life will can also cause a co-dependant relationship between work out wonderfully. This applies a ridiculous mother and child. Trauma may occur when separation amount of pressure to students, causing anxiety and actually happens, as in becoming a shakaijin, or a self-doubt. Because school is such an integral part of member of society (Itsuno, 1993). Japanese life, school refusal is often discussed among In relation to school refusal, Tomohiro mentions adults and usually turns into more of a political issue the largest cause being poor academic results and because of opposing views on educational methods blames the schools for trying to cram large amounts and curriculum. The problem, whether it lies with of specific information in children's minds. Also, the the individual students or the school system itself, is 'equality of outcome' is stated. In Japan, equality is highly debated (Yoneyama, 2000, p. 81). one of the most important aspects of education, and In these debates, school phobia is broken up into unlike America's view of equality of opportunity, four different categories: 1) psychiatric, as mental Japan focuses on the equality of everyone's outcomes illness - the student is blamed rather than the school (Okamoto, 2001). This puts a lot of pressure on young and the children are sent for medical help and labeled children, not only to strive to reach everyone else's as 'abnormal', 2) behavioral, as laziness - the student's level, but also preventing those exceptional children own selfishness is the cause and more discipline is from revealing their full potential (Itsuno, 1993). 34 In 1Educational Reform', a view is mentioned In Japanese society, it is very common for children that before the 1970's, children spent more time to live with their parents until they get married, even outside with their families, with other children, and when the child is out of college with a full-time job. with the community, and thus learned the majority The habit of relying on parents could be one reason of their moral and social education in this way. hikikomori is possible for those with social problems. Today, however, community activity is lower, while Dr. Saito claims that hikikomori is a family and social sedentary activities and the likelihood of both parents disease, based largely on the child-parent dependent working full-time are higher (Cave, 2001). relationship and the amount of pressure that is placed The rate of children refusing to attend school on young males, and to a lesser extent females, to has doubled since 1990 (Jones, 2006). From a report succeed in Japanese society. Mariko Fujiwara, the written by the Ministry of Education in 1990, there director of research at Hakuhodo Institute of Life were almost 50,000 students from elementary and and Living in Tokyo, says that today's parents are secondary schools that hadn't attended in at least more demanding because Japan's declining birth rate 50 days. Of those in secondary school, 30% claimed means they have fewer children on whom to push it was lack of spirit or dislike of school; 26% stated their hopes (Jones, 2006). A Japanese teacher who had anxiety disorders as the cause; and 20% were from a student stop going to school also claimed this was misconduct and the pursuit of pleasure (Itsuno, 1993). a problem, saying that "[the mother] hoped for too Students with school refusal usually start much from when [the child] was born. She thought out by claiming they cannot go to school, usually high expectations equaled love" (LeTendre, 1996). An because they feel excessive tiredness. However, often American psychologist, Dr. David Kupfer, states that, times they aren't really sure why they can't bring "'In Japan, the pressure to succeed is a unique cultural themselves to go to school (Yoneyama, 2000, p. 87). source of trauma" (Kary, 2003). Many school refusals start after a period of going to Another psychologist, Yuichi Hattori, M.A., the school clinic, where students are allowed to be claims the problem is unemotional parenting. Most at school but without any of the pressures of normal of his patients haven't been physically or sexually class. After this, there is usually great pressure put on abused, but they seem to have post-traumatic stress the student to go back to school, and symptoms like disorder, and he thinks it's from 'zombie'-like parents. stomachache or headache begin to appear. Sometimes This relates to the Japanese ideal of hone and tatemae - violence against parents by the student occurs in true feelings vs. outward actions - which is one of the response to the pressure put on them. After this, cornerstones of Japanese society (Kary, 2003). sometimes for large amounts of time, the students Most hilcilcomori experience depression and process their situation, and usually comes to the obsessive-compulsive disorders; however, this is conclusion that they are not in school not because usually a side-effect of being shut-in with no human there is something wrong with them, but because they contact rather than a cause for isolation (Jones, 2006). don't like it, and are able to criticize the school system There are similarities to agoraphobia and other mental in their minds and assert themselves. Finally, some illness, but hilcikomori usually act normal unless they find self-confidence and are able to live in society are placed in a stressful situation (Watts, 2002). It is again, but feel that school was a bad thing, that took said that hi/ci/comori usually have a narcissist nature, away their personality (Yoneyama, 2000). However, preventing them from being able to fail in public not all students end up this way - some sink further because their pride is too high (Ogino, 2004). into hikikomori, complete detachment from society, Many hilcilcomori claim it was bullying in school and some commit suicide or resort to crime against that led them to isolate themselves, reasons ranging others. from being too fat to too shy to even being better than . There are a few accepted ideas of what could be everyone else at a sport or hobby (Jones, 2006). Again, causing hikikomori. The Ministry of Education's list this relates to the 'equality of outcome' mentioned of causes for school refusal are as follows: neurotic earlier. Outliers, even those on the exceptional end, emotional confusion; mental disorder, as in the early are treated as alien. When students seek help most states of depression or schizophrenia; poor academic students are told by their parents and teachers to performance; mental or emotional disabilities; handle bullying themselves. maladjustment from transferring schools; and a lack Another aspect of recent Japanese life that could of valuing education (Itsuno, 1993). The reasons hinder those that are predisposed to hiki/comori is listed are wide and varied, but many of them could advanced technology. Countless hours can be spent be accredited to social pressure or lack of parental on the Internet or playing video games while having involvement. food delivered directly to your door, and rich parents

35 usually allow this kind of behavior to continue setting. This school introduces activities slowly to instead of acknowledging that there's a problem allow hikikomori to try new things by helping them (Watts, 2002). The pressure ofJapanese society to to develop 'managing categorization.' In this private succeed is also not to be overlooked. About 10 years program, as most others, communication starts by a ago there was another cultural disease that occurred worker or volunteer going to the affected hikikomori's in Japan: karoshi, or death by overwork (Watts, 2002). house. Often, this volunteer has to go for several Perhaps the Japanese youth find this level of success months repeatedly until valid communication is to be too much to live up to, and become apathetic as made. The person is told that there is a place for them a defense mechanism. to visit or even live and recuperate if they decide they Sometimes hikikomori is due to an extreme want that. The visits continue until the withdrawn obsession with video games, anime, or some other person decides to participate, or continuously refuses hobby; sometimes the person simply turns into a any outside assistance. near vegetable, hardly bathing or eating, just passing If they do decide to try it, it's very difficult. At the time silently in isolation. Of course this doesn't first they are allowed to be in a room by themselves, happen only to school age people - it also happens or sit in the corner of a room and simply listen to to corporate workers, housewives, and others - but other's conversations. Gradually they can work up it's primarily a 16-25 year old trend. Around 80% of to small conversations with the staff about things hikikomori are male (Jones, 2006). 40% are below the they like and grow from there. But usually it's a very age of 21 (Kary, 2003). 21 % are within 25-30 years old, slow, unsteady progress. However, because hikikomori and about 8% of hikikomori haven't been in public for can talk to others with the same affliction, they can more than a decade (Watts, 2002). The first outbreak support and encourage each other. of hikikomori cases happened in the mid-1980's when a The 'managing categorization' refers to the doctor who now specializes in hikikomori, Dr. Tamaki practical lack of titles or categories in private centers Saito, began getting a lot of young male patients who such as these. Past successes or failures are not spent most of the time in their rooms, "lethargic and mentioned, and any terms of disease or mental illness uncommunicative" (Jones, 2006). are mostly unused. Members of the staff also do not It is estimated that maybe 1 % of Japanese are distinguish themselves from the hikikomori, and are, hikikomori (about 1 million), which should cause for the most part, unlicensed. Because of this, those a great deal of concern. But considering this is a that attend don't feel as if they're in an abnormal fairly recent phenomenon, the government has only setting and can ease back into society. Also, hikikomori recently begun studies of this societal withdrawal by are not divided among level of recuperation or age, its young people (Watts, 2002). Also, the older one so they can move freely wherever they want and not gets, the less likely they will re-enter society, which is feel restricted. 'Managing categorization' is not meant alarming considering the low birth rate in Japan. This as an effective treatment, but more as a gateway to leaves the question of what will happen to hikikomori become comfortable in social settings (Ogino, 2004). when their parents die. Almost all hikilcomori are As far as school refusal goes, Tomohiro claims supported by parents who feel an obligation to that counseling must become available for the support their child no matter what. Also, in a society children, as well as a pact between the different levels where being different is considered to be reckless and of school to focus on nurturing the student's minds. is generally shunned these parents are usually deathly There must be a guidance system with joint effort afraid that others will find out about their child's between different schools (Itsuno, 1993). problem (Jones, 2006). The media has a large hand in educating the rest Because hikikomori is a 'private' disease, receiving of the world about Japan's school problems, including help is difficult. First, public health care usually does hiki/comori. The media has blown this issue out of not work because the psychologist or doctor ends proportion, when you consider the ratio of successful up talking to only members of the family. It seems students to the ones mentioned in the news. However, that only those hikikomori who want to change can because of the sheer volume of students attending do it. But for these people, help is available. Besides school in Japan, hilcilcomori is considered a problem private counseling and therapy, there is a job-training that needs to be corrected in the school system. In program called New Start, a college-like setting that 'Educational Reform in Japan', the author claims that reintroduces normal life to those who have been shut it is the recent school reform' s fault, that the Japanese in for long periods of time (Barr, 2000). education system is too strict and applies too much There are also several private alternative schools. pressure on students - therefore, another reform is One deals specifically with hikikomori in a group necessary, this time centered on the students needs as

36 opposed to the academic results. In 1998 the Ministry refusal lie with the family, the school, or society? of Education released a statement admitting problems It seems to be that all three are contributing factors in education: " .. .in Japan, education has tended to fall to students distancing themselves from society. into the trap of cramming knowledge into children, However, the enabling attitude of the family is by while the ability to learn and think for oneself has far the biggest reason behavior like this continues been neglected" (Cave, 2001). for long periods of time. The values of giving and There have been rare, but extreme cases of caring to the extreme have in fact made Japan a hilcikomori committing rash acts of violence. This, in society of enablers. The desire to keep private life turn, causes the public, even in Japan, to have an and failures private is another reason that correcting unjustified fear of those afflicted with hikikomori, hikikomori is difficult. Is hikikomori and school refusal further reducing the chance that help will be sought just a symptom of a larger problem within the school (Larimer, 2000). However, most hikilcomori are too system and Japanese society itself? If this is the case, lethargic and apathetic to commit violence against these kinds of problems will most definitely continue, anyone, including themselves (Jones, 2006). until the government, the school system, and So does the problem of hikikomori and school hopefully, parents take more drastic measures.

REFERENCES

Barr, C. (2000) Young Japanese retreat to life of seclusion. Christian Science Moniter, Vol. 92, Issue 186, p. 1. Cave, P. (2001) Educational Reform in Japan in the 1990s: 'Individuality' and Other Uncertainties. Comparative Education, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 173-191. Itsuno, T. (1993) Educating Teachers to Develop Healthy Students' Minds. Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 68, No. 4, Japanese Teacher Education, Part 2, pp. 16-22. Jones, M. (2006) Shutting Themselves In. The New York Times, 15 January 2006. Kary, T. (2003) Total Eclipse of the Son. PsychologtJ Today, Vol. 36 Issue 1, p. 20. Larimer, T. (2000) Natural-Born Killers? Time Canada, Vol. 156, Issue 9, p. 31. LeTendre, G. (1996) Constructed Aspirations: Decision-Making Processes in Japanese Educational Selection. Sociology of Education, Vol. 69, No. 3, pp. 193-216. Ogino, T. (2004) Managing Categorization and Social Withdrawal in Japan: Rehabilitation Process in a Private Support Group for Hikikomorians. International Journal of Japanese Sociology, Vol. 13 Issue 1, pp. 120-133. Okamoto, K. (2001) Education of the Rising Sun 21: An Introduction to Education in Japan, 2nd edition. (Tokyo, National Federation of Social Education - Japan). Soukhanov, A. (2000) Word Watch. Atlantic Monthly (1072-7825), Vol. 286 Issue 6, p. 128. Watts, J. (2002) Public health experts concerned about 'hikikomori'. Lancet, Vol. 359 Issue 9312, p. 1131. Yoneyama, S. (2000) Student Discourse on T6k6kyohi (School Phobia/Refusal) in Japan: Burnout or Empowerment? British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 77-94.

37 or haole, sources of information. Native history, Invention Contention though not written, was passed orally down through generations. Modern nationalist work also accurately by Jenna Antilla documents the authenticity of modern Hawaiian tradition and, as Trask points out, validation does in The relationship between anthropologists and fact come from ethnographic records (1991: 226-227). the Native Hawaiian community has been strained While both authors attribute their ideas to at best. Major developments such as the Hl freeway traditional documentation, each seems to assign a on O'ahu and similar events in which archaeologists very different meaning to the term "traditional". lend a hand in the removal of ancestral bones, and To Keesing, traditional documentation is scholarly other artifacts have left the Hawaiian people's culture ethnographic data and historical texts. He consults exploited and values ignored. Cultural anthropologist mostly Western texts and his own writings (Keesing Roger M. Keesing's 1989 article, "Creating the Past: 1989: 216). Trask, on the other hand, seems to rely Custom and Identity in the Contemporary Pacific", largely on native Hawaiian nationalist rhetoric and adds insult to injury by suggesting that native peoples traditional oration that has been recently transcribed from all over the Pacific reinvent and reconstruct . Despite this, each author appears to feel as though their modern culture and traditions (Keesing their sources portray an acceptable illustration of 1989:216). Native Hawaiian nationalist scholar historic native tradition. Collaboration between Haunani-Kay Trask responds to Keesing in her 1991 these two very different authors and sources may article, "Natives and Anthropologists: The Colonial have produced a more polished and perhaps less Struggle", in which she defends the authenticity of controversial comparison between modern and native Pacific and Hawaiian tradition, dismissing traditional Pacific culture. As it is though, each Keesing' s claims as racist and under-informed (Trask author appears to cite examples and arguments that 1991: 225). Ultimately, although both authors focus strictly reflect their respective positions. on many similar points, each draw very different As their second point of dissension, Keesing conclusions on the past and present of native and Trask both look specifically at genealogical tradition. claims as a source of contempt between natives Firstly, both articles, printed in different issues and historians. Keesing states that in native Pacific of The Contemporary Pacific, focus primarily on tradition, genealogies were invented to claim modern native Pacific tradition and if pre-contact ancestry and relation back to the akua, or gods. tradition validates the traditions seen today. Keesing Keesing elaborates that the invention of heritage and Trask recognize that modern tradition should was invaluable in pre-colonial tradition because it be "documented historically" and "recorded allowed the chiefs to justify their own power and ethnographically" (Trask 1991: 226) to be authentically discredit their rivals. Politics and culture in Pacific linked to native culture (Keesing 1989: 216). communities were flexible entities that were often Contention arises as the authors disagree on whether redefined and reinvented. As a result, modern culture these conditions are met. Keesing cites ethnographic and traditions are not only contemporary myths but writings as sources of information, and maintains that are built upon older fictional legends (Keesing 1989: historical documents reveal discrepancies between 219,223). modern Pacific tradition and pristine culture prior Trask reasons that genealogy is often a to outside contact (1989: 216). Although he defends contested subject. She recognizes the unique claim the validity of such documents, he recognizes that that indigenous peoples, specifically Hawaiians, scholars and anthropologists likely misinterpreted hold in regard to property. She alludes to the some observations and these misrepresentations annexation of Hawaii by the United States in 1898 have contributed in part to the reinvention of modern and acknowledges that genealogy becomes a Pacific tradition (Keesing 1989: 219,222). conflict of interests, when natives claim the right of Trask builds on Keesing' s claim of proprietorship to certain lands. Furthermore, Trask misinterpretation, applying it to a modern-day states that students at the Center for Hawaiian Studies context. She exposes a flaw in Keesing' s research are required to learn the genealogy of the Hawaiian in that he appears to have only consulted Western, people, which provide a record unparalleled by any 38 Western observational writings, on the subject (Trask hope in a future sovereign nation (Trask 1991: 226). 1991: 227). Finally, there is an issue on which both In the Hawaiian culture, the people and the 'aina Keesing and Trask share a common view, native are connected beings that share a common ancestry nationalist feelings about anthropologists. to Haloa-naka, son of the akua gods Wakea and Keesing' s interpretation of native sentiment toward Papa. Haloa-naka was reincarnated into the kalo anthropologists has been cited by Trask as "villains plant, and it is from kalo that life comes. Genealogy, who appropriate and exploit", benefiting from other therefore, is fundamental to understanding who one cultures (Trask 1991:227). An anthropologist himself, is and where they came from. While early claims to Keesing defends the profession and expresses his al

Keesing, Roger M. 1997 1989 Creating the Past: Custom and Identity in the Contemporary Pacific. In Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Anthropology Third Edition. Kirk M. Endicott and Robert L. Welsch. Pp. 216-224. New York: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. Trask, Haunani-Kay 1991 Natives and Anthropologists: The Colonial Struggle. In Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Anthropology Third Edition. Kirk M. Endicott and Robert L. Welsch. Pp. 225-230. New York: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

40 written by native Hawaiians limits the amount of Literature in Hawaii: literature that is contributed. My ethnic background is Japanese and Chinese. So what culture or geography Who Gets to Write It? would my writing represent? I've never been to either of those countries, but would my writing be "Japanese by Jennifer Lui literature" or ''Chinese literature"? That makes no sense. There are so many people in Hawai'i and Many people have different ideas of what should around the world, whose background is comprised of constitute "Hawaiian Literature" and because of these more than one ethnicity. But how can our literature various ideas the definition has become blurred. The represent countries that we have never visited or that idea of Hawaiian Literature or even Local Literature is we have never immersed ourselves in the culture something that it seems everyone has a different idea of? Hawai'i is my home, not Japan nor China. The about. So what makes literature Hawaiian or Local? culture of Hawai'i is the one I'm representing. It is the Where is that line drawn? Can someone from the culture I know. If I'm not considered as contributing mainland, who has lived in Hawai'i for a significant to Hawaiian literature, then what literature am I amount of time, be considered a Local writer? What contributing to? According to Haunani-Kay Trask, about a person who isn't a native Hawaiian? Can 0 residence in Hawai'i does not make one Hawaiian, they be considered a Hawaiian writer? After reading anymore than residence in Samoa or Tahiti or China a great deal on the subject, I've had to come to my or Japan makes one Samoan or Tahitian or Chinese own conclusion about what should be considered or Japanese" (168). While I agree that ethnicity-wise, Local or Hawaiian literature. Although Haunani Kay a resident of Hawai'i is not Hawaiian, I do not agree Trask and other authors like her may disagree with that the person can completely not call themselves me, I believe that Local and/or Hawaiian literature is Hawaiian. When you look at Hawai'i as a state and anything that reflects the diverse culture of Hawai'i. not a specific ethnicity, just by living here we're You don't need to be able to trace your genealogy automatic.illy categorized as "Hawaiian" and should back to indigenous Hawaiians or even have been born be included in Hawaiian literature. There are many here to be considered "Hawaiian" or even °Local." different ways to look at it. Hawai'i is not only native Hawaiians anymore, we What about "Local" literature? "Local" being have an extremely diverse culture and the literature different than "Hawaiian" because to in my mind it coming from Hawai'i should reflect that. would mean more of the area that you're from or that Defining who is a Hawaiian and who isn't is you live in rather than the culture all together. To me, something that has been debated for a long time. I there isn't much of a difference between contributing was born in Hawai'i but am not Hawaiian ethnically. to Local literature or Hawaiian literature. It all Does that mean my writing cannot be considered comes down to the culture and lifestyle that you're "Hawaiian"? Writers like Haunani Kay Trask believe representing in your writing. Being local should be so. According to Trask, "Hawaiian literature is that a state of mind, not determined by your ethnicity. A which is composed by Hawaiians" (Trask 168). By her person shouldn't be told they're not local just because definition, to be considered Hawaiian you must be they weren't born in Hawai'i. A person from the part of the indigenous people of the Hawaiian Islands. mainland who has embraced the island culture and Don't get me wrong, I can completely understand lifestyle can be just as "local' as someone who has why she feels like she needs to protect the definition lived here all of their life, sometimes maybe even of "Hawaiian", and many non-natives don't consider more so. I think the term "local" could be used to themselves "Hawaiianff necessarily, but there is a describe almost anyone who understands that there fine line between wanting to keep your ethnicity's are things that make Hawai'i special, things that identity and discriminating against other ethnicities. cannot be found or experienced anywhere else in the I don't walk around saying that I'm Hawaiian, but world. While it does seem that "local" is sometimes I do believe that my writing should be considered a term too casually used, it doesn't lose any of its uHawaiian Literature" because it reflects the importance. There is always going to be debate on Hawaiian culture as it is today. what is local and what isn't. But I'm sure this is the To say that Hawaiian literature should be only same everywhere, not only in Hawai'i. 41 When it comes down to it, in my mind, both Trask goes on to say that this is a falsification local and Hawaiian literatures are represented in the of place and culture. Perhaps there is a definite line same way. To represent them, there needs to be a between who should and should not be included in level of understanding of the Hawaiian culture and Hawaiian literature, but the fact that Asian writers are history. This is a different idea from many of those getting the type of attention that the native Hawaiian that have come up in the readings about ethnicity authors would like is possibly causing the friction that I have read. I don't think it should matter what between the two ethnic groups. your ethnicity is. You have no control over that. As One representation of "Hawai'i" I don't a writer, as a person, you do have control over the agree with is the case of someone claiming to aspects of culture and life that you represent. be contributing to either "Hawaiian" or "Local" So where does literature like IIAsian American" literature and they have never lived in the islands. literature fit into Hawaiian literature? Does it fit There's a huge difference between a person who into Hawaiian literature? Sure it does! And it fits in is only a visitor and a person who lives here. The right where it should, right next to the literature by listing of writings in A Hawaiian Reader is a good native Hawaiians. In many of the early anthologies example of how writings that I feel should not of Hawaiian literature, Asian writers were not be considered Hawaiian literature are sometimes represented at all. Stephen Sumida, while talking included in a Hawaiian anthology. How can writers about James Michener in his essay "Waiting for the like Jack London understand what the culture is like Big Fish," said "in this supposed paradise, hard­ in Hawai'i and consider themselves and their work working Asians did not write, did not cultivate part of Hawaiian literature? I don't feel that you can verbal expression while they cultivated Hawai'i's understand the culture of Hawai'i without living here soil, much less indulge in verbal creativity. There and immersing yourself in it. A visit will not give were utterly no Asian voices to drown" (Sumida you the exposure you need to be able to embrace the 303). That was the notion when anthologies such as culture. A. Grove Day and Carl Stroven's A Hawaiian Reader When you take into consideration all the various were released. Michener, in his Introduction in A cultures and ethnicities that are part of Hawaiian Hawaiian Reader, said "having arrived in the islands culture, how can you not consider them all to be part as laboring peasants, these Orientals did not produce of "Hawai'i"? To me, it doesn't seem fair that we've a literature of their own, but Professors Day and grown up in Hawai'i, embraced the diverse culture, Stroven have included important passages that give and contributed to the culture of the islands, but our them representation" (Michener xiv). Of course, writing is not considered to be part of "Hawaiian" all of the passages he spoke of were not written literature. Everyone is entitled to their own opinion, by Asians (or "Orientals" as he calls them) but by but the exclusionary one some people espouse can Caucasian writers. To me, this implies that they feel only go so far and still be considered reasonable. that Caucasians can represent Asians better than the Just because a person isn't "Hawaiian" ethnically Asians can represent themselves. As the years have doesn't mean that their writing cannot be considered gone on, Asian American writers have taken a larger a representation of Hawaii. There should be no place in local literature. Part of me wonders if native ethnic division between what is and isn't considered Hawaiians resent this, and that is why they feel like "Hawaiian" or "Local" literature. Asian writers have they need to protect the definition of "Hawaiian" just as much a place in Hawaiian literature as native literature. Haunani-Kay Trask, in her essay Hawaiians do. There is something special about 11Decolonizing Hawaiian Literature" says: writers that are able to contribute to Hawaiian and Asian writers who grew up in Hawaii and claim Local literature and there is something special about their work as representative of Hawaiian literature their writing. We are all very fortunate to be able to or of our islands are the most obvious example contribute to a growing "geme" of literature and to {of writers who claim that they are Hawaiian}. By help define what can be considered part of it. asserting a special island identity, these local Asian authors hope to separate themselves from Asian writers elsewhere in the American imperium. Their claim to difference is precisely that they are local, that is, they are "from" Hawaii. (Trask 169)

42 Works Cited

Michener, James A. "Introduction." A Hawaiian Reader. Ed. A. Grove Day and Carl Stroven. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1959. xi - xvii. Sumida, Stephen H. "Waiting for the Big Fish: Recent Research in the Asian American Literature of Hawaii." The Best of Bamboo Ridge. Ed. Eric Chock and Darrell H.Y. Lum. Honolulu: Bamboo Ridge, 1986. 302 - 321. Trask, Haunani-Kay. "Decolonizing Hawaiian Literature." Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific. Ed. Vilsoni Hereniko and Rob Wilson. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. 167 -183.

43 One With Her Shield

by Diveena Marcus

Have you ever had an experience where you nation at the time, Libya, revered an earth goddess were at the wrong place at the wrong time? Or that resembling the Greek Medusa. She was described as a something happened to you beyond your control? Gorgon goddess of righteous wrath. Michael Graves, Perhaps you were in an environment that you felt at author of the White Goddess, refers to Medusa as home with but still fell prey to circumstance. How a beautiful Libyan Queen who led her troops into did you feel? How did you react? How did you battle (Graves 244). Graves, as did the ancient Greeks, finally deal with it all? associated snakes with death and destruction. Athena Hopefully we don't have to confront such has been depicted with snakes near her and with situations. Yet many have undergone these types of snake haired Medusa's head upon her shield. This incidences and survived. The journey to a healing symbolically was to enforce Athena's power of victory place of understanding is one that Medusa, in through death and destruction of the enemy. association with the goddess Athena, can symbolically Yet, far before this and after were cultures that reveal as a great transformational acquisition of did not see the snake as destructive, but rather wisdom. An image that ties these two beguiling of a feminine, earthly power. The archeological ladies together is Athena's shield with Medusa's head discoveries of the 'Minoan Snake Goddess' from Crete upon it. I propose that this image be a focus and support this idea of the feminine power as she stands support to all people that have come from a place of grasping a snake in each fist. This image is used violation. Not only women and children are victims by contemporary feminist organizations today as a of such occurrences, but so are many marginal groups powerful metaphor of strength. Native American, of people that have not achieved esteemed identity South American, African, Japanese, Celts as well, in society. Some of us can overcome victimization have used the image of the snake as a sacred totem through an integrating process of healing and power (symbol/talisman) of empowerment. by taking up Athena's shield. However, the world was being greatly influenced by the Greek's strength of the intellect An Image to rule by: and its strategy. Peaceful and graceful ways of Ancient history can support this concept with the indigenous earth practices were devalued (as some insights. Before the 6th century BC, a powerful they are today) in keeping with this Greek desire to

44 conquer and grow. I find that the myth of Medusa Medusa's beautiful hair with snakes and banished her was introduced to not only symbolically overthrow to a deserted island. Medusa not only is this monster, the Libyans, but to symbolically phase out the she becomes immortal with the power of changing matriarchal indigenous practices that were still a part anyone who looks upon her into stone. Eventually of the Greek way of life. Medusa, with her ancient Athena finds a courageous Athenian, Perseus, and connection to other snake goddesses, represents the asks him to kill Medusa and bring back her head. primal power of the earth's feminine essence. On the Athena gives Perseus her mirror shield to use so he contrary, the Greeks imagined Athena as a warrior/ can look through the shield at Medusa instead of conqueror goddess with strong attributes of the mind directly upon her. Perseus slays Medusa, and returns and intellect replacing the 'natural' elements of the her head still retaining its power, back to Athena. feminine. Thus, this patriarchal influence became the Medusa's final resting place is upon Athena's shield. symbolic representation of Greeks and their image. The Greeks eventually trampled and conquered Libya The Medusa Complex in Analysis: and 'Medusa' was replaced with Athena. There have been many analogies of this myth in The tale From "Ovid, Metamorphoses," Book metaphor to reference in the psychological analysis 4:1181-95 presents this thesis and the journey to of sexual anxieties. Specially noted views on the Athena's shield. Medusa and what she represents in the early l920's come from Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferencai From Ovid, Metamorphoses (Barnes 10). Both of these psychoanalysts worked Book 4:1181-95 separately, but come to similar conclusions. They from Dryden : both felt that the snakes symbolically are phallic, and Medusa's horrific gaze in the myth, which causes Medusa once had charms; to gain her love one to turn to stone, is another metaphor of having A rival crowd of envious lovers strove. an erection (stiffening). Through these associations, They, who have seen her, own, they ne'er did trace Medusa is a purely sexual symbol that pertains to More moving features in a sweeter face. the sexual anxieties of women. Ultimately Freud Yet above all, her length of hair, they own, and Ferencai' s conclusions are that women have In golden ringlets wav' d, and graceful shone. anxieties because they do not have penises. If men Her Neptune saw, and with such beauties fir'd, have Medusa in their dreams, according to Freud and Resolv'd to compass, what his soul desir'd. Ferencai, it is the 'terrifying mother syndrome' with In chaste Minerva's fane, he, lustful, stay' d, a castration suggestion (the beheading of Medusa). And seiz' d, and rifled the young, blushing maid. This suggests that men who are unable to establish an The bashful Goddess turn' d her eyes away, erection have sexual anxieties caused by a dominating Nor durst such bold impurity survey; mother. But on the ravish' d virgin vengeance takes, Freud even analyzes Athena with her shield. He Her shining hair is chang'd to hissing snakes. states, the virgin Athena holding this symbol on her These in her Aegis Pallas joys to bear, shield becomes unapproachable and repels all sexual The hissing snakes her foes more sure ensnare, desires since she is displaying the terrifying genitals 1 Than they did lovers once, when shining hair. of the mother (medusa's head). He also says that the Greeks were mainly homosexual and it was inevitable 1 Reproduced by Tracy Marks through the web. http:/ /www. for them to find a representation of a woman who webwinds.com/thalassa/medusa.htm was frightening and repels because of her sense of castration (Barnes 12). Medusa Raped in The Temple of Athena: I find it interesting to note that, not only the myth A version I will use, for there are many, was written by men defiles Medusa, but the analysis that: Medusa was a beautiful mortal priestess with also by men, defiles her centuries later. It seems long prominent tresses that loved, honored, and through all the analyses by these men, that the sexual revered Athena. Medusa daily delivered devotions at anxieties they reveal are those of their own. Perhaps Athena's temple by the sea in which the god Poseidon in viewing a woman of power, they are anxious about noticed and fancied her. One fateful day he rapes losing theirs. They may fear that women will take her right there in the temple. The poem suggests that their power away (i.e. castrate them). Athena (always present) witnessed the incident and Most interesting is that no one is acknowledging appalled by the disgrace at her temple, turns Medusa' the fact that Medusa was raped. This act of violence into a hideous monster. Athena had replaced would have repercussions of anger for Medusa, 45 which Freud seems to partially offer in his 'anxiety' to be released from it. Athena then supplies Perseus analysis. Instead of being understood as a victim, she with her magic mirror 'shield of truth' which he uses was shamed and made a monster. The 'Medusa' rage to reflect Medusa's image; and with his sword, severs is often observed with people that have been abused Medusa's head. Out of Medusa's severed body flies and consistently rebuked. So indeed, the idea of Pegasus a winged stallion (incidentally, Medusa Medusa being a monster in her reasonable rage reigns became pregnant by Poseidon). Pegasus releases all true for a time. the anxieties and phantoms in her mind and allows For Medusa to be rightfully placed upon Athena's the rebirth of joy and inspiration back into her life. shield as a symbol of healing our view of the myth Athena asks Perseus to bring back Medusa's head, must be changed. Myth is a living legend and can be which would concur that Medusa is released from useful in any age; its transformation is what reveals its her pain and ready to go back home. Upon returning immortal power. home Medusa, now Athena, places 'the' head upon her shield. This symbolizes her ability to truthfully The intrinsic relationship of Athena and Medusa: look at herself and the situation that transformed her In reviewing the account of previous Greek into_a powerful goddess. Athena is now the goddess politics in history and also psychological analysis of who is whole, complete, and ready to champion her the myth, I would like to offer another viewpoint. I life and those in which she honors. will review the myth regarding Athena and Medusa John Barth's "Chimera" retells this myth as well. as two parts of the same person. His hero is Perseus who grows tired of Andromeda Firstly Athena was given her mirror shield and goes off in adventure seeking Medusa in a from her father Zeus made with invincible metal. It rather romantic venue (Barnes 41). Barth's 'Chimera' revealed the truth, and was her prized possession. suggests there are always ways to look at something Athena's temple near the sea is an image of a serene in a different perspective and still give value to the and tranquil environment where Athena was at story, such as giving it a change of heart. Instead home and was more comfortable as her relaxed of one that is killing a monster, loving the beauty of self 'Medusa'. Her long and unconfined hair, with something within is what Barth implies. garments of leisure is reasonable for private attire. Alone within the elements of nature she has a very The Shield as Symbolic Completion different image than what she is usually seen as. Many folks that have experienced a violation in This earthly beauty was too beguiling for her uncle any way go through similar processing as Medusa. Poseidon; he so over come by his desire for her, raped A young man's home was robbed and was unable her. to go back for some time because he didn't want to In historical Greek myth Poseidon and Athena be in it. Rape victims don't want to talk to anyone were competing for the patron status of Greece's about it or look at the person if they know who did Capitol in which Athena won. Could this rape be a it. Sometimes they just want to go away and not deal jealous rebuttal? Athena, in shock refuses to accept with it at all. Children harmed by someone they trust or acknowledge what has happened to her. Not only don't tell anyone because of shame and fear. Also, did it happen in the privacy of her sanctuary, but by in a different but similar context a person of minority her uncle. This shock induced upon her a paralysis, status after many attempts of trying to find acceptance (turning to stone) and the shame caused her to hide will take on a blase attitude and drop out of the away (to a distant island). In addition, Athena turns community scene altogether. This "turning to stone" away and doesn't want to see what had happened. process (numbness) is the most deadly because many This refusal to look at the situation because of the times this is harbored within a person their entire life. shock of a violation and the conjunction of shame The most difficult action is to look at the situation and causes anger and rage; which changes her into talk about it when one is a victim. This is the only a monster (Medusa/Gorgon). She then rebukes way to move beyond the pain, anger and shame. It anyone looking upon her whether they knew what takes a tremendous amount of courage to seek out had occurred or not. She is in great pain, and really help and to look at what took place. "Taking up the wants someone to help, but doesn't know how to ask shield" is the process of having courage that enforces (the turning to stone-shock, the monster-rage and the the steps of healing towards home. isolation-shame). There is an actual non-profit accredited social Yet, in the myth Athena does ask Perseus, a man service agency in Montreal Canada that provides of truth and courage to help her. So deep within she information, referral, and support services to women calls upon her courage to deal with this pain and asks and children that are victims of family violence called 46 the 'Shield of Athena''. This organization started the public on the prevention and also solutions. in 1991 to help women of the Greek community, but As Medusa, we all must gain the courage to be now services all ethnicities. The Shield of Athena 'One with Her Shield'. In honoring our truthful selves has many services available that are dedicated to we can move forward to our rightful place in healing, increasing public awareness about the impact of education and wisdom. violence on society and information to help educate 2 women support organization on web http://www. shieldofathena.com

Her Shield

there is a sacred piece of raiment I've held dear a reflective piece, a mirrored shield reminding me of crystal clarity this talisman resides upon my alter always near on my throne, my temple, peaceful sanctuary by the sea so far away from throngs of populace I reside my home there loose I wore my hair and gown to dance amongst the airs These elements of devas were with me well into the hours of my time Then it was upon this incident ... that altered my place and changed my face ... He who rules the sea a great brother in my heart came unannounced within a mighty torrent of crashing waves in omnipotent measure So terrifying was this seizure I could not bare to see I turned my face away and there upon my alter what I was asunder my shield reflected me Looking upon this shame of incompetence I froze with this knowledge that imbued my circumstance No peace could find within me here at home So solitude and loneliness I found to roam Though there was a part of me that wished to mend I cried out to the gods to summon a seeker and send to heal my wounds and by and by one without fear did come to confront the dis-ease of predicament and with a cunnings surgeon's hand cut the pain and sorrow from my mind in turn ensued insights that like a mighty steed with wings took flight in freedom from this anguish from within and then, the muse of divine peace overcame my countenance my healer knew I was in justice's balance once again And journeyed us to the sea, to my temple, to my home As I approached my alter I lifted up my magic mirror that revealed the truth to ones that are not afraid to look no matter how others may say it may be too hideous to see as they divert their eyes to gaze at forms more pleasing and digestible I drank this knowledge in and held this as strength within my heart I wrapped my hair upon my head and girdle tight and firm held up a spear and with my courage turned to my mirror shield and wisdom preserver ready for the battle to face . what ever truth may be. 3 3poetry written by Diveena for this essay

47 Works Cited

Barnes E. Hazel. The Meddling Gods: four essays on classical theme. USA. University of Nebraska Press 1974 Graves, Robert. The White Goddess. New York, Alfred A Knopf, Inc. and Random House Inc. 1948 Marks, Tracy. "Medusa in Greek Mythology" 1999 /2006 http://www.webwinds.com/thalassa/medusa.htm "Shield of Athena Family Services" http://www.shieldofathena.com/

48 World War. The Treaty of Versaille determined that Paul Matasovski, Germany was solely responsible for the cost of the war and financial reparations must be made. The The Man of The words that Hitler spewed would spark the destructive fire that did eventually consume European Jewry. The Underground plan that Hitler conceived for worldwide annihilation of the Jewish people was further laid out in his book by Paul B. Janes Mein Kampf. Yehuda Bauer pointed out, "[i]n Mein Kampf the primitive idea of a "Fuehrer-State" is Introduction: How Hitler Changed hinted at: It should be neither capitalist nor socialist European Jewry but a society of racial brothers manipulating the The prophetic words of German poet Heinrich state machinery under the guidance of a charismatic Heine, spoken nearly one hundred years before the leader" (84). Shoah (HolocaustiHebrew for catastrophe, I prefer to The Shoah resulted in the deaths of nearly six use this lesser known but more accurate definition for million European Jews. There are varying estimates what the Jews went through during WWII,), came of the number of victims depending on the source of frightfully to fruitiontrue: "[w]here one burns books, information, but according to Columbia University one will, in the end, burn people." (Heine 1823). How Professor Michael Stanislawski, the estimated number abhorrent it is that Adolph Hitler accomplished both; of Jews murdered in Romania during the Shoah was along with Heine's books, thousands more like them, 300,000 (278). This was approximately one half of the also,considered degenerate volumes of trash, were Jewish population, a number which had taken the burned by the Nazis. Just as Heine wrote, people did previous 1800 years to get up to. This is a difficult in fact follow. statistic to try to understand: it took the Romanian The National Socialist Workers' Party drafted a Jews 1800 years to reach a population of 600,000, yet document in 1920 that revealed his Hitler's plan to within the few short years of the Shoah, one half of rule Germany as a dictator; the published program the Romanian Jewish people were destroyed. became known as 0 Hitler's Twenty Five Points." In this document, Hitler forged his plan for "liberating" One Man - Paul Matasovski Germany from the "evil" forces besetting it, especially Paul Matasovski was one of the survivingJews of the Jews. The anti-Semitic ideology outlined in this Romania, and this paper will focus on how he was able document would soon spread across Europe. Only to survive the nefarious Final Solution conceived and a minority of Jewish people, however, heeded his executed by Hitler and his henchmen. Paul Matasovski prophetic and caustic warning and left Germany was born in Bacau, Romania in 1923 and was barely before emigration became impossible. For the nine years old when Hitler came to power on January remaining people of Europe, Hitler was dismissed as 30, 1933. One of three children, Paul is someone who a crazy man who would simply vanish into history. was able to defy the odds by being on the living side of This was not to be the outcome. the remaining Romanian Jewish population. The "Twenty Five Points" is an example of how a After reading the biography for Paul provided by foundation for action is first conceived in words. Point the U.S. Holocaust Museum, I found myself asking number four, stated that the Jew cannot be a member many questions that only Paul could answer. Some of the German race (Drexler, Feder and Hitler, 1920. of the broader questions were: what enabled Paul In simple terms,all it took for the Shoah to start was to survive the atrocities of World War II? What was for the proper words from one charismatic person his motivation for survival? Did luck play a role (Hitler) to be delivered to a mass of people that was in his survival? What was it that made it possible looking for a scapegoat. Through Hitler's rhetoric the for certain Jews to escape Nazi persecution and live masses were convinced that the Jews were the scourge through the most horrific display of inhumanity in of the earth and thus responsible for Germany's modern times? When I ,,googled" Paul's name on plight, primarily economic stagnation resulting from the internet, I found his phone number and learned the punitive measures taken against it after the First that he was living in Connecticut. I was floored

49 at the idea that I could actually speak to this man. taught to everyone, including me, that celebrate I called him and said: "Are you the Holocaust the Jewish holidays. As the holiday of Chanukah survivor, Paul Matasovski?" We have enjoyed four approaches, Jews around the globe sing a song from conversations since that first tentative introduction. Zachariah 4:6 which puts Paul's philosophy in a Our conversations serve as the basis for the bulk of biblical context: " ... not by might, nor by power, this paper, which addresses Paul's life. but by my spirit - said the Lord of Hosts". This is Paul is the eldest of three children, and the attitude that has sustained the Jewish people remarkably not just he but his entire immediate throughout time. family survived the Shoah. His brother Michael left When I asked Paul what he remembered about Romania after the war and followed a circuitous path the holidays as a little boy, he told me that they gave through France, Poland and Cyprus, before finally his family much joy. For Purim, his mother would being allowed to immigrate to Palestine with his make Harnantashen (a sweet triangular cookie) bride just before Israel won its independence in 1948. and have a small party at home. Paul recalled that Michael and his wife had two daughters. The family for Passover he would go to synagogue dressed in moved to the United States in the early 1960' s and new clothes and get matzah (unleavened bread), Michael worked as an auto mechanic in New York which was baked in the large oven provided by the until moving to Florida several years later. synagogue. There was a large Jewish community and Paul's sister Rose is seven years younger than voluminous amounts of matzah would be needed for he is, and was trained as an accountant while living the week-long holiday of Passover. These are simple, in Romania. Rose and her husband emigrated to the precious memories that Paul recalled from his youth. United States in 1969 and now live in New York. Paul and his wife had two daughters, who both live Romania during World War II in the United States, and Paul himself is now divorced. Paul's parents Maria and Leonid lived the rest of their The political landscape of Romania had an lives in Bacau. They both died of cancer; Maria was 74 enormous impact on all of the Jews, including Paul's years old and Leonid died at the age of 63. family. In Romania, orders were given by General Memories of celebrating Jewish holidays were Antonescu that helped seal the fate of the Jews of Bacau emphasized in Paul's biography, with Passover circa 1939 (Kara, 94). Anti-Semitism moved into Bacau being his favorite. As a fellow Jew, I wondered in full force and laws were adopted that changed the what influence this had on Paul and whether this way Jews lived there. Following the Nazi template for contributed to his survival and the way he confronted eradicating the Jews, the public lives for the Jews of adversity. The holidays such as Purim, Passover Bacau was changed for the worse. Jews from all levels and Chanukah all have stories associated with them of society were ostracized from their normal functions: that feature tyrants who decided to try to wipe the children were no longer allowed to attend school, world clean of the Jews. Harnan, Pharaoh and King and teachers, doctors, and other public servants were dismissed from their duties. Paul confirmed that Antiochus are the respective evil people who tried with all their might to destroy the Jews, but to no he and his Jewish peers were expelled from school avail. The Jewish people survived these persecutors, in accordance with the above policy. Rationing of and Hitler too, and are still here and contributing to food became an effective weapon against the Jews the betterment of the world. Paul Matasovski is one when a publicly displayed edict allowed Christians in particular who contributed greatly. What lessons, to receive twice as much food as the Jews for half the if any, did Paul learn from celebrating these Jewish price. Jewish homes and properties were confiscated holidays that may have helped him to survive? and "Romanianized." Synagogues were turned into warehouses after being desecrated (Kara 94). The common thread in all these stories is that the Jewish people always maintained "hope," even while their enemies were following their agenda to destroy Ads of Resistance in the them. Is this what happened in the Shoah for people Underground such as Paul? I asked him: "What was it that allowed After being denied the right of attending public you to survive?" He told me: "It was by not giving school, Paul began to attend an "underground" up," and "it was having hope that pulled me through Jewish community center. This center acted as a those terrible times." Paul added that he had to take school and enabled education to continue, as well strength from his faith. When he emphasized the as Jewish rituals. There were numerous small towns importance of hope and faith regarding his survival, and villages just outside Bacau that were served by I was reminded that these are the lessons that are this secret educational forum. This school not only 50 operated as a house of study but also provided a place chemist. While ill with scarlet fever, he explained: to discuss the actions that people needed to take in I believe it was the only time I have deliberately order to survive. This school had a Rabbi and other done something wrong. The analytical method I Jewish teachers. Perhaps it was by clinging to the was supposed to teach her involved the use of a Jewish customs that Paul loved and cherished that he pipette: a sister of those to which I owed the illness found the strength to continue living. Paul explained coursing through my veins. I took one from the that in this school it was decided that "now is not the drawer and showed Fraulein Drechesel how to use it, inserting it between my feverish lips, then time to be passive." This attitude of resistance is one held it out to her and invited her to do the same. In of the ways "hope" was maintained. short, I did all I could to infect her. (79) Resistance became a vital part of everyday life; however this was not an option for all the victims. The People from all walks of life made conscious people that could do something, did. Even though decisions to show resistance to the dominant forces Paul was a forced laborer in a factory and remanded of evil throughout the Nazi persecution. These to a barracks for three years, he was part of the actions may have been acts of violence targeting key resistance movement. figures in the Nazi regime, as was the case of the The Romanian dictatorship following Nazi well- planned ambush of Reinhard Heydrich which precepts recognizing he importance of cutting off resulted in his death. More discrete approaches the communication people had to the outside world; included developing a radio in the hopes of obtaining accordingly, all the radios were confiscated. Paul news and information that ultimately brought aid and a friend were determined to defy this order and to the oppressed. The fact that Paul and his Jewish they built a radio themselves. This was not a simple community decided to take action and not remain task, considering the fact that parts were extremely silent during the Shoah should inspire future difficult to locate and it was a great risk to their lives generations to speak up when there are people to possess a radio. This small radio, which measured oppressing others. The message is:, Do not give up seven by ten inches, had to be dismantled after each on hope. As the Holocaust survivor Aaron Elster time they listened to it; the parts were concealed mentioned, words are the foundation for hate and we during the day in different places. Paul described to must act upon these words before they manifest into a me that they were able to get the BBC and one other mentality that is on a collision course with a group of station. The information they received had to be vulnerable victims (2007 ). Eisler Elster mentioned distributed covertly. Paul told me that they would in a video I caught on YouTube: "Words can be the simply pass on information "mouth to mouth" by beginning of serious problems" .. saying "I heard someone say..." or 11someone told me about the German forces ... " They had to be cautious The Aftermath when passing on any information they gathered. The Soviet Red Army came through Romania Paul networked information in a variety of ways in June of 1945 and by then Paul had been released through the underground, giving people ways of from prison. Upon liberation, Bacau was desolate understanding what was happening. Incidentally, and ravaged by the spoils of war. There were fires the friend that built the radio with Paul survived the burning out of control and people were looting war as well, and went on to become a very successful whatever goods were available. Quickly, people electrical engineer. began to organize and take control of the city; a mayor Paul was arrested for sabotage in January 1944 was appointed and civil servants were employed and spent six months in jail. It was a terribly cold to maintain order. Paul took control of bringing winter and his spartan cell provided no comfort. The back order to the streets of Bacau. He organized the absence of a bed or even a cot was even worse since young people into groups that cleared the roads of he did not have a blanket or sheet; Paul was forced to rubbish and helped regain the infrastructure. The sleep on the floor. experience he had from helping to rebuild Bacau One might wonder whether it was worth it for guided him toward becoming a civil engineer. He Paul to commit acts of resistance, since the penalty went to study in Bucharest for five years and received was severe. Other survivors of the Shoah, however, his Bachelors' Degree in Engineering. SOMETHING. have described similar small, but worthwhile feats He moved to Lenigrad for an additional two years in of defiance. Primo Levi described a singular episode order to get his Masters' Degree in Civil Engineering when he contaminated a German laboratory worker SOMETHING. Upon returning to Bucharest he who treated him like a lowly animal, even though developed pre-fabricated homes, and was kept busy he possessed a superior knowledge as a professional 51 designing new methods of construction. is a man on the go. Most times when I called him he It was difficult for Paul to leave Romania, since he was either driving to the airport to pick up a friend or was a civil engineer and Romania was in great need going to a study session at his temple. When I of able people to continue rebuilding the country. In asked him: "What was it that helped you survive the 1972, Paul was finally granted a visa and emigrated Shoah?" he told me "I never gave up on hope". This to the United States, joining his siblings in New York. is the foundation for survival that the Jewish people The transition was not easy and there were obstacles have maintained from the very beginning. As the that he would need to overcome. holiday of Chanukah approaches, I will be reminded Language was the paramount hindrance for of my newly found friend Paul Matasovski and Paul in finding employment. There was no way that the gift of words that he gave me: "If you have the he could work as a civil engineer if he did not speak will to accomplish something, you will accomplish English. This did not stop Paul from accomplishing something!" what he set out to do. Paul found work as a draftsman, since this was something that he could do Conclusion- Never Again! that did not require great verbal skill, and he worked at this position for two years. It was during this time Today, survivors of the Shoah such as Paul that he also learned to speak English and was able to Matasovski, Aaron Elster, and my friend Margit move up in rank. Once fluent in English, Paul finally Feldman, continue to share their experiences in order found work as a civil engineer. to remind people that we must avoid reliving the During Paul's career it seemed as if he would tragedy of the Shoah by every means possible. As never stop moving around. His work took him all G-d said to Noach in the Torah: "Never again shall I over the place, from New York to Providence, Rhode doom the earth because of man" (Genesis 9:21). These 11 Island to Italy and then back to the United States. two words, never again," have become a reminder Shortly after coming back to the U.S. he was hired from Shoah survivors that it is a responsibility among to work on building subway systems in Atlanta, and human beings to take care of each other, and by all then Los Angeles. He was part of the underground means to dismantle hatred before it can manifest during the war in Romania and he earned his living into the destruction of human flesh, especially when as a civil engineer by working, this time literally, motivated by claims of racial superiority. underground. I like to say that Paul is the "Man of the I am truly grateful for the privilege to get to know Underground." Over the several times I spoke with Paul Matasovski. Paul for this paper, it was apparent to me that he still BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bauer, Yehuda. A History of The Holocaust. New York, New York: Franklin Watts, 1982. Jewish Virtual Library. 2002. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Q/heine.html. Stanislawski, Michael. "Out of the Ashes." Eds. Hallo, William, David Ruderman,and Michael Stanislawski. Herritage Civilization and the Jews. New York, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1984. Kara, I. E. "The Jews from Bacau During the Years of Wrath of the War and the Racist Laws. The Community from Bacau After the War. The Jewish Community from Bacau." in: Jewish Community in Bacau, Federation of Jewish Communities in Romania and Centrul Pentru (Romania). Eds. Paul Litman, Editura Hasefer. Bucharest, 1995. www.jewishgen.org/yizkor /Bacau/bac094.html. Levi, Primo.Moments of Reprieve. New York, New York. Penguin Books 1987. Ley,Robert. Nazi conspiracy and aggression volume IV. Document No. 1708-PS (Hitlers 25 points). www.yale. edu/lawweb/ avalon/imt/document/nca_vol4/1708-ps.htm. Matasovski, Paul. Personal interviews. Week of 30 Nov. 2007. The Jewish Publication Society. The Tanakh, a New Translation of the Holy Scriptures According to the Traditional Hebrew Text. Philadelphia. 1985. Drexler, Anton, Feder, Gottfried and Hitler, Adolf. The Twenty-Five Point Program of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (N.S.D.A.P.), Feb. 24, 1920 Elster, Aaron, Child Holocaust Survivor Speaks at Oakton, Skokie. 2007. http:/ /www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Pkgaq_9UpHI 52 aquaponics. Aquaponics is when hydroponics is Polyculture of Fishes combined with recirculating aquaculture, and is also known as organic hydroponics. Hydroponics is in Aquaponics soilless agriculture, where plants are grown without soil in different configurations and media such as and Recirculating gravel, pearlite, or expanded clay. Conventional hydroponics use chemical fertilizers as the source Aquaculture of nutrients for plant growth. Aquaponics uses the effluents from recirculating aquaculture as a source of by Eron Martan nutrients for hydroponics. There are several benefits of polyculture of Abstract: Polyculture of fishes (and invertebrates) fishes in aquaponics. Rakocy (2007) has shown in aquaponics and recirculating aquaculture is a that polyculture with a carnivorous species in the promising way we can return advanced modern hydroponics tank can provide a biological control of agriculture to sustainable agriculture using biological pests, while also growing another source of protein controls. Polyculture would enhance aquaponics for human consumption. Another study has shown by producing a variety of seafood products for local that grouper E coioides and GIFT tilapia 0. niloticus consumption. There has been very little published hybrid have much potential for polyculture with research on polycultures in aquaponics so much shrimp or prawns, because they have an antibacterial of this work is based on the experience of expert effect on luminous bacteria and also a positive affect scientists. Because of the lack of previous studies, on shrimp survival (Tendencia et al, 2006). there is very little statistical data to present. However, There are some major challenges with polyculture it has been confirmed that redclaw lobsters are being in aquaponics. Rakocy (2007) has shown that the polycultured with tilapia; they are cultured in the high densities cause negative species interactions. hydroponics raceways where the plants are grown on Harvesting multiple species could be tricky if they floating rafts. The information from the interviews are grown without physical separation. Also, there indicates that using physical separation is necessary to are the added costs of maintaining broodstock for prevent negative species interactions. The interviews multiple species, if there are no local hatcheries. also revealed that using species that feed at different Aquaponics is potentially the farm of the future, locations in the water column might be an option. and there is much work to be done in perfecting it There may be other difficulties associated with the and maximizing the output. If and when we are to management of broodstock for multiple species. grow food in space, aquaponics would be a way of Overall, we need to experiment with polycultures providing a complete diet with minimal resources. in aquaponics to find ideal combinations that would Polyculture in aquaponics could possibly generate provide beneficial biological controls. more profit while providing a greater variety of Key Words: Aquaponics, hydroponics, polyculture, protein for the diet. monoculture, intensive, semi-intensive, recirculating, effluents, biological controls, biodiversity, Methodology: This project began with an initial agrobiodiversity, zooplankton, herbivorous, search for documentation through the use of the UH predatory, green revolution, blue revolution Hilo library system. Using the key words polyculture and aquaculture in the search window, in the Science Introduction: The goal of this project is to research Direct database, produced the most relevant results. the accessible literature on commonly polycultured When the key words polyculture and aquaponics species in the aquaculture industry and hypothesize were used, there were no articles found. Using the some candidates for grow-out in aquaponic facilities. former set of key words, there were about 40 articles Polyculture refers to the production of multiple related to polyculture, almost all of which were species from the same pond, tank, or raceway. referring to polycultures carried out in earthen ponds. Traditionally polycultures have been grown in Other databases were tried also, but produced fewer earthen ponds and there has been little research and less relevant results. Searches using the key word into polycultures in recirculating systems, including aquaponies came up with zero results in all, but the 53 Blackwell Synergy database, which contained one (Danaher et al); the net cage is physically separating relevant article. the tilapia from the prawns, preventing any physical Due to a Jack of information alternative sources interactions. were sought out. A subscription to the Aquaponics Aquaponics, or the combination of recirculating Journal was ordered. Use of a World Aquaculture aquaculture and hydroponics, essentially is a Society (WAS) membership, which includes access polyculture already (Rakocy). Why polyculture to the Journal of the WAS and other publications, more than one species of fishes in the same culture proved very useful in accessing more practical water? There are many benefits of polyculture that information. Several fact sheets from the Southern are beyond the obvious added variety of products. Regional Aquaculture Center (Texas A&M) were Research done by the Southeast Asian Fisheries printed out, especially those related to Tilapia and Development Center experimented with tilapia, aquaponics. grouper, and milkfish in polyculture with giant prawn At this point it became quite clear that Dr. to see the effect on growth of the luminous bacteria James E. Rakocy of the University of the Virgin Vibrio harveyi. The study has shown that the grouper E Islands Agriculture Experiment Station is one of coioides and GIFT tilapia 0. niloticus hybrid have much the leaders in aquaponics system development and potential for polyculture with shrimp, or prawns, experimentation. Rakocy and his team developed the because they have an antibacterial effect on luminous UVI system, which has been duplicated worldwide. bacteria, and also a positive affect on shrimp survival Contact was made and Dr. Rakocy agreed to an e-mail (Tendencia et al, 2006). An important factor in this interview in the form of a few pertinent questions. experiment was that tilapia and other finfish were Several exchanges were made and Dr. Rakocy has grown in a 1 m3 net pen, physically separating them contributed greatly to the findings of this research. from the prawns in the remaining space of a 3 m3 Rebecca L. Nelson and John S. Pade of Nelson/ concrete tank. Vibrio is a big problem with many Pade Multimedia are co publishers of the Aquaponics shrimp farms worldwide, and most shrimp farms Journal and consultants for the growing aquaponics are semi-intensive monoculture. Polyculture can industry. They have both contributed greatly to this possibly solve many disease problems, if the ideal research. Nelson/Pade multimedia provides a variety combinations of organisms are used. of educational tools such as DVD videos, publications A study on polyculture of Tilapia and Australian such as the Aquaponics Journal, as well as books on redclaw crayfish was carried out by the Dept. aquaponics and recirculating aquaculture. A DVD of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn titled "Intro to Aquaponics," was also purchased from University, Alabama. What they found was that the Nelson/Pade Multimedia to be used as a source of ponds with polycultures consistently had lower yields info for this research. Rebecca L. Nelson agreed to an than the controls, which had only redclaw (Rouse et e-mail interview as well in the form of a few relevant al, 1998). There were no signs of the tilapia preying questions. on the redclaw. The scientists doing the experiments The literature on this topic was insufficient to attributed the lower yields to the non-aggressive make any firm conclusions. However, when the feeding habits of the redclaw. It was concluded that expertise of a few very experienced scientists is aggressive feeders, such as tilapia and common carp taken into account, we can make some generalized (koi), are not suitable for polyculture with redclaw, hypothesis and recommendations for further research. "at least when allowed to feed freely in the pond" (rouse et al, 1998, p.344). What this means is that Results: From the available data and interviews, they may be suitable for polyculture if grown in net some general trends are recognizable. Aquaponics cages, or using other means of physical separation. and recirculating systems in general are stocked at Experiments with tilapia/redclaw polyculture having high densities (Rakocy, 2007). Not all of the species physical separation would be helpful in determining currently polycultured do well at high densities, so whether there are any negative interactions besides several can be eliminated on the basis of tolerance to the physical. crowding. Another trend in the data is the negative Another option is having the redclaw in the species interactions that occur when two or more hydroponics tank under the plant roots. There is species (or phyla) are polycultured. Negative a farm in Guadalajara, Mexico called BoFish that species interactions will be magnified with intensive opened up in early 2007. This farm is growing culturing. One method of preventing negative species redclaw in the raceways where the aquaponic lettuce interactions is physical separation. An example is is grown on floating raft aquaponics (Ramos, 2007). freshwater prawns polycultured with caged tilapia There is not a whole Jot of information on this, but

54 what little there is says a lot. In a picture of the would lead to many problems. The high densities raceway, you could clearly see that the redclaw had would lead to negative species interactions, and not harmed the roots, rather had prevented buildup of more difficulty at harvest (Rakocy, Interview, 2007). bugs and other critters that would have harmed thern. The opposite effect, ifyou reduced the stocking rate, The floating rafts on the surface of the raceways must would be a diminished capacity to provide nutrients have effectively kept the redclaw from escaping. to the plants (Nelson, 2007). Another challenge would Contact was made with Carlos L. Ramos, one of the be having several types of fingerlings ready at regular scientists at BoFish. Ramos (2007) has confirmed that intervals (Rakocy, Interview, 2007). This might not the tilapia and redclaw share the same culture water; be a problem if the farrn is near a hatchery, but if you this should be considered a polyculture. Ramos plan on keeping your own broodstock, it could be a (2007) mentioned that the negative effect is that significant expense. organic matter can build up in the raceway, but on a positive note the redclaw eat some detritus. This Discussion: There are a few major challenges when is a new farm and the data they collect over the next trying to carry polycultures into aquaponics. The couple years should be very interesting. aquaculture part of aquaponics is an intensive Rebecca L. Nelson of Nelson/Pade Multimedia is recirculating tank culture whereas polycultures are an aquaponics consultant and the editor/co-publisher usually semi-intensive or extensive, meaning much of Aquaponics Journal. When interviewed about lower stocking densities (Rakocy, 2007). Most semi­ polycultures in aquaponics, she mentioned that she intensive cultures are grown in earthen ponds that had carried out some experiments in the past. She are fertilized to stimulate a natural algae bloom and recorded her data mostly as observations and not successive growth of natural zooplankton to be the figures. The three tanks containing the polycultures, first foods for the cultured organisms (Abdelghany contained redclaw /bluegill, bluegill/catfish, and et al, 2002). The different species occupy separate goldfish/koi combinations (2007). These tanks were ecological niches in the pond and there is not much stocked very lightly, which is usually not the case in species interaction. In aquaponics the stocking rate is aquaponics. Lightly stocking the tanks would reduce intensive; there is a high level of interaction and the nutrient output to the plants and this is undesirable. feeds are usually complete formulas for specific fish. Out of the three polycultures, the best results were Another factor to keep in mind is the added time and achieved with the catfish/bluegill combination effort of stocking more than one species at regular (Nelson, 2007). Two feeds were used for this culture, intervals (Rakocy, 2007). Inisolated locations this a floating, and a sinking form of pelleted formula. would mean managing broodstock for several species, The catfish ate the feed that sank to the bottom, while which is no easy task. the bluegill browsed the water column (Nelson, 2007). Why even bother with polycultures in aquaponics The other two culture units had sorne problems. or recirculating systems? There are many possible In the goldfish/koi tank, there was some nipping benefits, but one outweighs the rest and is of at fancy fins and this resulted in some injury, and significant ecological importance. Polycultures are mortality. In the redclaw/bluegill tank, the redclaw a form of agrobiodiversity that extend into ancient all disappeared one by one. This could be due to times and are a key to sustainable agriculture. predation, but more likely escapees, since the redclaw According to a report by Lori Ann Thrupp (2000) have a reputation for climbing out of their culture from the Special Biodiversity Issue of the International vessel (Nelson, 2007). Affairs Journal, "The homogenization of species and Dr James Rakocy is director of the UVI of farming systems increases vulnerability to insect Agriculture Experiment Station. He has been a pests and diseases. Purely monocultural systems are great help in this research and putting the facts highly susceptible to attack, which can devastate a into perspective. In a fact sheet from the Southern uniform crop, especially on large plantations" (p. 272). Regional Aquaculture Center, Dr. Rakocy has Monocultures are an unnatural and unsustainable provided that polyculture can be done indirectly by form of agriculture that has caused many disasters having a carnivorous species in the hydroponics tank across the world especially after the green revolution. (where the plants are grown on floating rafts). The Aquaponics is a step in the right direction, but with usefulness of this polyculture is that the predatory further integration and agrobiodiversity would be fish acts as a biological control to keep down the even closer to truly sustainable and eco-friendly levels of snails, tadpoles, and other small herbivorous agriculture. With rnore species and more phyla, you pests. When interviewed, Dr. Rakocy maintained will have a simulated ecosystem, which will have the position that polyculturing fishes in aquaponics more complete cycling of nutrients and rnore effective

55 biological controls. than one tank, with separate species in each tank but As evidenced by mass extinctions in the East common culture water. This was briefly mentioned African Great Lakes, loss of biodiversity can be in a SRAC fact sheet on aquaponics, a carnivorous devastating to entire ecosystems (Kaufman, 1992). species could be grown in tl1e hydroponics tank to act There are intricate trophic relationships that cycle as a biological control for pests that would otherwise nutrients and prevent buildup of organic matter, and eat the plant roots (Rakocy, 2007). The antibacterial delicate coevolutionary relationships that allow for effects of tilapia (and other species) on luminous the biological control of diseases and parasites. When bacteria could still be realized, because the same the biodiversity is destroyed, so are the biological culture water would be used. This essentially would controls. That truth has led to the modern state of be another biological control and would provide covering up one problem with another, until there is ecological rewards. The multiple tanks could be set nothing left. Susceptibility to disease and parasites up in a series or parallel, and experiments could find has led to the use of harmful chemical pesticides that the optimum configuration. remain in the soils and make their way into bodies The major problems with polycultures in of water. Monocultures deplete the soils of nutrients aquaponics are surmountable. Negative species and chemical fertilizers leave salts that eventually interactions can be prevented by providing physical make the soil too salty for most crops to grow. separation of species. This would also solve problems Hopefully we can steer the blue revolution towards associated with harvesting multiple species. If agrobiodiversity and avoid the major mistakes of the physical separation is in place, there should not be green revolution. Polyculture of fishes (and other problems with high densities, because only species phyla such as arthropods) can increase biological that tolerate high densities would be cultured. Other controls and possibly maximize production in species, such as carnivorous fish in the hydroponics aquaponics. tank, should not be densely stocked anyway, so there There needs to be much more experimentation will be no concern for their tolerance to crowding. to come up with some ideal species for polyculture The big problem would be maintaining broodstock in aquaponics. The determining factors are evident for several different species, but this might not be a and can lead to some generalizations. First of all, problem if you are near a hatchery. aquaponics requires that the aquaculture side of the Species that show much potential for polyculture equation be intensive, which means crowding a lot in aquaponics are tilapia and freshwater prawn, of animals in a small amount of space and use of but there must be physical separation or negative complete feeds. Tilapias are great with crowding, and species interactions could be a big problem. can be fed organic feeds that do not include fish meal. Further, an additional carnivorous species could Koi also do well with crowding, but the flesh of Koi be grown in the hydroponics tank. Australian (common carp) is less valuable than tilapia and there redclaw are being cultured in the hydroponics would need to be a good reason to grow them, such tanks at BoFish, Guadalajara, Mexico (Ramos, as a high demand for ornamentals (Nelson, 2007). 2007). This polyculture would provide multiple Uddin has shown that prawns can be crowded when biological controls, and an assortment of valuable substrate is provided, and are mostly bottom feeders products. Experimentation should be carried out (2007). Redclaw crawfish are considered freshwater on the feasibility and viability of tilapia/prawn lobsters and are another attractive species for polyculture in aquaponics. Species such as catfish, polyculture, especially since they are currently being common carp (koi), bluegill, barramundi, trout, polycultured in Mexico. Negative species interactions and others that are successfully being grown out in are a problem, but this can be prevented with physical aquaponics should be polycultured experimentally in barriers such as a cage within a tank, or a subdivided aquaponics. Experiments should be done with and tank sectioned off with netting. Using two or more without physical separation, and with different levels species that feed at different locations in the water of physical separation (subdivided tanks, separate column is another possibility. In this case the tank tanks, etc.). As prescribed by Uddin (2007), substrates might be subdivided horizontally, and the use of enhance the survival of prawns in polyculture and floating pellets and sinking pellets would provide this should be experimented with in aquaponics as complete nutrition to the bottom feeders, and to those well. Such experiments and their findings could that eat floating pellets (Nelson, 2007). prove very valuable to the evolution of modern Another form of physical separation is using more agriculture.

56 EA. Tende:nidt1 E'1 al I Aqwc11ltiuE" 251 (W(f6) 48-56

4.5

b b ---.Q--.... control ----,...- groupar ----111-- m!lkflsh ...... -. 1ilapla

-0,0250 0.041 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Post Inoculation Time (day)

8 a

....._ .s~rileocS~'hat'Jr -·O· grouper rearing water ➔-- 1iL4piares.Fing wa~r --v- rniklillh rearing Yiffi@r

0 2 4 8 Post inoculalion lime (days) Bibliography

Abdelghany, A.K, Ayyat, MS. and M.H. Ahmad. (2002). Appropriate Timing of Supplemental Feeding for Production of Nile Tilapia, Silver Carp, and Common Carp in Fertilized Polyculture Ponds. World Aquaculture Society 33: 307-315. Danaher, J. J., J. H. Tidwell, S. D. Coyle and S. Dasgupta. (2007). Effects of Two Densities of Caged Monosex Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, on Water Quality, Phytoplankton Populations, and Production When Polycultured with Macrobrachium rosembergii in temperate ponds. World Aquaculture Society 38: 367-382. Kaufman, L. (1992). Catastrophic Change in Species-Rich Freshwater Ecosystems. Bioscience Vol. 42(11):846-858. Lilystrom, C.G. and R.P. Romaire. (1987). Diet and Food Assimilation by Channel Catfish and Malaysian Prawns in Polyculture as Determined by Stomach Content Analysis and Stable Carbon Isotope Ratios. World Aquaculture Society 18: 278-287. Morrison, J.R., Deavors, W.L., Jones, J.C. and M.A. Tabb. (1995). Maximizing First Year Growth of Mixed-Sex Blue Tilapia Oreochromis aureus in Polyculture with Catfish Ictalurus spp. World Aquaculture Society 26: 447-452. 57 Ramos, C.L. (2007). Aquaponic Farm Update: BoFish, Guadalajara, Mexico. Aquaponics Journal 47: 38-39. Rakocy, J. (2007). Ten Guidelines for Aquaponic Systems. Aquaponics Journal 46: 14-17. Rouse, D. B. and B. M. Kahn. (1998). Production of Australian Red Claw Cherax quadricarinatus in Polyculture with Nile Tilapia Oreachromis niloticus. World Aquaculture Society 29: 340-344. Tendencia, E.A., Fermin, A.C., Milagros, R. dela Pena, and C.H. Choresca Jr. (2006). Effect of Epiephelus coioides, Chanos chanas, and GIFT tilapia in polyculture with Penaeus monodon on the growth of the luminous bacteria Vibrio harveyi. Aquaculture 253: 48-56. Thrupp, L.H. (2000). Linking Agricultural Biodiversity and Food Security: The Valuable Role of Sustainable Agriculture. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs) 76: 265-281. Tidwell, J.H., Coyle, S.D., Vanarnum, A. and C. Wiebe!. (2000). Growth, Survival, and Body Composition of Cage­ Cultured Nile Tilapia Oreachromis niloticus Fed Pelleted and Unpelleted Distillers Grains with Solubles in Polyculture with Freshwater Prawn Macrabrachium rosenbergii. World Aquaculture Society 31: 627-631. Uddin, M.S., Farzana, A., Fatema, M.K., Azim, M.E., Wahab, M.A., and M.C.J. Verdegem. (2007). Technical Evaluation of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Monoculture and Tilapia-Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) Polyculture in Earthen Ponds With or Without Substrates for Periphyton Development. Aquaculture 269: 232-240.

Additional References

Nelson, Rebecca. E-mail interview. 17 October 2007. Rakocy, James. E-mail interview. 15 October 2007. Ramos, Carlos. E-mail interview. 12 November 2007.

58 the Pope should have been upbraided by Muslim The Pope WAS activists. Historically, there was a time when a rationalistic Wrong, But He Wasn't school of thought was very prominent in Islam. That school, known as the Mu'tazila, rose in the Talking To Muslims 8th century and flourished until it lost out to the dogmatists by the end of the 9th. The Mu'tazila by Timothy Fallis stressed that the teachings of Allah and a connection to Him spiritually could be ascertained through the On September 12, 2006, the recently elected Pope rationalistic method and "that reason and revelation Benedict XVI presented a speech titled "Faith, Reason, were complementary" (Denny 181). They used Greek and the University: Memories and Reflections" at the texts as a starting point in creating a synthesis of University of Regensburg. The reaction to this speech reason and revelation. in many parts of the Muslim world, including the Today, there are two main views in Sunni Islam Middle East certainly but by no means exclusively, (90% of the world's Muslims are Sunni [Benedetti]) was very angry. The lines that offended were quoted on the relationship between faith and reason. The from a medieval source and seemed to insult Islam. more common view is that of the Ash' ari school People rioted in the streets, both religious and secular which is classically fideistic, meaning that faith based leaders demanded an apology and retraction, and at on scriptural revelation always trumps reason. The least one man declared that "the Pope must die" for other view, represented by the Maturidi school, is what he had said (Doughty and McDermott). I would that reason independent of revelation can legitimately like to argue that this reaction was inappropriate come to the same truths. Both schools are considered for two reasons. One, while I agree that the Pope's equally orthodox and correct. In addition, the Shi' a selection of quotation was very poorly chosen, his have always emphasized the rational basis of their worst mistake regarding Islam was entirely different beliefs. It is an error, therefore, to reductively portray from the one for which he has been chastised. Two, I Islam as being entirely based on faith in the absence contend that the target of the speech, the religion the of a rational dialectic, just as it would be an error to Pope intended to throw the gauntlet down to, was not ignore the contributions of such thinkers as Aquinas Islam really but Protestant Christianity. or Kierkegaard and portray Christianity as based In his speech the Pope drew from a dialogue solely on the Bible. recorded by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II It is particularly ironic that the Pope chose to Paleologus, a dialogue between himself and an make his (erroneous) point by using the writings of educated Persian. The passage that inflamed the a Byzantine Emperor, when it can be argued that passions of many Muslims was thus: "Show me just at the time of his rule Western civilization was in what Mohammed brought that was new, and there decline precisely because it had turned its back on you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as the Greek rationalism which it is now so proud to his command to spread by the sword the faith he include. In his important historical work Muruj preached" (Benedict, "Meeting"). The Pope should adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir ("the Meadows have realized that this quote would be provocative of Gold and Mines of Gems"), the great historian al­ and chosen something else, surely. However, taken Mas'udi argued just that, claiming that this decline in the context of the rest of the speech, it seems clear was due to the fact that the West had decided that that his reason for using it was not to say that Islam is Greek learning was incompatible with Christianity "evil and inhuman"; his purpose was to highlight the and so let science go by the wayside (al' Mas'udi). idea that Islam has not brought anything new to the At that time, it was Muslims who had built on the discussion of religious rationalism. He was pointing translational work done in Baghdad and were mining this out for reasons I will address a bit later, but the Greek philosophical texts, and some of the finest point I want to make now is that the contention he philosophical work of the time was done by Muslim was making about Islam is incorrect. Islam has a long scholars like Avicenna (Abu ibn Sina) and Averroes and ongoing history of rationalistic religious thinking, (ibn Rushd) who worked from this scholarship. In and it is for misrepresenting this that, if anything, blunt terms, it was Muslims who had successfully 59 integrated Greek rationalism into their theology, and found in conflicting assertions of divine revelation. the Catholics who had been left behind. The Pope As the Pope said 10 years ago when known by his used the words of a 14th century Emperor, whose personal name Joseph Ratzinger, "Reason will not church had abandoned the basis of rationalism, be saved without the faith, but the faith without to accuse modern Islam, who in the 14th century reason will not be human" (Ratzinger). Only a was alone preserving that same Greek tradition, of mutual understanding that human beings can come abandoning rationalism. This isn't just ironic, it is to know the truth of things rationally has a chance of revisionist and dishonest, and it is this that Muslims providing the framework for a workable discussion. had cause to get up in arms over instead of the At this stage in world history, like so many others specific meaning of the words the Pope quoted and before it, just such a dialogue is essential in order did not himself avow. to come to understandings that can undergird The other point about the Pope's speech is, again, international peace, tolerance, and prosperity. that it was not primarily directed at Islam but instead The other problem the Pope has with this at Protestantism. While the Catholic Church, which separation of Western civilization from rationalism still has larger membership than all other Christian is that it lends itself to (what he sees as a) disastrous denominations combined, relies very heavily on embrace of postmodern relativism. In 1996, Ratzinger its history of Aquinarian rationalism, Protestant said as much when he spoke in Guadalajara: churches have for the most part eschewed religious "Relativism has thus become the central problem for philosophy in favor of biblical revelation. Although the faith at the present time" (Ratzinger). As George the Catholic Church certainly bases its religion on Weigel argued in the L.A. Times, postmodernism the revelations of the Bible, it does not teach literal would have us believe that there is "your truth" and absolutism in regard to it. Instead, it relies on biblical "my truth" but nothing so bold and definitive as "the revelation informed and interpreted through the lens truth". I agree when he says that with this philosophy, of rationalism. or lack of one depending on how you look at it, It is this absence of the rational/philosophical leaves the West unable to defend itself in a conflict of in the Protestant tradition that the Pope meant to ideas. Divine scripture does not provide reasons why scold, because he sees it as an abandonment of the the West's usual commitments to tolerance, human principles that make the Western tradition unique rights, equal justice, civility, and the rule of law are from the Eastern and the Islamic. This Pope is an worth defending; only rational argument can do that educated scholar (he used to teach at the University (Weigel). of Regensburg) and cherishes reason; in his view Ultimately, the Pope selected an inflammatory Protestantism, especially in the U.S., has become quote to provide an example of a contrast between absolutist in its intolerance of other faiths precisely Christian and Islamic attitudes regarding rationalism because it relies entirely on doctrine without reason. that does not exist, in order to make a point about In the Pope's view this is a problem on two counts. how the West needs to embrace its (supposedly but According to Benedict XVI, the first is that not actually) "unique" rationalism, so that it will be without the understanding of moral duty that flows able to both hold a dialogue with the East and defend from rational philosophy, Western civilization is itself philosophically against it. He could have made ungrounded in its convictions. The Pope has said: his point a lot more clearly and simply and saved the " ... Christians have lost confidence in the Christian world a lot of trouble. If, and it is a big If, this speech claim to universal truth, and the validity and life has is ever widely understood for what it was really gone out of Christianity" (Chummar). Without those trying to say, it could indeed serve as a starting point convictions that make Western civilization what it for an important dialogue between East and West; is, it cannot make a useful contribution to a dialogue however, it is so difficult to unpack and so loaded between cultures. Any such dialogue cannot be based now with the baggage of its initial reception, such a on faith, since there is little common ground to be dialogue seems very unlikely.

60 Works Cited List

"al'Mas'udi". Brittanica Online. Encyclopedia Brittanica Inc. 2 March 2007 http://www.brittanica.com/eb/ article-9051339/al-Masudi Benedetti, Christine, ChristineCrabb, Kelly Machel, and Lisa Ro. "Fundamental Differences". University of Washington. 4 March 2007. http://courses.Washington.edu/com361/Iraq/ethnic_diferences/differences.htm Chummar, Paul C. "In Which Direction Does Pope Benedict XVI Steer?" CUEA. February 2007. Catholic University of East Africa. 9 March 2007. http://www.cuea.edu/news/Pope%2 Benedict%20steer-ACS%202006.pdf Denny, Frederick Mathewson. "An Introduction to Islam". Second ed. New York, Macmillan, 1994. Doughty, Steve and Nick McDermott. "The Pope Must Die, Says Muslim". DailyMail 18 September 2006. The Daily Mail, Associated Newspapers Ltd. 4 February 2007. http://www.dailymail.eo.uk/pages/live/articles/ news/news.html?in_article_id=405622&in_page_id=1770 Pope Benedict XVI. "Meeting with the Representatives of Science". Vatican September, 2006. Roman Catholic Holy See. 4 February 2007. http://www.vatican.va/holyJather/benedict_xvi/speeches/2006/september/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20060912_ university-regensburg_en.html Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal. "Relativism: The Central Problem for Faith Today". EWTN. May, 1996. Eternal World Television Network. 9 March 2007. http://www.ewtn.com/library/CURIA/RATZRELA.HTM Weigel, George. "Calm Down & Listen, The Pope is Right". LATimes 20 September 2006. Los Angeles Times. 5 February 2007 http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1130131161.html

61 Hawaiians left (ksbe.edu). Today, according to the Racist or Righteous: United States Census Bureau, there are about 400,000 people of part Hawaiian ancestry. However, in 1984 The Kamehameha there were only 8,000 pure Hawaiians, according to the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. Schools Admissions Accompanied with the sudden decline of people came the decline of an ancient culture. Western Policy culture and laws imposed upon the natives nearly annihilated the traditional Hawaiian culture. The by Vance Tomasu hula, the Hawaiian language, and other customs were all outlawed. Parts of traditional Hawaiian culture Racism is ugly. Racism is an attack upon the have been forever lost because of this, never to be very core of one's identity and character. To be seen again. The biggest hit to Hawaii occurred when more specific, racism targets the biological aspect the kingdom of Hawaii fell, being forcefully handed of a person and makes the blind assumption that a over as a territory to the United States. person's race determines their behavior and attitudes. Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop was the great Racism isn't just black and white anymore. Racism grand-daughter and last direct descendant of King has been further complicated by many grey areas. Kamehameha I. Throughout her life, she witnessed An example of this is the Kamehameha admissions the decimation of the Hawaiian people. Seeing a policy which gives preference to students of Native tragedy unfold right in front of her eyes, and very Hawaiian ancestry over all other students. Is it racist little being done to help the Native Hawaiian people, or righteous? Is their policy intended to promote Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop felt that she needed to the superiority of a certain ethnicity and create aid her people and, more importantly, aid the survival imbalances, or is it intended to correct injustices and of a culture. She was in, perhaps, the best position to promote harmony amongst society? Much debate assist her people, since she had both the authority and has been sparked over this policy, the latest and most the resources to do so. As quoted from the 13th article important case being John Doe vs. Kamehameha of the 1st codicil, Bernice Pauahi Bishop wrote: Schools. John Doe had argued that Kamehameha's policy violated federal laws because it discriminated I give, devise and bequeath all of the rest, residue and remainder of my estate real and personal, entrance to the schools based upon race. I personally wherever situated unto the trustees below feel that the Kamehameha admissions policy is named, their heirs and assigns forever, to hold justified, in that it was created to correct past upon the following trusts, namely: to erect and injustices and help an oppressed people that have maintain in the Hawaiian Islands two schools, been marginalized in our society, with no intentions each for boarding and day scholars, one for boys and one for girls, to be known as, and called the of being racist. Kamehameha Schools. (ksbe.edu) The history of Hawaii, before it had become part of America, is very important in understanding the Pauahi had the desire to remedy a growing unique circumstances that Kamehameha Schools problem, and thus founded, as stated above, the is facing right now. Pre-contact statistics of Native Kamehameha Schools. The schools were intended to Hawaiians are estimated to be about 800,000 " ... create good and industrious men and women... " (Paulsen). After the arrival of Captain James Cook in (ksbe.edu). She felt the key to success was education 1778 (Paulsen, par 11), the introduction of common and a solid foundation in Christian values. To colds and diseases decimated the indigenous this day, Princess Pauahi's vision is still integrated population. A missionary census of the native into the curriculum of the Kamehameha Schools. population shown that from 1778-1832, Native Over 700 men and women from Kamehameha's 3 Hawaiian population was cut in half (Schmitt). campuses graduate each year. However, Pauahi's At the time of Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop's vision of a vibrant future for Hawaiians is not without birth in 1831, there were approximately 124,000 controversy. Native Hawaiians (ksbe.edu). By the time she wrote An anonymous person, simply known as John her will in 1883, there were only 44,000 Native Doe, filed a lawsuit against Kamehameha Schools,

62 citing section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1886 Hawaiian Kingdom and acknowledged their inherent (Paulsen), that guarantees the same rights for every sovereignty (Harvard Law Review). person, regardless of skin color. Kamehameha The joint resolution outlined the history of Schools is fighting one of the most important cases, the overthrow of the Hawaiian government, and in that the results could mean the removal of its long recognized the illegal oppression and injustices standing policy of admitting Hawaiian children first. done unto the Hawaiian people. There are over 85 Equal admittance of Hawaiian children and those of federal statutes (Paulsen) that provide programs to all other ethnicities would turn Kamehameha into aid Hawaiians exclusively, meaning that Congress just another private school. John Doe, a person with has supported preference policies before. Also, the no Hawaiian blood, was suing Kamehameha for the fact that the will was written before America annexed admittance to any of the campuses (he graduated Hawaii brings up the question: Does American law from high school already), abolishment of the have jurisdiction over an article that was written prior Hawaiian preference policy, and the payment for to the illegal annexation? unspecified monetary damages (Paulsen). From a moral standpoint, Kamehameha Schools John Doe is relying on previously decided cases, is completely justified in helping a marginalized which include: Runyon v. McCrary (1976), McDonald community. They are simply on a mission to elevate v. Santa Fe Trail Transportation (1976), and Rice v. and integrate Hawaiian people into today's society. Cayetano (2000) (Paulsen). In the Runyon v. McCrary Is it so wrong to help an oppressed people that still case, the court decided that attending a private school feel the effects of injustices and inequalities from over constitutes a contract, for the purposes of Section a century ago? The intentions of Kamehameha are 1981, between the student and the school (Paulsen). clearly to help people rather than show racism and In McDonald v. Santa Fe Trail Transportation, the discrimination against others. The admissions policy court upheld the decision that Section 1981 protected itself is also a preference toward Native Hawaiians, everyone, including whites. In Rice v. Cayetano, the meaning that once all qualified applicants with court basically decided that the public could decide aboriginal blood have been accepted, anyone else on the appointees of the board of Office of Hawaiian may be accepted, regardless of ethnicity. This point Affairs, and that Native Hawaiians constituted a has been enforced on the Maui campus, in which a race-based classification. John Doe argues that the non-Hawaiian applicant was accepted because all Kamehameha Schools is using its preference policy the qualified Hawaiians had been accepted already. to segregate the Native Hawaiians from everyone Kamehameha Schools is a very diverse school, in that else, by creating an absolute bar (the admissions they accept every ethnic background. There are many policy). While John Doe met the scholastic and people of mixed ethnic backgrounds, meaning that test requirements, the only basis for his denial was Kamehameha does not discriminate simply on the because he had no Hawaiian ancestry. From the point basis that a person is Caucasian. of the plaintiff, what it comes down to is that the Kamehameha is a privately owned school admissions policy is racist. funded by a trust and is used for the education of In Kamehameha's defense it was stated that the indigenous Hawaiian people, who are still very Kamehameha is a private, non-profit school that much in poverty. Kamehameha compensates many receives no federal funding whatsoever. This means students, about 60-65% (Paulsen), with financial aid that none of the taxpayers' moneys goes directly to of some sort, while the other students not qualified Kamehameha Schools. Kamehameha Schools' income for financial assistance already pay a low tuition is generated by its residential, commercial and resort fare. This illustrates how much Kamehameha and leases, and diverse investments (ksbe.edu). its board of trustees care not for the money, but for Secondly, Kamehameha was not created to the fulfillment of moral values set down by Bernice oppress people of non-Hawaiian descent; rather, Pauahi Bishop. The values taught throughout the on the contrary, it was designed to educate Native school are to be humble, seek knowledge, and help Hawaiians in order to compete and be fully integrated others. These values are clearly not racist. From my into today's society. Statistically, Native Hawaiians point of view, many people simply want money, and are still underprivileged and struggling. Congress with Kamehameha's endowment valued at more than even apologized for the illegal overthrow and $7 billion and a budget of over $200 million annually annexation of Hawaii, as stated in the United States spent on education (Kamehameha Schools Annual Public Law 103-150, 103d Congress Joint Resolution Report), Kamehameha makes for a large target. If 19 November 23, 1993. In this apology the senate Kamehameha had no money to offer, John Doe would publicly apologized for the overthrow of the likely not seek monetary damages, and probably not 63 even care about being admitted. first, the court will be taking away the future of Another thing that critics tend to forget about Hawaiians. is that there were many injustices done to Hawaii, Overall, this is a very touchy subject, and may as outlined briefly before. These past injustices not be fully resolved, even when the courts make may have been committed by a generation that a final decision. Only time will tell what is next has passed on, but the aftermath can still be seen for Kamehameha, with the John Doe lawsuit being in Hawaii. Kamehameha Schools and Hawaiian a very important and defining factor as to how Homelands act are simply ways of giving back long Kamehameha will keep its preference for to the Hawaiian community what was originally Native Hawaiians. I personally feel that one day, theirs. It's all too often that foreigners overpower the Kamehameha will accept people of other ancestry indigenous population and take control of the land once the social-economical injustices on Hawaiians and the people. The United States of America even have been corrected, but until that day, I say just acknowledges its own wrong-doing in the assistance leave 'em. There are no intentions of segregating of overthrowing a thriving nation. The Hawaiian people, but they have every intention of serving people aren't asking for the reparations, they are righteousness, so why bother to put a stop to simply asking for the things that were stolen from something good? them. By taking away the education of Hawaiians

64 writer whose reputation Augustus wanted Virgil Revelations of Rome to transcend for the glory of Rome (The Iliad of Homer 13). Augustus wanted Virgil to tell a story in Virgil's Aeneid that grandly mythologized the founding of Rome. Therefore, Virgil went right to the source: the Greek by Tara Vandiver epic literature of Homer. In reading the product of Virgil's art, it is only obvious to see the major Ancient Rome, so important in its day that people influence that Homer had on the construction of The said all roads led to that city, was the capital of one Aeneid. of the most powerful civilizations in all of history. The parallels between The Iliad, The Odyssey, The Romans conquered many lands and territories, and The Aeneid are evident from the first page to the their power stretching all the way from the British last. In fact, it seems that the very structure of The Isles to the Persian East. At first glance it appears Aeneid was taken from the two epic poems of Homer: as if the Romans of old were unbeatable. However, with "the first six books modeled on The Odyssey and it is important to remember that first glances are the second six on The Iliad" (Atchity 101). The way not always what they seem: in actuality, the ancient that Virgil's tale can easily be split into two halves Romans were conquered from the inside out. In the also reflects the two legends of Horner: the first six year 146 B.C., Rome had officially conquered Greece, books of The Aeneid being that of the great journey, even though there had been functioning Greek or "nostros," like Odysseus' voyage to Ithaca, and colonies on Italy's peninsula for many years (Atchity the second six being like that of the battles of Troy; 323). Rome's physical might had overpowered though Aeneas fought on the Italian peninsula, he and that of Greece, but, as the philosopher Horace his men were of Trojan blood (Cornrnager 89). stated, "Conquered Greece conquered, in turn, the The connection to Homer's Troy is evident in uncultivated victor and introduced the arts in rustic the very essence of The Aeneid. Virgil's whole idea Latium" (Constable 53). Ancient Rome absorbed all starts with the escape of Aeneas from his home, the that was ancient Greece. In all aspects of its culture, burning Troy from The Iliad. It was there, when Rome adopted the ways of Hellas, and that adaptation Achilles was fighting Aeneas in the twentieth book is manifested in the epic tale The Aeneid. of The Iliad, that Horner prophesized the future of Virgil, the author of The Aeneid, was born in the young Trojan (The Iliad of Homer 412). Homer 70 B.C. in ancient Rome (Atchity 100). In the year wrote: "His fate is to escape to ensure that the great 49 B.C., he moved to Cumae, a city located west line of Dardanus may not unseeded perish from the of modern-day Naples. Cumae was founded in world... Therefore Aeneas and his sons, and theirs, 750 B.C. by the Greeks; the city of Cumae was the will be lords over Trojans born hereafter" (Fitzgerald "oldest Greek mainland colony in the West" that 404). These few lines in Homer's epic tales gave Virgil was still in existence ("Cumae"). With Rome in the opportunity to succeed the mission Augustus put power, Cumae was subdued and controlled by before him. the year 338 B.C. ("Cumae"). At the time of Virgil, In the very opening of The Aeneid, there is a Cumae was considered to be an Epicurean society, connection to the epics of Greece. Virgil opens with "I following the pleasure-seeking ideas, antithetical to sing of warfare and a man at war / Tell me the causes the stoic Romans, of the Greek philosopher Epicurus now, 0 Muse," and "For years / They wandered as (Anderson 110). Virgil was educated in Cumae and their destiny drove them on / From one sea to the started writing there. In 31 B.C. he began writing next: so hard and huge / A task it was to found the The Aeneid. It was the Roman ruler Augustus who Roman people" (Virgil 4). The way the story begins, initiated this project for Virgil, wishing him "to between the way that the narrator invokes a sense provide for Rome what Homer had done for the of entertainment through song and tl1e interaction Greeks" (Atchity 101). between hinl and the Muse, known to be a Greek Homer, the Greek to whom the writing of The goddess of the creative arts, as well as the description Iliad and The Odyssey is attributed, whose tales of the long journey by sea, is very similar to the had "reasonably sound texts" available to the opening scene of The Odyssey, in which the narrator public by the end of the sixth century B.C., was the states: "Sing in me, Muse, and through me tell the 65 story / of that man skilled in all ways of contending, resemblance is explicitly indicated by the words 'like' / the wanderer, harried for years on end, / after he or 'as"' ("Simile"). An uepicN simile, also called a plundered the stronghold on the proud height of uHomeric" simile, is an extension of the basic simile. Troy" (Homer 1). Within an epic simile there are often several lines, Continuing, it is unmistakable that there are not found in poetry usually, used to "intensify the stature only numerous parallels to the tales of Homer in the of the subject" ("Epic Simile"). Virgil used these story of Aeneas, but that it is all due to the Greek epic similes throughout the whole tale of Aeneas. influence on the Roman way of life. On any manner of Beautifully written, these epic similes, began in the subjects, Virgil illustrates how the stylings of Greece first book and continued through to the last. were tightly intertwined in the society of ancient In the beginning of the tale, when Virgil was Rome, including: philosophy, religion, mythology, or describing the fall of Troy, Aeneas had said to his in literature. Carthage: From that time on, like predatory wolves History In fog and darkness, when a savage hunger When it comes to history, much of what is Drives them blindly on, and cubs in lairs passed down through generations is oral- tradition. Lie waiting with dry famished jaws-just so In the time of Virgil, around 49 B.C., it was known Through arrow flights and enemies we ran Toward our sure death. (Virgil 46) that the land of Rome was not always Roman. It was known by Romans that their ancestors came to Here Virgil incorporates a technique that allows the Tiber somehow, and someway, and that it was those, even without an interest in military matters most likely connected to the movements of other and warfare, to be greatly intrigued by the events peoples around the area. In looking at the ancient surrounding the characters, thus demonstrating Greeks, their history was directly related to that of the reason behind using epic similes as a literary the people of Rome. Not only are they very close technique; namely, intensity. geographically, but there is a definite background of In The Aeneid, Lavinia, princess of Latium, war and conflict. The Trojan War, between the Greeks (modern-day Italy), kept close to her mother during and King Priam's people, was the eternal account of the battles between their people and Aeneas' Trojans., Hellenistic power, immortalized by Homer's work. Virgil wrote: The Romans, though their past was different from Lavinia, listening to her mother, streamed the Greeks on an individual basis, acknowledged the With tears on burning cheeks; a deepening blush fact that their history was influenced by the culture of Brought out with a fiery glow on her hot face. Greece and that there must be a correlation between As when one puts a stain of crimson dye On ivory of India, or when their two empires. This acceptance of history by Rome White lilies blush, infused with crimson roses, can be seen in the pages of The Aeneid, where there So rich the contrast in her coloring seemed. (Virgil is reference to the wars between Greece and Ilium, 369). (Troy) (trans.Fitzgerald 403). Virgil dedicated a Describing the feeling Lavinia had when she whole book in The Aeneid to the fall of Troy and all began to realize that she would soon become the wife that happened within those walls: "Ilium was going of the opponent, Aeneas, Virgil created an epic simile down in fire" (Virgil 55). that reached out to his audience, enabling them to feel her distress. Literature In the last book, "The Fortunes of War," during The arts of Greece are seen in every aspect of the the battle between Turnus' men and Aeneas', there Roman aesthetic. From the statues that were stolen was a moment in which Turnus had an outburst of from Greek lands and adapted to the culture of Rome, energy. Virgil writes: to plays and poems, to the actual concepts and forms Like blood-stained Mars himself he rode, when Mars in writing, Ancient Rome attempted to make it all Goes headlong by the frozen Hebrus river, their own. In The Aeneid, the most obvious way that Beating out claps of thunder on his shield this is seen is through literary form. Written in iambic And lashing on his furious team for war- pentameter, Virgil incorporated two major literary That team that on the open ground outruns concepts that came from Greece: that of the epic simile The south and west winds, while the farthestland and that of the Homeric motif. Of Thrace re-echoes to their drumming hooves; And riding with him go black visages A simile is a figure of speech, used often in Of Fright, Ambush, and Anger, Mars' companions. literature, involving a comparison between two That was the way of Turnus, (Virgil 379) different objects. Unlike a metaphor, in a simile, "the The imagery conjured up by Virgil's epic similes 66 are nothing less than amazing. It is no wonder that This intervention of Venus is but one of many Augustus decided to publish his work, even while instances of divine action entangled with the lives of Virgil, ever the artist, was not satisfied with it. mortals. Occurrences like this happen in just about The Homeric motif is that of a "revival of heroic every book of The Aeneid. myth in successful poetry" (Otis 95). Virgil "recreated Besides the many gods and goddesses adapted a Homeric hero in the Homeric age" through the by ancient Rome from the Greeks, there were many embodiment of Aeneas and his arrival on the mythological monsters as well. In The Aeneid, land that would soon become ancient Rome. The Virgil incorporates many of the same monsters that conventions and styles Virgil used, such as the epic can be found in Horner' s Odyssey. It was during similes, were first seen in the writers of Greece. the sea-wanderings of Aeneas that he and his crew encountered these mythological beasts. Located in the Religion and Mythology Strait of Messina, Aeneas has to navigate carefully, Greek gods and goddesses are well-known, even in an attempt to avoid the creatures Scylla and in today's modern society. They were also popular in Charybdis. It was written: "Now Scylla haunts the ancient Rome, but they were given new names. "From starboard side, Charybdis, / never appeased, the side a range of deities adopted from the Greeks, Romans to port,U where "Scylla lies immured in a rocky cave altered the gods' identities but left their characters / in clefts of inky darkness, darting out / her faces, unchanged" (Constable 32). The Greek king of the pulling ships on to the reef" (Virgil 80 and 81). Scylla gods, Zeus, was in Rome the god Jupiter. Hera was and Charybdis have a history in Greek mythology. called Juno, Aphrodite called Venus. Every Greek Most commonly they are both seen in The Odyssey, god could be found in Rome: going through the same where they are "beset in the natural waters traversed drama, the same complications and conflicts. Both by the hero Odysseus" ("Scylla and Charbydis"). It cultures, Greek and Roman, incorporated the idea that was believed that Scylla had many heads and shark­ the gods were susceptible to making mistakes, much like teeth, while Charybdis could best be described like humans. Gods and goddesses were just as likely as a "personification of a whirlpool" ("Scylla and to fall into temptation as mortals. In fact, Roman gods Charybdis"). were even "prone to sexual liaisons as their Greek The infamous Cyclops also had his debut in counterparts" (Constable 32). The Aeneid. After surviving the strait of Scylla and Beginning in the culture of the Greeks, and Charybdis, Aeneas and his men landed on the island then moving onward through that of the ancient of the Cyclops: Romans, there was also a "tangled parallelism of Out of the forest, human and divine action" (Otis 100). In the absence Out of the mountains, poured the Cyclops tribe of rational explanations for what the people of these To crows the bay and shoreline: we could see them cultures witnessed around them, it seemed as if Standing there, each with his awful eye In impotent rage (Virgil 89) everything that happened, good or bad, was due to the intervention of the gods. "Military triumphs Cyclops was made popular, again, in the tales were a sign of the celestial rewards, regardless of of the Greek hero Odysseus. In Greek legend the comparative strength of the armies involved. the Cyclops was a one-eyed giant who practiced Defeats were an example of divine retribution and cannibalism and lived the pastoral life of a shepherd an indication that certain gods demanded to be ("Cyclops"). In fact, even the word Cyclops comes appeased" (Constable 32). from the Greek word "round-eye" ("Cyclops"). During the intense battle sequences depicted in There were all types of religious and mythological the last book of The Aeneid, Aeneas is badly injured. examples found sprinkled throughout Virgil's epic, all For a moment, it looks as if he would not survive. leading to the transformation of Roman culture from However, instead of leaving it to happen naturally, that of the Ancient Greeks. Even the fables, actions, Aeneas' mother, the goddess Venus, intervenes: and faults have a direct correlation to those that had Now, shaken by the pain unmerited been believed in Hellas. Her son bore, mother Venus picked a stalk Of dittany from Cretan Ida - Philosophy Venus now brought this down, veiling her face Throughout the twelve books of The Aeneid there In a dark cloud, and for a secret poultice are at least three major philosophical movements Dipped the leaves to imbue a shining bowl that can be seen. Each stemming from Greek culture, Of Tiber water, sprinkling in ambrosia's Health-giving juices and the fragrant Heal-all. the theories of Stoicism, Epicureanisrn, and the (Virgil 382) Pythagorean Metempsychosis Doctrine, are used by

67 Virgil in numerous settings and verses. Anchises. The reader can feel Aeneas' anguish as he Stoicism, a philosophy still common today, has sees the shades of those who meant so much to him, been around for many centuries. "The spread of and feel his anguish in being utterly helpless in saving Stoicism" in Rome was most prominent during the them or bringing them back to the world as he knew years of 214 through 129 B.C. (Constable 58). Stoicism it. was a philosophical movement during the Hellenistic A less common philosophical movement that Period, 323-30 B.C., during which it was believed to came from Ancient Greece is visible in Aeneas' story, be a way of life, not merely a thought or idea (Baltzly). thus reflecting the acceptance and curiosity of Rome's It was in the year 155 B.C. that the city of Athens people. Known as the Pythagorean Metempsychosis sent "a delegation of three Stoic philosophers on an Doctrine, it is based on the concepts of Pythagoras, a embassy to Rome," and, though at first the Romans Greek who lived from 570 to 490 B.C. (Huffman). In were hesitant, it was gradually accepted by many fact, though Pythagoras was Greek, he moved to the of them (Baltzly). The Stoics believed that a "person city of Croton in southern Italy where he did most of who had attained moral and intellectual perfection his philosophizing (Huffman). would not undergo" the emotions that arose from bad The Pythagorean Metempsychosis Doctrine is judgment, such as fear or envy (Baltzly). the compilation of several ideas. Metempsychosis When it comes to the Stoic attitude in The Aeneid, surrounds the idea of reincarnation, and deals with we can see it in a couple of places. For Aeneas, the concepts of the after-life, much of that relating "his fate is to sacrifice every present enjoyment or to the "transmigration of the soul" (Huffman). satisfaction to an end he cannot hope to witness Pythagoras was considered, and is still considered himself" (Otis 96). This emphasizes the Stoic belief today, to be an expert on the "fate of the soul after that a "wise man should be free from passion, death"; he believed that the soul is immortal and that unmoved by joy or grief, and submissive to natural one would never technically die, but instead go to a law" (Baltzly). Besides Aeneas' Stoic calm, there place where there are only "good things" (Huffman). is that of Turnus. In the tenth book of The Aeneid, This is seen in Virgil's epic in "The World Below," the during the battles between the tribes of Italy and the sixth book of The Aeneid, in which Aeneas travels Trojans, Hercules addresses dying Turnus: down to the underworld to see his father, Anchises. "Every man's last day is fixed. The descriptions in this book that are applicable to Lifetimes are brief, and not to be regained, for all Pythagoras' doctrine are found when Aeneas arrives mankind. But by their deeds to make their fame last: that is labor for the brave. below the place of the living. There, "they [Aeneas Below the walls of Troy so many sons and the Sibyl] came to places of delight, to green of gods went down, among them, yes, my child, park land, / where souls take ease amid the Blessed Sarpedon. Turnus, too, is called by fate. Groves. / Souls here possess their own familiar sun He stands at the given limit of his years." (Virgil and stars" (Virgil 182). In Virgil's description of the 310) shades of those who had passed on, he wrote that This confirms the belief held by Stoics that "these other souls, / when they have turned Time's mankind is merely part of the cycle. Essentially they wheel a thousand years ... they may see again the believed that death happens, life happens, and that is heavens and wish re-entry into bodies" (Virgil 186). the way it is. Hercules tells Turnus to be satisfied with It is interesting for one to see so many different his lot and that it is the same for all mankind. This philosophical ideas in this one tale. This is important, exemplifies all that is at the root of Stoicism. because it shows the experimentation and adaptation Epicurean philosophy in Roman territory. That of the people of ancient Rome. As new ideas became of Cumae, the very place that Virgil resided, was popular, the people had to decide what fit best for considered to be an Epicurean society. Epicurus was them. Some chose pieces of each philosophy, while an Ancient Greek who lived from 341 to 270 B.C. in some tended to lean more to one idea or the other. Athens (Konstan). Epicurus "placed an extremely Virgil's toying with different concepts is an excellent high value on friendship," believing that a "wise man validation of this thesis. would feel the torture of a friend no less than his own, and would die for a friend rather than betray him, Conclusion for otherwise his own life would be confounded" It is certainly amazing how cultures can (Konstan). Evidence of Epicurean beliefs is seen in withstand the tests of time: conquest, disaster, the The Aeneid when Aeneas ventures down into the rising and falling of empires and people. One of underworld with the Sibyl. There he sees Palinurus, the most famous empires is ancient Rome. Today's one of his loyal crewmembers, as well as his father society owes so much to their society, placing them 68 on a pedestal above all others. It is important, evident throughout the epic tale of The Aeneid, by the however, to understand that it was not merely Roman Roman,Virgil. In every aspect, through the conquest invention that created that for which we pay tribute of Hellas, ancient Rome absorbed, and adapted to, to them. In actuality, Roman culture is really that all that was ancient Greece, integrating that into their of Ancient Greece, and the manifestation of this is own lives and societies.

WORKS CITED

Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969. Atchity, Kenneth J., ed. The Classical Roman Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2004. 19 Nov. 2007. . Commager, Steele, ed. Virgil: A Collection of Critical Essays. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966. Constable, Nick. Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. London: Mercury Books, 2005. "Cumae." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 15 Nov. 2007.. "Cyclops." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 25 Nov. 2007. . "Epic Simile." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 19 Nov. 2007. . Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1961. Huffman, Carl. "Pythagoras." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2007. 25 Nov. 2007. . Konstan, David. "Epicurus." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. 19 Nov. 2007. . "Scylla and Charybdis." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.25 Nov. 2007. . "Simile." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 19 Nov. 2007. . The Iliad of Homer. Trans. Richard Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Vintage Classics, 1990.

69 (MacDonald, 1967). The author divides the pamphlet Sexual Repression and into three sections; the causes, the consequences, and the cure. He further explains the sections by using a Masturbation scriptural interpretation, proving God's detestation for all unnatural practices. He claims the causes are by Whitnei; Keeton ignorance, secrecy in which sins can be indulged, and impunity from punishment. The consequences Sexual repression has a caused an uproar in are physically degrading as well as spiritually. The the twenty-first century. What was once was a cure for the sexual repression, including such things proper way of life, has now become a focus for as cold baths, prepentance, and renunciation of the understanding the problems that we are confronted practice, is both physical and spiritual (MacDonald, with in our social sphere today. The view of sex as a 1967). After Onania was published the author's means for gratification instead of just reproduction remedies were being practiced everywhere, and has changed from being morally wrong, to that of for the first time people started to take a great deal acceptance. However even today we can see the of interest in different aspects of sex. Not too long renmants of this traditional view trickling through after Onania a man by the name of Samuel Tissot western culture. published his own work making the same points as Masturbation is what has been under the most Onania, but had a different means. He, for the first scrutiny when it comes to sex. Since it is a means time, explained masturbation and the effects by using that serves no purpose other than self-gratification, a scientific basis (MacDonald, 1967). Tissot no longer it has been seen as morally wrong with reference to explained the degradation of masturbation as a result religious views, and biologically wrong for those of a moral problem. He instead listed problems who tried to support the immorality with biology. within the body that were a result. For example it Because of this, the western trend has been to deny weakened the digestive system, caused vomiting, masturbation as a nonsensical means that serves no and indigestion (MacDonald, 1967). Now for the first purpose and distracts us from the more important time sex and masturbation was being talked about in things. This paper will first focus on masturbation both a religious and scientific, or rather, a biological from a brief historical context. It then will address the manner. transition in western culture to the common thought Present of the twentieth century. The last point of the paper Today we have a much more extensive will include the impacts of previous issues and how understanding of human anatomy. The views historical events have affected the rising problem in and science of Samuel Tissot are no longer seen as western society today. common thought. Instead today we have a more Onanism detailed understanding of the natural sexual drives. Western society is still being greatly impacted by And with this we can understand a biological an old Victorian theory that masturbation is a specific usefulness for masturbation. Humans internally cause of mental and physical disease. This theory produce chemicals, which drive us sexually starting can be linked to a pamphlet that was published called at puberty. It has been implied by biologists that Onania. Onania coming from the biblical reference, androgens (and more specifically testosterone) are that every time Onan slept with his brother's wife, a source of libido, or sexual motivation. Androgens he spilt his seed on the ground. This offended have also been established to be a source of libido for Yahweh, thus Onan was killed. The interpretation adult females. Dispersing of exogenous testosterone is unclear on whether masturbation was what was to typical functioning adult females has been shown being condemned. However references to this story to increase sexual motivation and body sensations became popular during the eighteenth century, (Smith et. al. 1985). · and implied that masturbation or self-gratification, Sociologist take this one step further in an which serves no reproductive purpose, is sinful. The attempt to figure out how much sex is biological full title presented on the title page reads: Onania: (natural), and how much is socially or culturally or, The Heinous Sin of Self Pollution, And all its influenced. The drive model, first purposed by frightful consequences, in both Sexes Consider' d Freud as the libido theory, is grounded in biological 70 drives, which for the most part are independent of Barriers in fact bind western culture as any social structure. Humans are compelled by their culture, the problem is that the barriers aren't entirely biological architecture to seek sexual release and concrete and have a lot of variation depending on the nourislunent (Stein, 1989). According to Dearborn, specific group and or individual associated with a Dr. M.S. Grove, in 1839 interviewed patients about given culture. Dearborn recognizes this division. He their views on masturbation. She unwittingly implied comments that even the Judea-Christian world can the naturalness of the occurrence when she reported be divided into two groups, the first being a group the patients admitting that they masturbated, that accepts masturbation and understands it as being but also admitting that they weren't aware that a typical function that is in essence healthy, and the anyone else was doing it (Dearborn, 1952). Later a second group that is still ingrained in old ideology functionalist view was used which defined sexuality based on dogmas of the past (Dearborn, 1952). as a matter of socialization and defined by social Effects scripts or roles. One view is that all people have the Today we still see the effects of Onanism in the inclination to seek out sexual gratification, and it is idea that anything other than sex between husband through socialization that the person learns some or and wife is considered unclean. For a long time all the social roles that are available through which the only conversation made about sex was that of to achieve this (Stein, 1989). Stein continues with reproduction. This has been harmful in several ways. Gagnon and Simon's views, inspired by The Kinsey First of all, the lack of education on safe sex led to Institute, that every individual is set into a cultural a rise in STD' s and teen pregnancy. Most children scenario that is constructed by a set of beliefs that acquire their knowledge through the school system emphasize barriers for some social activities. Each rather than by their parents. According to Bruce Y. individual has a role, and each role has an activity Lee and Andrew B. Newburg (2005), those children that is also set by barriers. This explains how sex, and who grow up in more deeply religious environments what is considered sexually normal, is based on the may not even be encouraged at all to discuss sex given culture, which also varies based on such things and contraception (452). Today our culture has as modernization (Stein, 1989). The barriers placed become much more complex and cannot be simply by cultures become labeled and in turn stigmatized, defined. When adolescence reaches puberty they thus individuals within the culture feel pressured to are encountered with social identities, which they conform to a given cultural identity. are forced to adhere to. Peer pressure and certain Even though there has been extensive work expectations are required of both genders, but there done to understand both the biological and social is a tiered level of difficulty. Teens also have to deal role of sex, there are still problems that western with the current views on sex at the same time. The culture faces with morality. One of the problems ultimate temptation. The forbidden fruit. More and presently is with pornography. Pornography is the more though people are coming out and exploring new fad and is constantly being denounced. It too themselves, despite the fact old beliefs are still is considered unclean and dirty. The actions within ingrained in western culture. pornography show sexual acts, which have nothing That being said, sexual confusion in society to do with reproduction, rather pure self-indulgence. has led to extreme repression. Although western And the purpose is for viewers to obtain sexual culture doesn't believe in the strong beliefs that were stimulus, so that they are able to obtain their own presented in Oania, the culture too is still divided into sexual gratification. According to Charles B. Keating, what is healthy and morally good. The easiest answer Jr., head of one of the most active national anti­ to the problem is just don't do it. Turn the other pornography organizations; cheek. It can't possibly be healthy to seek pleasure for "The traditional Judeo-Christian ethic does not oneself when it serves no purpose like reproduction. condemn pleasure as an evil in itself; it does Conclusion condemn the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake, The purpose 0£ this argument is to come to a as an end rather than as a means, deliberately excluding the higher purposes and values to which very important universal that is still being addressed pleasure is attached. [The sex drive] serves the today. It is the biological need to have or engage individual and the common good of the human in the sexual act whether through sex with another race, only when it is creative, productive, when or masturbation. The debate on sex continues, and it ministers to love and life. When, however, though much knowledge has been acquired, there it serves itself, it becomes a perversion ... Every word by which the organs of sex are designated are still many arguments that try to decipher the bears out this statement: genital, generative, point of sex beyond reproduction. Such questions reproductive, procreative" (Diamond 1980). like whether or not sex is okay for anything other

71 than reproduction, if pleasuring oneself is okay? Is it been presented when growing up. inclined by biological factors and/or social factors? If western culture could look at sex more It is in my own conclusion that western belief openly, then there wouldn't be sexual repression today is still feeling the views of the traditional or negative connotations to sex. This would allow Christian ideology. Most individuals have not sought for more fluidity. Children could learn about sex out the new age of information concerning sex, and in a more natural form, rather than by an adult or instead have held onto the old stigmas, or choose not at all. And loo when reaclung adulthood, there not to discuss it. This has led to confliction among wouldn't be so much sexual confusion, or debate those now in adulthood that feel the sexual desire and on what is right or wrong. If we accept our natural now are driven from inside, yet when considering way of being, then I believe we can find ways to add the thought of masturbation, or pursuing any sexual sexual fluidity to religious beliefs. And possibly reach relationship that is not leading to the purpose of another level in society. reproduction, there is a feeling of dirtiness that has Work Cited

Dearborn, Lester W. "The Problem of Masturbation." Marriage and Family Living 1st ser. 14 (1952): 46-55. JSTOR. 9 APR. 2007 . Diamond, Irene. "Pornography and Repression: a Reconsideration." Signs 5 (1980): 687-701. JSTOR. 9 April 2007 . Lee, Bruce Y., and Andrew B. Newburg. "Religion and Health: a Review and Critical Analysis." Zygon. 2nd ser. 40 (2005): 443-468. Academic Search Premier. 9 April 2007. Keyword: health; methodology; religion; spirituality. MacDonald, Robert H. "The Frightful Consequences of Onanism: Notes on the History of a Delusion." Journal of the History of Ideas. 3rd ser. 28 (1967): 423-431. JSTOR. 12 April 2007 . Smith, Edward A., JR. Udry, and Naomi M. Morris. "Pubertal Development nad Friends: a Biosocial Explanation of Adolescent Sexual Behavior." Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 3rd ser. 26 (1985): 183-192. JSTOR. 16 April 2007< http://jstor.org>. Stein, Arlene. "Three Models of Sexuality: Drives, Identities and Practices." Sociological Theory. 1st ser. 7 (1989): 1-13. JSTOR. 16 April 2007< http://jstor.org>.

72 It was established at dinner that she would be leaving She Boarded the in two months and that she would not be coming back. The fact that we would soon be separated by Arrow of Time the entire Pacific Ocean suggested caution to both of us. Despite our apprehensive feelings, we had gained by Benjamin Decker a momentum that could not be ignored and we continued our pursuit for each other. As we go forward in time, entropy can only We gravitated toward one another with an increase or stay the same, hence it's nickname, intensity that seemed to increase daily. Our chemistry 11Time's Arrow." In her essay, 11The Arrow of Time,v was explosive. We operated as a team, like a well­ K.C. Cole explains that entropy is the natural process oiled machine. When in the presence of one another, of disorder that takes place in everything. It is wasted we both caught a contact high that was enough to energy and loss of purpose. Disturbingly, it is also force an ear-to-ear smile onto both of our faces. We both inevitable and irreversible. It is the way that car gave and took freely from each other, pleasures and tires eventually wear down, a rose will wither, and gratifications that perhaps consumed most of our relationships will sometimes fall apart. In the spring energy. of last year, Yayoi Umino boarded a Boeing 747 Another aspect of our relationship headed for Tokyo, causing the immediate entropy of that required a massive degree of energy was our relationship. It was not the way that shiny chrome communication. This remained a major factor gradually becomes rusty or a mountain slowly erodes throughout the entirety of our two-month affair. over the ages; it was the abrupt and final end of our Yayoi was taking an English class at HCC, which relationship. was the sole purpose of her three-month visit to A great example of entropy is a glass of ice Hawai'i. Based on her (in)ability to speak English, that melts into water. It takes a lot of energy to turn I often wondered if she had ever attended a single the water into ice, solidifying the molecules into a class. We frequently required a mutual friend of uniform state. When the ice melts, the molecules are ours to translate for us! This presented a problem of no longer uniform or solid and energy is wasted. particular significance when we would talk on the If enough energy is applied and remains constant, phone. Communication was difficult but we knew the ice will remain frozen and maintain its solidity. without a doubt and without the need for words that Relationships work in the same manner. we loved each other. Yayoi and I formed our relationship at the By the end of the two months, Yayoi was expense of a tremendous amount of energy from both consuming all of my free time, and I hers. When not of us. We were both two free spirits that randomly at work or school, we would go on hikes or beach collided and fused together -instantly. When we ventures. Sometimes we would just do nothing. It met, it was like every molecule in us had frozen didn't seem to matter what we were doing, it was together; it was as if we had been dipped into liquid being together that was important. She was an nitrogen. However, the analogy of us being 'frozen' amazing potter (her occupation in Japan) and would is paradoxical in nature because our relationship was sometimes try to teach me how to work with clay. heated and passionate. Sometimes I would try to teach her how to cook, but I met Yayoi one evening while I was at work our teaching efforts proved to be useless. We did, at a new bar in Hilo. She was already there , drinking however, learn a great deal from each other. We had a mai tai when I arrived. I remember her being the learned every one of each other's little idiosyncrasies, prettiest woman that I had seen in a long time. Her strengths and weaknesses, and more importantly, we beauty radiated effortlessly from her petite body and learned a lesson in loving and letting go. her smile lit up the room. When I walked into the bar, On May second, last year, I took Yayoi to our eyes met and there was a pause. It was a quick the airport. We both grew silent as the time of her pause but a profound one. By the time I had gotten flight drew near. We knew that this moment was off work, she had drawn me a map to her house (she coming and had anticipated it from the beginning. was from Japan and didn't speak much English) and It was agreed that waiting for each other would be we had arranged to have dinner the following night. waiting in vain; it would have been impossible to 73 provide one another with sufficient energy from such hesitation, she boarded the plane. It was as if she had a vast distance. We smoked a cigarette, savoring the boarded the arrow of time itself. It was the instant last few moments that we would spend together as withering of a fully blossomed relationship. That is lovers. We looked each other over one last time as entropy. her final boarding call was announced, then, without

74 better suited to dealing with its environment; but Sociality in Camivora is simply using a different evolutionary pathway. The Evolution and Adaptive Value of In fact there are many disadvantages to living in Sociality in Carnivora social groups. The increased risk of infection by contagious disease and parasites in social animals causes there to be higher rates of both, compared to by Luke J. Linhoff solitary animals [4]. This problem has been found in many taxa. Further, sociality increases carnivore There is a Roman proverb attributed to Plautus intraspecific competition over food, mates or other that reads: Homo Homini Lupus - "Man is a Wolf to limited resources [l, 6, 11]. Hyenas exhibiting intense Man". While this proverb may say a lot about human competition over a smaller carcass dramatically societies, it could be used to say that we ourselves illustrates this. Finally, sociality may increase are social carnivores, like the wolf. Conversely, a exploitation in addition to interference of parental contrasting proverb, Lupus non mordet lupum - "A care from others in the same species [1, 11]. These last wolf does not bite a wolf", may be closer to the two examples may be amplified in carnivores due to truth about some carnivores than us. So what is a the specific predatory ability of a professional killer. carnivore? Generally it is defined as an animal that This will be examined in greater detail later. eats other animals. Carnivory is widely distributed While solitary carnivores within Carnivora are in mammals, being found in many orders including more common, there are also some very successful as primates, bats, and whales. However, the groups well as highly social species. In fact the first animal that spring to mind when most people think of flesh­ to be domesticated was a highly social predator, eating animals are species such as lions, wolves, and the wolf. It is known today as Canis familiaris - the bears. These are all in the mammalian taxonomic dog. It's argued that no species has adapted so well order Carnivora. This order of around 270 species is to living with humans [15]. Some other Carnivora initially split into two branches, Caniformia ("doglike") species, which may exhibit great intraspecies sociality, and Felifonna ("catlike"). Within this group of nearly include lions, hyenas, wild dogs, mongoose, and even all flesh-eating mammals, a few have evolved highly many seal species [2]. complex continual social living within their species There are a number of advantages associated [1]. This paper will examine the evolution and with living in social groups. With a greater number effects on overall fitness of sociality and cooperative of individuals in a group, there may be a reduction behavior in social species of the order Carnivora. of predator pressure on the individual by better The majority of all members in the order detection or repulsion of enemies [11]. This is Carnivora are solitary in nature, generally only important in some species of carnivores, but may coming together during mating. Throughout have little advantage to some large carnivores that Carnivora, other than a female with her offspring, it are already the apex predator of their environment. is uncommon to see groups of multiple animals in A more important benefit to many social members of close proximity for any extended length of time [1, Carnivora has to do with hunting. Groups will have 2, 8]. As with most biology, there are exceptions. In greater efficiency in foraging for large or evasive these carnivores there is a broad spectrum of sociality prey. Sociality also allows for the greater defense ranging from being incredibly solitary to living of resources or territory. While many non-social in groups numbering in the thousands. Sociality members of Carnivora are highly territorial, groups in carnivores can usually be grouped into two may be able to defend an area much better then a categories. First, individuals arranging in groups single non-social member of their species. It also seasonally for breeding or mating, and second, species allows for a several smaller individuals to defend which aggregate into packs or groups year-round or resources against a larger species due to superior for a large portion of their life cycle [1, 14]. numbers [10]. Finally, sociality can improve the care It is important to re-emphasize that the majority of offspring though communal feeding in addition of species in Carnivora are not social in nature. Being to protection [14]. Many of these fitness benefits and social and exhibiting high levels of cooperation does costs of sociality are found in many different animals not imply an animal is more highly evolved, or is taxa. Nevertheless, in Carnivora some species have 75 evolved sociality to a very complex level uncommonly before or after year-round group sociality. There are found in most other groups of animals. animals that may hunt cooperatively occasionally, Large carnivorous animals have some unique but do not spend major time together. These animals pressures that can select for more complex sociality. If may be considered opportunistically social hunters. an animal has a carnivorous diet it may scavenge for Cooperative hunting may have started with two meat, actively hunt living prey, or any combination animals of the same species simultaneously hunting of the two. Many of the species in Carnivora hunt the same prey animal, and enjoying an increased living animals and therefore are equipped with success rate. The cooperative carnivores may have the necessary tools for killing. Strong jaws, claws, increased efficiency and opened new unexploited and large carnassial teeth used for shearing flesh niches. A single lion cannot kill an adult prey animal are deadly weapons which can be used to equal but several working together can. They may gain effect on members of their own species. This allows a new prey resource unhunted by other carnivores. for potentially deadly conflicts. Many animals Researchers have witnessed groups of lions killing simply lack the facility to kill each other. Other bull giraffes and bull elephants. Social carnivores can non-carnivorous animals may not benefit from the bring down prey that may weigh over twelve times outright killing one of its own species. Carnivores as much as any single hunter [5, 6]. Most solitary can eat each other, plus gain valuable energy. This members of Carnivora do hunt smaller prey, with makes the risks of sociality in many animals in a few exceptions such as tigers and leopards, both Carnivora all the greater. Yet, the fitness benefits of which are specialists at hunting large prey alone. can offset the risks. Some carnivores have developed They are arguably the best pound-for-pound hunters very advanced social interactions compared to many in the world [1, 8]. vegetarian mammals due in part to some of these With many individuals cooperating to hunt, the unique pressures [2]. risk is decreased to the individual. This increases its Hunting carnivores are locked in a perpetual overall fitness or likelihood of passing on its genes. struggle to catch, and kill, their prey, which is On the other hand, the animals must share the food constantly being selected to evade captures from with each other, often decreasing the net gain to each predators and improve defenses. Killing an elusive individual. All species within the order Carnivora animal may take considerable skill, and sociality in utilizing cooperative hunting have individuals that hunting endeavors can develop surprising levels of cannot be attributed to a social pack or are solitary cooperation. Basically, it is much harder to hunt an transients. These individuals do not hunt with other elusive prey animal than to "hunt" leaves on bushes. members of their species. Some predators may set traps, split up defensive Several studies have conducted optimality tests groups, and drive wildlife in certain directions using to see if cooperative hunting really was beneficial. incredible levels of coordination and foresight. As Caraco and Larry [6] found two lions have a higher Shield! and Shalter describe: rate of kilograms of food intake per day than a single "Like wolves, dogs are also very much aware lion hunting alone; this was confirmed in additional of who is who, who is where, and who is doing studies of other pairs of lions [14]. This raises the what. This awareness is an essential feature of interesting question of why would animal groups both: enabling dogs to fit so well into our human cooperate in large groups when they get less food? social fabric and enabling the pack-hunting wolves to lead a communal life: moving and hunting A study done by Scott Creel [7] would rationalize together, sharing, etc. [15] pg 62" cooperative hunting by examining the energy expended to get the food against simple food intake. Cooperative hunting is an incredible evolutionary By modeling the distances traveled in a successful track that has evolved numerous times outside hunt and the meat gained against hunting group size, Carnivora. To name just a few: primates, fish, birds he made an interesting discovery in wild dogs. By of prey, whales, and many types of invertebrates all dividing the total kilograms of meat gained per dog exhibit cooperative hunting. Within Carnivora, pack divided by the number of kilograms of meat gained hunting is found in three families, Felidae, Canedae, by the number of kilometers run to secure that meat, and Hyeanidea [1]. Cooperative behavior is an Creel found the real evolutionary benefit of a group. adaptive value which may fluctuate. In Carnivora, There was a significant decrease in the amount of species are able to fluctuate back and forth between kilometers an individual had to run when hunting group and solitary living throughout their life cycle as with an increased pack size. The ideal pack size was necessary. theoretically found to be 14 wild dogs. A dog may get It is unclear if cooperative hunting evolved more meat from hunting alone or in a small pairs, but

76 a dog in a large pack can conserve much more energy. develop in a population of carnivores [12]. There may When all animals involved have reproductive be something else going on, such as emotion. benefit, cooperative hunting makes evolutionary Konrad Lorenz once stated: "Of all creatures, the sense from increased fitness of individuals. There one nearest to man in the fineness of its perceptions is another direct risk of cooperative behavior to and in its capacity to render true friendship is a an animal's young offspring, however. If young bitch." Anyone who has spent considerable time offspring are brought to the kill to feed, they will around domestic dogs will attest to their amazing come into contact with other individuals besides complexity and variety of emotional states. A dog, its parents whom may readily attack, kill, or eat the which "grieves" at the death of its owner, may act young. It is possible to mitigate this by carrying food despondent, erratic, and refuse to eat, to name just away from other hunters and feeding the young is a few examples. Similar behavior has been seen in private. This has been observed in several cooperative monogamous alpha-male wolves when the alpha­ hunters [1]. Also, mimicked or ritualized biting or female partner dies [9]. Could some canines help aggression has evolved in several species such as others for the sake of it? This is very hard to gauge Fennec foxes, seemingly to limit injures but still show scientifically but has been suggested be several dominance. researchers [9, 15]. Emotional complexity might tip In large carnivores there is always the possibility the scales just enough for cheaters to be uncommon, of cheaters, and other risks associated with or have decreased fitness by being favored less by cooperative hunting. If two animals help to bring other members of the same species. down a prey animal, the subsequently larger or more In the family Carnivora there are a variety of dominate of the two animals may not let the other mating systems and social structures. In most social eat through intimidation or bullying. This decreases carnivores, excluding the Pinnipeds, breeding animals the fitness of the helper, and it provides the opposite are residents of social groups. Male parental care for the "cheater" as has been observed in lions and is rare in mammals generally but is common in the hyenas. [11, 16]. social species in Carnivora. This is probably due to Within Carnivora, in the family Canidae, there the evolution of some level of monogamy or male are several species that have shown examples of dominance of a group; in spite of this females may altruism. An animal may provide altruistic or helpful control this sexual system [17]. Several members of behavior to another animal at a cost of direct fitness Carnivora have a strong intraspecific level of natural to itself. For it to be "true" altruism tl1e recipient selection from lethal conflicts, which may promote would need to be a genetically unrelated individual. this uncommon social behavior in mammals [14]. Altruism towards unrelated individuals is shown Males can protect their young against intruders as as highly unlikely to evolve in modeling this type of well as other infanticide-inclined males. When a new behavior, but it still exists. According to game theory, male lion takes over a pride, it often kills all the young the benefit provided by the actor would indirectly offspring of the last dominant male. By killing these increase its own fitness if there were a high coefficient unrelated offspring the females in the group will of relatedness between the two individuals. An become receptive to mating again, now that they do individual can succeed in passing along the genes not have infants. The male does not want to protect a it shares in siblings or cousins if they are successful. pride of animals taking care of someone else's young Axelrod and Hamilton [2] have shown that if animals but rather "hurries up" the genetic switch-over of "pay back" the fitness gained through help later, it raising his offspring through systematic infanticide. becomes reciprocity, or reciprocal altruism, where This trait is a classic example of animal behavior the initial donor of a helpful behavior will benefit evolution which increases the likelihood of its own from his actions at a latter date. This creates the genes being passed on [17]. opportunity of cheating where an individual may not Infanticidal behavior can be both easy and pay back the initial donor. According to game theory, advantageous in social and solitary male carnivore this would select against any altruistic trait that species [1]. This is another reason for females to arises in a population by providing a high degree of develop sociality, such as in lions. It is advantageous success to any cheaters [1, 3]. So why does reciprocal for the care of the young if several related females altruism exist in populations? Possibly, the fitness work together. Lionesses ally themselves under a gains over a long period of numerous back-and-forth dominant male who will protect his offspring to a cooperation, can add up to be much greater than a greater degree then they could alone. Male lions single defection or cheater. However, some computer form unique groups to increase their direct and models have still shown this would be unlikely to indirect fitness through committing and preventing

77 infanticide. In a pride of lions there may be several cousins to the dominant female, and they gain indirect male lions who form a coalition to protect the pride fitness through the pack leader's reproduction [2]. As from being taken over by other males [10]. These John Alcock describes: males within a pride are usually related in some Non-breeders (females) may be ovulating and way. These males will work together to protect their courting males, but they will copulate and produce genes being furthered by way of the pride's offspring. only if the dominate female is removed. Their However, the pride's males do not enjoy an equal failure to reproduce when the dominate female is distribution of mating with the females. In a pride's present could be to their advantage if she would be likely to kill their progeny, or if their cubs social structure the dominant male may copulate would starve to death through competition with 3.5 times as often as the lowest-ranking male in a her offspring. . ..reproductive suppression by group. The non-dominant males sacrifice the ability subordinates is various carnivores is correlated to monopolize all of a pride's females in order to have with the high energetic costs of pregnancy and any chance of breeding at all. Also, the more males postnatal care [1] pg 488. in a pride the longer those males will hold control This is consistent with the hypothesis that of the pride's females [10]. If other males take over, monogamy in wolves is female enforced. By they can be fairly certain that their offspring will be subordinate females being nonreceptive, the killed. Also, if the number of males is large, they will dominant male is prevented from being polygynous. likely outnumber the estrous females; the mating The development of this type of social behavior is distribution between males will be even more skewed seen in other canines such as the wild dog, Lycaon in favor of the dominant individuals. Some males pictus. By females initially cooperating, males were may be totally excluded from mating, and in effect are (somewhat) forced to oblige them. This increased non-reproducing helpers, increasing the fitness of the the female's level of fitness, and selected for the now reproductive individuals. If the dominant males have evolutionary advantageous trait of intense sociality a strong degree of relatedness to the helper males, the involved in a pack [11,14]. helper males may increase their indirect fitness, which Social interactions must occur to at least some allows for the continuation of this trait [88]. Sociality degree in all sexual animals. In carnivores it has in large carnivores is interesting, because sociality developed numerous times in different taxa but must act rather strongly to outweigh the potentially in the mammalian order Carnivora it has a unique lethal nature of carnivore conflicts common with "flavor." Even with many lethal intraspecific types sociality. The key to understanding these social of conflict, sociality has proved to be advantageous interactions is identifying who is benefited. The in some species. Sociality is certainly not the "norm" question which must always be asked is: How will a in Carnivora, but is one of the most interesting trait increase the chances of being passed along to the behavioral adaptations within mammals. The simple next generation? beauty and efficiency of large carnivores using Monogamy is very uncomn1on in mammals but complex coordinated behavior to stalk and kill prey is has evolved in several species in the Canidae family. legendary. Packs of lions, wolves, and other species Wolves, like lions, raise their young as a group or have complex group hierarchies, which are based on pack. Unlike lions or hyenas, wolves will often the competition for optimal fitness: the ability for an have a single monogamous pair who will breed in a organism's genes to be passed on. Even the proverb pack. Everyone else in the pack are essentially non­ Lupus non mordet lupum, "A wolf does not bite a reproductive helpers. The single dominant breeding wolf", has a solid basis from behavioral evolution. As female is helped to raise her offspring by all others in Theodosius Drobzhan once said, "Nothing in biology the group. As game theory would predict, most other makes sense except in the light of evolution." non-breeding females in the pack are sisters, aunts, or

78 Citations

Alcock, John. 1998. Animal Behavior 6th edtion. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland MA. Axelrod R. and W.D. Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science. 211:1390-1396. Betram, B.C. 1978. Kin selection in lions and evolution. In Growing Points in Ethology. Cambridge University Press, New York. Brown, C.R. 1992. Ectoparasitism as a cost of coloniality in cliff swallows (Hirundo pyrrhonota). Ecology 67:1206-1218. Caraco, T. 1979. Time budgeting and groups size: A test of theory. Ecology 60:618-627 Caraco T. and L.L. Wolf. 1975. Ecological determinants of group size in foraging lions. American Naturalist. 109:343-352. Creel, S.R. and N.M. Creel. 1991. Energetics, reproductive suppression and obligate communal breeding in carnivores. Behavioral Ecology 28:263-270. [8] Dalerum, F. 2005. Sociality in a solitary carnivore, the wolverine. Svante Arrhenius vag 14:1-27. Fox, M. 1972. Behavior of wolves, dogs and related canids. Harper and Row Publishers. New York, NY. Grinnel, R,. C. Packer, and A.E. Pusey. 1995. Cooperation in male lions: kinship reciprocity or mutualism? Animal Behavior 49:95-105. Heinrich, B. and G.A. Bartholomew. 1974. Complex cooperative strategies in group-territorial African lions. Science 269:1260-1262. Norwak, M., and K, Sigmund. 1993. A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that out performs tit-for-tat in the Prisoners Dilemma game. 364:56-58. Packard, J.M., ett. 1985. Causes of reproductive failure in two family groups of wolves (Canis lupus) Zeitschrift fur Tierpsycologie 69:24-40. Packer, C., A.E. Pusey. 1990. Why lions form groups: Food is not enough. American Naturalist. 136:1-19. Schelidt, W., and Shalter, M. 2003. Co-evolution of humans and canids. Evolution and Cognition. vol 9:57-72. Trivers.R.L. 1971. The evolution of recprical altuism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35-57. Woodreff, R., and A. Vincent. 1994. Mother's little helpers: Patterns of male care in mammals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 9:294-297.

79 Schools. The mission and statement of purpose of Some native Kamehameha Schools can be found on the official joint-website of Kamehameha Schools & Bishop Hawaiians are Estate, KSBE.edu. The official mission and statement of purpose declares: forgotten at Kamehameha Schools' mission is to fulfill Pauahi' s desire to create educational opportunities in Kamehameha Schools perpetuity to improve the capability and well­ being of people of Hawaiian ancestry f. ..]. Kamehameha Schools admits children who show potential and who are able, in a timely by Mai Fujii and satisfactory manner, to meet all academic, physical and religious activity requirements, which Change is the law of life. And those who look only to the together comprise the fundamental nature of a past or present are certain to miss the future. Kamehameha education. Kamehameha admits -John F. Kennedy, children on the premise that they have the intent 35th President of the United States and ability to graduate from Kamehameha (5 & 9). How is ignoring the education of special needs The Kamehameha Schools admissions policy is students improving "the capability and well- an interesting topic of debate. While many recognize being of people of Hawaiian ancestry"? And why Kamehameha Schools for its involvement in the should native Hawaiian students with disabilities case of John Doe v. Kamehameha Schools, there are be excluded from "the fundamental nature of a other negative aspects of the admissions policy. For Kamehameha education" when Pauahi intended for example, applicants from lightly-populated areas of all native Hawaiian children to be well-educated? Hawai'i often cannot attend Kamehameha Schools Was Kamehameha Schools not created to educate because of the low admittance quota set for their the native Hawaiian youth who will be the leaders of area. Also, there is the problem of applicants who tomorrow? If the goal of the princess was to take the are denied admission due to being diagnosed with native Hawaiian children from each generation and psychological/physical disabilities. If Princess teach them to become "good and industrious men Bernice Pauahi Bishop intended to improve the and women" (Bishop, par. 14), then how is it that health of native Hawaiians and hoped for all native the Bishop trustees have forgotten about the 40% of Hawaiian generations to have the kind of education native Hawaiians who are disabled? offered at Kamehameha Schools, why are native However, on the "Questions and Answers About Hawaiians from rural areas and disabled native Admissions Policies" page of the Kamehameha Hawaiians being excluded from an education at the Schools & Bishop Estate website, there is a quote school she created? from Princess Pauahi's husband Charles Reed Bishop The admissions policy was created by the Bishop indicating that Kamehameha Schools encourages Estate trustees when Kamehameha Schools was only the elite-potentials to apply. Charles Bishop founded in 1887. Using the thirteenth article of the was appointed by Pauahi to become President of the Princess's will (posted on Kamehameha School's Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate Board of Trustees and official site, KSBE.Edu), the trustees devised the was also the therefore carried out much of his late current policy that moves the children with native wife's orders. In a letter to Samuel Damon, Bishop Hawaiian blood to the top of the list of applicants. wrote: The policy states that preference would also be given [ ... ] it was intended and expected that the to orphans and indigence children. Many people Hawaiians having aboriginal blood would have who knew the princess say that Pauahi meant for preference, provided that those of suitable age, health, character and intellect should apply in all disadvantaged native Hawaiians to be properly numbers sufficient to make up a good school (par. educated, with the money from the trust fund she left 11). behind. One can clearly see that Charles Reed uses the phrase The admission policy states that Pauahi's "suitable age, health, character and intellect" in this official will declares that native Hawaiian students statement, which any person would take to mean be considered first for admission to Kamehameha smart and non-disabled students. It seems that 80 Kamehameha School caters to the needs of the native Students who are accepted from rural areas face Hawaiian student who has no special needs and who additional problems because the school reserves can achieve high academic achievements. its boarding facilities for neighbor island students In 1975, Kamehameha Schools implemented a only. Students from the other side of the island of system that separates the state of Hawai'i into seven Hawai'i must commute from their homes everyday. different districts. The seven districts are: O'ahu, The Hawai'i Campus and Maui Campus both do not Moloka'i, Lana'i, Kaua'i, Ni'ihau, West Hawai'i, and currently offer boarding to its students. Because of Hana, Mau'i. For each district a quota is set, limiting the lack of boarding facilities available, students who the number of applicants that can be admitted from live as far away as in Kohala, which is about 2 hours that district. Each quota depends on the percentage from Kamehameha Schools Hawai'i Campus, must of native Hawaiians who are residents in that district. commute each day to school. Kamehameha Schools works with the Department In 2006, the number of diagnosed disabilities of Education to collect data on the number of native was at its all-time high. Back in 1887, when Hawaiians in each district (KSBE.Edu, 17-18). Paulsen Kamehameha Schools was founded, there were not gave this example: if a district has a native Hawaiian as many disabilities as compared to the world today. population of 30%, then 30% of the total number of However, today, in Hawaii alone there are 150,000 applicants accepted to Kamehameha Schools will be people who have disabilities. Of that count, an from that district (Paulsen). This is not fair because in estimated 65,000 are native Hawaiians. These people rural areas, the percentage of native Hawaiians will have all sorts of disabilities, ranging from mental to generally be lower than other areas. This results in sensory (visually-/hearing-impaired, deaf) to self-care a fewer number of students from rural areas being (bathing, getting dressed, etc.) to physical disabilities accepted to Kamehameha Schools, in comparison with (University of California, 1). Unfortunately, the heavily-populated areas such as Honolulu. Thus, it is number of disabled Hawaiians is only rising. As Ann much more difficult for applicants from rural areas to Pobutsky, Robert Hirokawa, and Florentina Reyes­ achieve admittance to Kamehameha Schools. Salvail reveal in "Estimates of Disability Among Students must apply for admission to Ethnic Groups in Hawaii", a report for the Hawaii Kamehameha Schools each year. All Kamehameha State Department of Health, native Hawaiians have students who have been accepted to Kamehameha a higher disability rate than any other ethnic group Schools in previous years are subject to this test as in Hawaii (par. 1). The researchers of the document well. In order to continue receiving an education at report: this well-known school, students must be re-admitted [...] Native Hawaiians [...] have the worst health to Kamehameha Schools for their high school years. in Hawaii compared to other ethnic groups [...] Native Hawaiians have death rates 4 times higher According to the admissions page of KSBE.Edu, than all other ethnic groups combined, as well Kamehameha Schools receives an average of 900 as high rates of chronic diseases and debilitating applications for the ninth grade every year at the conditions such as cancer, diabetes and heart Kapalama campus (KSBE.Edu, 9). For the 2007-2008 disease (18). school year, at the Kapalama Campus on Oahu, there From this report, we can see that native is a total of 130 open spaces, whereas at the Maui Hawaiians have many health problems. Compared Campus and the Hawai'i Campus there are 24 and to Filipino, Caucasian, Japanese, and other ethnicities, 48 open spaces, respectively, for the 2007-2008 school native Hawaiians have a much higher death rate due year. That gives each applicant a 1 in 7 chance of to disabilities. being admitted to this prestigious school. Upon examining Kamehameha Schools, it was Generally, the majority of applicants from rural discovered that although this elite private school areas do not achieve the same high marks as students is ADA-approved, it has no special education who hail from wealthy schools, such as Punahou program. And for that matter, the school does not High School or Moanalua High School. In addition, accept students with special needs. The only time the testing and interview is difficult and stressful to Kamehameha School officials deal with students with many people. For the Kapalama campus, students' special needs is when a student who has already been grades, previous extracurricular activities, reading accepted to the school becomes diagnosed with a comprehension, general mathematics, and writing disability. Even then, the school does not personally ability are examined. The admissions department help improve the health of the students. The school also requires that all applicants submit two teacher works to enroll the student in Assets School, a private references. Applicants are then ranked based on institution for special education students, or contracts individual scores and greatest need of the student. out for professional third-party help. Paulsen 81 explains, "Generally, depending on the nature of the to have forgotten the Hawaiians from areas in which diagnosis, the students can stay at the school. [The an education such as the one offered at Kamehameha school] contracts out for psychiatric help." Schools is unheard of. Can the policy be modified to In its current state, the policy means little for the help these native Hawaiian youth achieve greatness in future of native Hawaiian youth if it will only cater the world? Or, is Kamehameha Schools only a place to the brightest and healthiest of native Hawaiians for the "best" of native Hawaiians? from highly-populated areas. It is agreed that As Felix Adler once said, "We cannot adopt the Kamehameha School is justified in their mission to way of Jiving that was satisfactory a hundred years preserve the native Hawaiian heritage and its place ago. The world in which we live has changed, and we in modern society by educating the native Hawaiian must change with it." It is time for a positive change youth of tomorrow. However, Kamehameha Schools for these disadvantaged students who want to attend seems to have forgotten the native Hawaiians who are Kamehameha Schools. physically-/psychologically-disabled. They also seem Works Cited Bishop, Ke Ali'i Bernice Pauahi Paki. Will and Codicils. Kamehameha Schools Bishop Estate. 10 April 2007. . Montez, Diana. "Questions and Answers about KS Admissions Policies." Kamehameha Schools Bishop Estate. 12 February 2007. . KSBE.Edu. Kamehameha Schools Bishop Estate. 14 April 2007. . Pang, Gordon Y.K. Native Hawaiian census numbers down. The Honolulu Advertiser. 12 August 2005. 23 April 2007. < http: //the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2005 /Aug/12/ln/508120362.html>. Paulsen, Kekoa. Lecture on Kamehameha Schools Policy. English 100. University of Hawai'i at Hilo. 11 April 2007. Pobutsky, Ann M., Robert Hirokawa, and Florentina Reyes-Salvail. "Estimates of Disability Among Ethnic Groups in Hawaii." Californian Tournal of Health Promotion 2003. Volume 1, Special Issue: Hawaii, n.d. p. 65-82. 22 April 2007. . "Hawaii Disability Data Table From the 2004 American Community Survey." Center for Personal Assistance Services. University of California, San Francisco. 20 April 2007. .

82 and Poe use homoeroticism in underlying ways, Strange Love in subtly weaving it into the two stories, leaving the reader with a sense that there could be more to these Frankenstein and The relationships that meet the eye.

Murders in the Rue To many people, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein is considered a homoerotic novel. The relationships Morgue between various characters support this notion. The role of the females in the novel is passive, subordinate by Jennifer Lui to the male characters. The role of the male is a much stronger presence and the relationships between them The term "homoerotic novel" refers to the tell a story of its own. representation of same-sex love and desire in The relationship Robert Walton has with his sister literature. Historically, male-male examples of the Margaret Saville is different from the relationship he homoerotic in the literary arts were first seen in books has with Victor Frankenstein. Margaret and Walton's like Edward Carpenter's Iolaus: An Anthology of relationship is what I call "informational". The only Friendship, published in 1902. Since then, poets such time there is any affection shown between them is as Walt Whitman, W.H. Auden, and Allen Ginsberg in the salutation of the letters he writes her. He does have contributed to the homoerotic genre. Female­ address her as "Dear Margaret," but it's not until female examples include letters between Virginia near the end of the story when he says that he's Woolf and Vita Sackville-West, and poetry and letters returning to see her. It makes the relationship feel by Emily Dickinson. Although erotic and homoerotic more like he just needs someone to convey all of the writing has been around for hundreds of years, it was information he has gained from Dr. Frankenstein not always socially acceptable to read such things. to someone, anyone. Walton's relationship with These novels were often used to give the readers a Frankenstein, though brief, seems to be much more chance to live out sexual fantasies and to fulfill sexual intimate. Frankenstein shares with Walton the story curiosities in the privacy of their own home, without of how he created the monster and the repercussions having to compromise the traditional lifestyle that of that action, a story which he had not shared with they usually lived and wanted to project to society. anyone else. Walton then discovers that he feels much Because sex was not acceptable to speak about in affection for his new friend and wants to become public, people needed a way to express those fantasies closer to him. There may have been more to this in a safe environment, and literature gave that ability relationship if Frankenstein had recovered from his both to writers and to readers. Both Frankenstein by illness and survived. When Frankenstein dies, Walton Mary Shelley and "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" is more than just a little sad that a friend that he had by Edgar Allan Poe embodied the homoerotic only met a short time ago is dead. He writes to his novel in the gothic genre due to the relationships sister: "Margaret, what comment can I make on the they included between various characters. The untimely extinction of this glorious spirit? What can relationships in Frankenstein between two males were I say, that will enable you to understand the depth much stronger and intimate than the relationships of my sorrow? All that I should express would be than those in the novel between males and females. inadequate and feeble" (Shelley 152). This statement In "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", the opposite makes the reader believe that there was a closer occurs. The relationship between two females is often relationship between Frankenstein and Walton than considered by critics to be homoerotic and the male­ was originally represented. female relationship passive. Specific relationships in The central relationships in Frankenstein are those both stories can be seen as homoerotic and tell a story between Victor Frankenstein and Elizabeth Lavenza, of their own apart from how many readers interpret Frankenstein and Henry Clerval, and Frankenstein them. The idea of homoeroticism in Poe's work is and the monster. Frankenstein's relationships with further argued by Joseph Church's essay "To Make Clerval and the monster seem more intimate than Venus Vanish", where he writes about Poe's attempt the relationship he has with Elizabeth. While there is to kill off many strong female characters. Both Shelley no doubt that he cares about her, there are aspects of 83 the relationship that are strictly platonic. At no point both Frankenstein's brother William,, and Clerval. does Frankenstein and Elizabeth have an intimate Additionally, the way he killed them was in itself relationship. There is no hand-holding, kissing, or intimate; the monster strangles them with his hands. any indication that their marriage would be anything In the case of William, the monster told Frankenstein other than a marriage of convenience. In fact Elizabeth directly that: "I grasped his throat to silence him, questions their upcoming marriage in a letter to and in a moment he lay dead at my feet" (Shelley Frankenstein: 97). Clerval's death, as Frankenstein is told by the You well know, Victor, that our union had been magistrate, was also by strangulation. Although those the favorite plan of your parents ever since our who had found the body had originally thought infancy. We were told this when young, and that he had drowned and been thrown ashore taught to look forward to it as an event that by the waves. When they recover him and try to would certainly take place. We were affectionate playfellows during childhood, and, I believe, dear resuscitate him, the see that "there was no sign of and valued friends to one another as we grew any violence, except the black mark of fingers on his older. But as brother and sister often entertain neck" (Shelley 121). The act of strangulation demands a lively affection towards each other, without close proximity between the killer and his victim. By desiring a more intimate union, may not such also having the monster kill in such a way, Mary Shelley be our case? Tell me, dearest Victor. Answer me, I conjure you, but our mutual happiness, with adds to the idea of the closeness the monster feels simple truth - Do you not love another? (Shelley with men. The monster's murder of Elizabeth may 130) also be Oedipal. By killing Elizabeth, who in a normal Frankenstein and Clerval obviously had a relationship may be considered the "mother" figure, different kind of relationship. Clerval was the one the monster was able to reach Frankenstein. who takes care of Frankenstein while he is ill, the one Frankenstein chooses to travel with to London. They Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue have a close relationship which seems to be more than Morgue" also seems to contain a sense of the a "just-friends" relationship. Why would Frankenstein homoerotic. The women in the story, Madame choose a friend to travel with instead of his future L'Espanaye and her daughter, Mademoiselle Camille wife? Why is Clerval the one that is with Frankenstein L'Espanaye, could possibly be considered lesbians. the majority of the time? The relationship between the The relationship they have with each other, and also two of them is something that could be seen as just a the relationship they have. with their male tenant, friendship, but in the context of everything else that could support this theory. Joseph Church's essay happens it is easier to fit into the homoerotic category. "To Make Venus Vanish" also addresses the issue Frankenstein's reaction to the deaths of Clerval and of the strong, independent female character and Elizabeth also add to questions about his relationship her ultimate demise, which could be tied in to the with each of them. When he finds that Clerval has idea of a homoerotic relationship. Although the been killed, Frankenstein gasps and throws himself relationship between Madame L'Espanaye and her onto the body. When Elizabeth dies, he takes a minute daughter can be seen as just a mother-daughter to react to Elizabeth's scream, and only when she relationship, there seems to be a closer relationship screams again he runs back to his room and finds her than that. The laundress, Pauline Dubourg, describes dead; then he faints. It may have been the shock that their relationship as "very affectionate toward the monster had killed Elizabeth instead of him that each other" (Poe 37). There was no male figure night, and not the shock of Elizabeth dying that made involved personally in their lives, no "significant him faint. others" mentioned. Although it may seem like a The third important relationship is that between leap to say that a mother and daughter who were Frankenstein and the monster. When Frankenstein very affectionate are lesbians, it has to be taken into consideration that their lifestyle was not one that was created the monster, he assumed the role of creator of life, which is traditionally a female position, a considered "normal" for women of their time since it female role. By taking this position, Frankenstein was without a man. They are financially self-sufficient seemed to set his role as a person who may have and reclusive. For two women to be living without a felt challenged by Woman as creator. The monster, man, and clearly not feeling that they needed one, was even if he requested that Frankenstein create him something that could have been seen as uncommon a female companion, has an affinity for males. He and unsafe because they had no one to protect them. appears in Frankenstein's bed, and until the night he Such women may have felt that they were strong killed Elizabeth had only directly killed men or boys, enough to protect themselves if anything happened, but in this case they weren't. Many felt that they did

84 not feel there was a need for a male to be around; Fall of the House of Usher", Madeline is basically therefore, they did not care for them much. buried alive behind a wall and in "The Murders in The relationship that the two women, especially the Rue Morgue", the central women are murdered. Madame L'Espanaye, have with their former tenant, Poe, through his character Dupin from "The Murders a jeweler, is interesting. He is a male tenant and they in the Rue Morgue", creates two women who go kicked him out because he had been renting out the against everything he feels a woman should be. upper rooms of the house to various people and "she According to Church, "one such as he must expect became dissatisfied with the abuse of the premise by that women subordinate themselves to man, but her tenant" (Poe 37-38). Because there is no complete in this case he finds the mother and daughter self­ backstory of what happened during this incident, reliant" (Church 411). Church writes also about how we have no way of knowing if it was something that in the story Madame L'Espanaye has no husband and had been happening for a while between the two her daughter has no father. This leads him to believe parties, or if all of a sudden the women decided that that "the women apparently consider themselves they didn't want him renting out the upper rooms. superior to and satisfied without men" (Church There may have also been other reasons why Madame 411). The final thing that Church hints at concerning L'Espanaye evicted the jeweler and took over the homoerotic values in the story is that uin Poe's fourth floor herself. One thought is that she did not prejudicial handling, their family name - L'Espanaye want others questioning the life she had with her - resonantly betokens 'Lesbian"' (Church 411). daughter, and by living away from other people they were able to have an intimate relationship without In both Frankenstein and "The Murders in the others finding out. Since the women are reclusive, Rue Morgue", homoerotic relationships are not it's not as far a stretch as one may think They tend blatantly stated but only hinted at. The relationships to keep to themselves and may not be comfortable between characters like Victor Frankenstein and sharing a relationship that may have been considered Henry Clerval and Madame and Mademoiselle taboo at the time. From the accounts in the story by L'Espanaye suggest that there is more going on that individuals, it didn't seem as if the L'Espanayes had what's on the surface of the story. Relationships such a very good relationship with any males. Many of the as these may even drive the story to be something neighbors' accounts are neutral about both of them else entirely. In the case of Frankenstein, the idea that and there was no connection with any of the others there is maybe more doing on gives you a new way in their neighborhood at all. The women seem to of looking at the obvious relationships when you have no need of men and do not appear to want any consider the relationships that could be happening. around. Strong females like the L'Espanaye women "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" shows strong threaten some men and threaten to lead to their early women who did not need men around and suggests demise in some stories. that there is something going on between them that In Joseph Church's essay "To Make Venus caused them to not want any men around. Church's Vanish," he talks about how Poe, in his story, looks to essay supports the idea that the relationship between kill off the female characters because of their power. the L'Espanaye women may have been more than just Poe held a view that women should be subordinate a mother/daughter relationship. Homoerotic stories to a man and did not feel that women should have been around for a long time and you never know have any power. He could have been considered a if the book you're reading may have some undertones misogynist due to his stories "punishing and silencing of homoeroticism that you may not see unless you womankind in the world" (Church 409). Poe's dislike consider the possibility. of women is often seen in many of his works. In "The Works Cited

Church, Joseph. "To Make Venus Vanish": Misogyny as Motive in Poe's "Murders in the Rue Morgue."" ATO. June 2006: 407-418. Poe, Edgar Allan. "The Murders in the Rue Morgue." The Gold-Bug and Other Tales. Ed. Stanley Appelbaum. New York: Dover Publications, 1991. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1996.

85 context of scientific explanation, sexual reproduction The Dichotomist can be defined as the union of two reproductive cells, or gametes, which fuse together to make a Male: Theoretical zygote (Krogh 2005). The zygote eventually develops into a fetus and is thus the product of successful Models of Male reproduction. It is important to note that sexual reproduction consists of specialized sex-cells, male Homosexuality and female. These gametes contain the genes of both male and female parents. This combination allows by Marcelo M. Hanza genetic variation by means of crossing over and independent assortment, which in turn provides Completed as a requisite for Psychology of a greater likelihood for the offspring to adapt and Motivation, Spriug 2007 survive in its environment (Krogh, 2005; Petri & Govern 2004). The adaptation of a species to its Homosexuality, as it is represented in today's environment as a means of is survival was first culture, is a topic of varied social, political, biological, explained by Charles Darwin (1899) and goes to the psychological and religious controversy. The term heart of the Theory of Evolution. "homosexuality" can be defined as any sexual Within the framework of Evolution lies the activity between members of the same sex (Tripp principle of Natural Selection, which is defined as 1975). In attempt to determine causation or reveal the a process in which the differential adaptation of mechanistic properties involved in homosexuality, organisms to their environment selects those traits two major areas of thought have been derived. The that will be passed on with greater frequency (Krogh "nature" view is iu the realm of the biological sciences 2005). The process of natural selection in animals and and stresses biological or genetic predispositions humans is carried out through sexual selection, which towards homosexuality. Contrastingly, in the social can be defined as a form of nonrandom mating that sciences, there is the "nurture" view that stresses produces reproductive success, based on success in psychological and sociological factors leading to obtaiuiug mating partners (Krogh 2005). The principle homosexuality rather than genetic variables. Within of sexual selection infers that members of a species the study of motivation, one of the most fundamental participate in nonrandom matiug, which basically and innate factors assimilated into human behavior means that each member of a population is not as is that of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction equally likely to mate with another member of the is concerned with passing on one's genetic material, same population (Krogh 2005). From the standpoint of iu order to perpetuate the survival of one's genes. evolutionary psychology, males and females exhibit In the natural world, sexual reproduction is just one different strategies in selecting mates. Males posses type of method of reproduction. However, it is the an abundance of reproductive material (sperm) and only source of reproduction available to humans. are more likely to mate with the maximum amount Identifying both biological and psychological research of females iu order to pass on his own genes (Petri, pertaining to homosexuality is especially relevant Govern 2004). Contrastingly, females have a limited to the study of motivation because, iuterestingly, amount of eggs and are much more selective in homosexual behavior seems to contradict standard choosing a mate, as they rely on the success of the theoretical explanations as a major source of production of the zygote in order to pass on their own motivation. This paper will identify and discuss the genetic material. From an evolutionary standpoint, · various models of sexual motivation in homosexual humans rely on sexual reproduction as the only males, both from biological and psychological means of genetic continuity and variation. The success viewpoints. of variation can only be accomplished by sexual Before discussiug the implications of homosexual reproduction between males and females. However, motivation, it is necessary to identify the advantages the theory of sexual selection does not explain, then, of sexual reproduction, in general. These advantages why males mate with other males or the reason that are relevant due to the homo sapien evolution of a a prevalence of homosexual behavior has not been strictly sexual means of reproduction. Within the selected against. 86 There have been theories introduced in biology show that gay and straight men differ in the central pertaining to evolution and ecology which clearly neuronal mechanisms that regulate sexual behavior challenge the Darwinian model of sexual selection. (Le Vay 1993). However, LeVay's findings have been These models are derived from a majority of challenged due to the fact that all of the male subjects ethological research. Joan Roughgarden (2004) had died of AIDS, making it impossible to determine discusses a plethora of examples of homosexual whether the neural tissue was smaller due the viral behavior in mammalian species ranging from infection or due to genetic predisposition. Bighorn sheep to bottle-nosed dolphins to Bonobo One of the major questions pertaining to the monkeys. Darwinism, as it is, seems to have left out origin and causation of homosexuality pertains to a large and legitimate range of species that not only whether or not it is an inherited trait. In a study exhibit homosexual behavior while also participating conducted on monozygotic and dizygotic twins, in successful sexual reproduction. The example scientists found a 52 percent likelihood that a of Bighorn sheep is a perfect example given by male homosexual monozygotic twin would have Roughgarden as a means of evidence in her counter homosexual twin brother. It was also found that argument against sexual selection. there to be a 22 percent likelihood that the dizygotic Bighorn sheep inhabit areas of the Rocky twin would have a homosexual brother (Bailey & Mountains, Montana and Canada. Males, which can Pillard 1991). Evidence concludes that although it weigh up to 300 pounds, associate with females only is likely that there are genetic influences on sexual in the breeding season, which extends from mid-fall to orientation, genetics cannot explain sexual orientation early winter. Other than in the breeding season, both as simplistic common inheritance (Murphy 1997). sexes remain exclusively separate. Almost all males Having not found a specified causal link between engage in homosexual courting and copulation. The genetics and homosexuality, the question arises then, males who do not participate in homosexual mating why do homosexual behaviors keep resurfacing, have been labeled by scientists as "effeminate". These regardless of heterosexual precursors? Many "effeminateu males do not live with the males, but developmental, social and clinical psychological with the females. These males refuse mounting by theories refute the idea that there is a direct genetic other males (Hogg 1984). In this case, the male sheep link between heredity and homosexuality. Rather, who do not exhibit homosexual behavior within their these psychological theories seek to identify the species are considered deviant. Such examples of various social and relationship roles, along with the species exhibiting homosexual behavior have become ideation of sexual orientation, in order to explain more prevalent as more research has been amassed. various motivating factors of homosexual behavior. A review of biological literature featured more than Several theories concerned with subconscious 100 mammalian species that exhibited homosexual drives and motives have been implemented in behavior (Bagemihl 1999). Roughgarden holds the psychology texts, many of them focusing on Freudian viewpoint that homosexuality is a variation within a views of sexual motivation. One of these views is that limitless range of genetic diversity and is not merely a of the "castration complex", which postulates that the deviation from heterosexual behavior, but is rather a males upon discovering that his mother has no penis, legitimate genetic variation. develops the subconscious fear of losing his own Having addressed the evolutionary theory penis, which in turn forces him to turn to other men behind sexual reproduction as well as some prevalent for "sex-with-safety." This view is still exists among behaviors discussed from ethological observation, devout followers of Freudian psychoanalysis; other we are now able to discuss the scientific research views range from infantile fixations to smothering conducted with homosexual humans and the mothers (Tripp 1975). implications of such research. In a study published A great deal of psychological literature regarding in 1993 by Simone LeVay, LeVay found a difference male homosexuality is concerned with the issue of in size of the interstitial nuclei of the anterior masculine identity. Joseph Nicolosi (1991) stressed hypothalamus, a part of the brain more commonly that the root of male homosexuality was caused by referred to as INAH. After dissecting the brains of the inability of the male to fully acquire a masculine homosexual and heterosexual men, and heterosexual identity. Nicolosi states that it is necessary for the women, LeVay found that one of the interstitial nuclei male to identify with the father, separate himself known as INAH 3 was, on average, two to three from the mother, and renounce his own feminine times larger in heterosexual men than in women. qualities in order to clearly identify as a male. He He also found that in gay men, INAH 3 was, on states that this is due to the primal affinity that is average, the same size as in the women.The findings 87 based in shared masculinity between father and son. or sexual identity. These terms are not rooted in Nicolosi identifies various factors contributing to the biological schemas, but are social terms used in lack of a masculine identity; these include a more identification and categorization. While biological rewarding relationship with the mother, the lack of science is concerned with genetics physiological a salient father, the absence of any father, and failure structures and mechanisms that may identify to encourage autonomy. As described by Nicolosi, causation, social science is concerned with the heterosexual orientation is a bi-product of masculine development of relationships and one's interpretation identification; homosexual orientation is due to the and identification with social standards and the roles lack of such identification. that those entail. While Nicolosi' s theory appears more valid In conclusion, the research regarding than other psychological theories there is still the homosexuality is far from concurring on any question of "what does a masculine identity entail?" definitive causal variable. It seems that the sciences Is it concerned with body size and type, relationships are divided on the root of causation- again Nature with other males or adequate interest and exhibition vs. Nurture. Both sides have presented theories in stereotypic male activities? How masculine does and conducted research; however, it seems that the one have to feel in order to develop a heterosexual biological sciences have shown more validity in their identity? Aside from this, there is the question experimental design and reduction of extraneous regarding the sequence in which masculine identity, variability. The most promising of all theories seems sexual identity, and behavior establish themselves. to be the redefining of sexual selection theory, as For instance, it is not clear if a child develops offered by Roughgarden. This would entail redefining an identity as a male from his father prior to the the theory of natural selection and its purpose to development of sexual urges, or whether the child "prune the gene pool of bad diversity", in exchange exhibits sexual urges prior to identification with the for a diversity-affirming view of evolution which father. In other words, does gender identity lead to functions to "maintain the biological rainbow, which sexual identity and further sexual behavior or is one conserves the species" (Roughgarden 2004). Should inclined to homosexuality prior to the development of this be accomplished, heterosexuality will have as gender identity and further sexual identity? much validity as homosexuality, and in need of just as These are questions that are difficult to answer or as little much explanation. due to the difficulty of testing gender identity

References

Bagemihl. (1999). Biological Exhuberance, pp. 269-476. Bailey, J. Michael & Richard C. Pillard. (1991). A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48: 1089-96. Baird, Robert M. & M. Katherine Baird (Edts). (1995). Homosexuality: Debating the Issues. NY, NY: Prometheus Books. Darwin, C.R. (1899). On the origin of species by means of natural selection (6th edition.). Akron, OH: Werner. Hogg, J.T. (1984). Mating in bighorn sheep: Multiple creative male strategi§, Science 225: 526-29. Krogh, David. (2005). Biology: A Guide to the Natural World (3rd edition.). NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. LeVay, Simon. (1993). The Sexual Brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Murphy, Timothy, F. (1997). Gay Science. NY: Columbia University Press. Nicolosi, Joseph. (1991). Reparative Therapy of Male Homosexuality: A clinical Approach. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc. Petri, Herbert L., Govern, John M. (2004). Motivation: Theory, Research, and Applications (5th edition.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth. Roughgarden, Joan. (2004). Evolution's Rainbow. Berkley and Los Angles: University of California Press. Tripp, C.A. (1975). The Homosexual Matrix. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

88 actions that they were led to by careful thought of The Greater Appeal of what is best for themselves and society at large. "Faith" is defined by Webster's as "(1) belief Jesus over Socrates and trust in and loyalty to G-d, (2) a firm belief in something for which there is no proof." Taking the by Timothy Fallis second definition first, what is the appeal to us of believing in something for which there is no proof? The historical figures of Jesus and Socrates are Why are we so comfortable basing our morality, similar in many respects. Both were charismatic our ethics, our entire world-view on something we speakers who dedicated their lives to teach others can't show to any challenger as easily as the fact that the wisdom they offered, but never themselves wrote water is wet? I believe there is one primary reason, down their ideas. Both had dedicated followers from which all others emanate; namely, that although and enjoyed wide fame in their own lifetimes, but there is no way to prove the existence of G-d or the eschewed payment or material comforts to the point legitimacy of the teachings we ascribe to It, there is of poverty. Both found themselves at odds with no way to disprove them either. Standing on faith, our powerful men representing the status quo, were beliefs are unassailable; any argument against them accused of sedition and speedily tried, and then based on reason ends with the statement "I take it on executed by the state. Faith" because it is a position outside the parameters In can be said that both men championed morality of reason. This creates appeal by way of comfort from and lofty principle, yet over the course of the last two at least two perspectives: one, there is emotional millennia Jesus has had a vastly greater following and security in not being attackable, and two, many of us impact on world culture. Christianity is a worldwide are the laziest of creatures and the reliance on faith phenomenon with over 2 billion adherents; just the requires no further effort of thought. Catholic branch taken by itself is the world's largest What precisely is Reason and what kind of appeal private land owner. There is no similar worldwide does it have? Webster's defines "Reason" as (l)c: a organization dedicated to the notions of Socrates; the sufficient ground of explanation or of logical defense; physical space given over to his study is little more especially: something that supports a conclusion or than the aggregate of the world's bookshelf inches explains a fact, and (2) : the power of comprehending, on which copies of Plato's Apology rests. Socrates inferring, or thinking especially in orderly rational lived his life centuries before the time of Jesus, so his ways. These definitions serve well to show the two ideas had plenty of time to take root in society before reasons why reason can be so exciting. One, the basis the competition of Jesus' appeal, but did not. Why, for our beliefs can be explained in clear, arguable then, is this so? What is the greater appeal of Jesus' ways that have foundations in the self-evident. ideas over Socrates'? Eliminating for the sake of this Two, this security in belief and justification comes argument the possibility of the direct influence of about internally from the power of our own minds, G-d in determining Jesus triumph of appeal, and requiring no outside force or influence. Reason offers the possibility of Jesus' own divinity, and restricting us the ability to prove what we believe and justify our ourselves only to what factors we humans can select actions entirely with what is accessible to everyone, of our own free will, what has attracted us so strongly and gives us the power to determine righteousness to one over the other? without aid of the supernatural but for ourselves. The I suggest that the question is one that has little appeal of reason is thus one of security in evident to do with anything particular to either of these two certainties, and the tremendous empowerment of men, but is rather a larger one of the attractiveness using naught but our own minds to ascertain it. of beliefs grounded in faith versus those grounded Both Faith and Reason are shown to satisfy the need in reason. Jesus asked his followers to live their lives for a basis of belief, and both have the quality of being as he suggested as an expression of their faith in G-d, able to relieve the practitioner of insecurity in the face and belief that He had rules which must be obeyed, of challenge. Why then is faith the historical winner in rules which coincidentally would benefit society. the struggle for people's hearts and minds? I believe it Socrates asked his followers to live their lives guided is precisely because the path to reason is a struggle, and by reason, cultivating attitudes and corresponding the path to faith is the one of least resistance. 89 Throughout the last two millennia, the condition their hegemony over those who were not equipped to of the vast majority of people has been one of poverty, understand anything else. As long as they maintained toil, and ignorance. As a percentage of population that the only answer for life being the way it was very few people were educated, and most spent could only be faith in God's Will, they precluded their lives in physical labor eking out survival by the any other possibility of question in the status quo. slimmest of margins. In the average lifespan of less It was not in the interest of the Powers That Be to than 40 years, very few people had the time to educate have a population engaging in rationalist thought themselves about rationalist thinking, and even fewer and eventually reasoning that the justification for the time to employ it. It was far easier, and quicker, their lot was not G-d'swill but the will of those who to satisfy their questions about why life is this or that ruled them. So, those privileged to have the time and way by accepting that life and its rules are handed education for employing reason preferred to exercise down from G-d and are therefore the only way their minds towards the furtherance of the doctrine that they can be. Reason takes time, it takes effort, of faith, in order to provide a body of evidence that and is greatly aided by discourse with other people supported their insistence that the common man exploring the same questions; these are luxuries that believe in it absolutely. the average person did not have. Answers based on In summary, the following of Jesus has been far faith, on the other hand, are quick to explain and greater than the following of Socrates because of require no training to understand. the easiness of relying on faith rather than reason to What then of the few who were educated, and explain life's mysteries. This has been true both for did have leisure time to consider such questions, and those of limited education and horizon who needed who wrote those documents we have from the years something simple and self-justifying to comfort since the time of Jesus? What excuse could they have their difficult lives, as well as those of broader for not following the courses of reason but instead thought whose primary goal, their greater view those of faith? I suggest it was because those to whom notwithstanding, was to maintain a system of thought we refer were the class of people that ruled all others, that kept the great masses in control so that the and they needed to support the doctrine of faith as privileged could stay privileged. the answer to life; s questions in order to maintain

90 Atkins & Bode! 1972, Gensini & Conti 2004). In fact, The Human Febrile Wylicky & Skopec (1983 cited Gensini & Conti 2004) stated that it was only in the mid-19th century that Response: the clinical thermometer began its slow and often resistive dissemination as a practical, appropriate, An Evolutionary and most importantly uniformly consistent measure of body temperature, which helped form the basis Enigma of our current definition of fever (Bennett & Nicastri 1960). Generally, though, there have been four by Jaclcwayne Fernandez main revolutionary concepts concerning the febrile response throughout the centuries: the Primitive, the The Significance of Fever: An Introduction Hippocratic Humours, the Pathological Residuals, From the earliest beginnings of civilization, and finally the Interleukin/Cytokine concepts the elaborate intricacies of human physiology have (Gensini & Conti 2004). captured the sheer fascination and imagination of Early understanding of fever had its roots in the innumerable generations. It is the ultimate universal realm of the supernatural, where excess body heat quest to catalogue and define the human mind and illness was supposedly a result of a curse or a and body, the perennial urge to understand every physical manifestation of the wrath of some higher dimension of biological life. The phenomenon of being (Angelleti 1997 cited Gensini & Conti 2004). extended and elevated body temperature due to Beginning in the 4th century B.C., the "Father of pathogenic invasion-known as the febrile response­ Medicine" (Penfield 1978) Hippocrates hypothesized has proven especially difficult to understand in all its his theory of the imbalance of body humours-that dimensions, especially in the context of evolutionary fever, or any illness afflicting the mind and body­ biology. In this light, the origin, evolution, and was directly due to the imbalances among the functions of the febrile response in humans have body humours of blood, black bile, yellow bile, and presented an enigma for which there is no singular phlegm (Karsey 1998). Accepted unconditionally, solution (Kluger et al. 1975). Why do humans exhibit with little effort or expectation of objective evidence, this response? What is its precise function? From this theory underwent only few changes in detail whom or what did it originate? Why did selection under the Greek physician Galen, and remained conserve this mechanism throughout the evolutionary the unquestioned authority until well after the 16th lineages? century (Gensini & Conti 2004). From an evolutionary perspective, it is It was not until the 1840s that the relationship hypothesized that natural selection has favored the between infection and fever was discovered, lending evolution of the febrile response due to its value as a credence to the importance of hygiene. In his work nonspecific host defense against pathogenic invasion, with pregnant women in delivery wards, Ignaz and thus as a mechanism of increasing host fitness. Semmelweiss deduced the concept of Pathological The concept of fever has therefore been focused as not Residuals, the belief that "residuals" were transmitted a disease in itself, but rather a symptom of disease; from an affected person to an unaffected person, as not caused by pathogens, but actually a bodily causing the same effects in new hosts (Gensini & reaction to them; and as not a trivial side effect of Conti 2004). These "residuals" most closely referred host biochemical processes, but as an evolutionarily to pathogens. It thus formed the links among derived trait shaped by selection pressures. doctors performing post-mortem examinations on dead patients, the same doctors delivering babies, Fever. Past and Present: The History of Febrile the subsequent fever and eventual deaths of the Understanding women and newborns, and the lack of effective The precise biological mechanisms and handwashing/disinfection techniques (Wylicky & reaction pathways that trigger a fever are yet to be Skopec 1983 cited Gensini & Conti 2004). It was, in fully understood, as only recently have scientific effect, the discovery of fever's indicating pathological advancements been applied to this ancient body infection. symptom (Kluger 1981, Bennett & Nicastri 1960,

91 Pathways and Processes: A Biochemical Perspective the febrile response is an evolutionarily derived trait It is now known that a plethora of pathways shaped by selection pressures-has become clearer and processes are involved in the febrile response. and more conclusive in recent years, but there are still Specifically, scientific opinion on the role of cytokines many gaps. However, the current body of knowledge has evolved considerably, and presently assumes a recognizes three points that lend credence to fever's central role. As an aside, it is important to note that suspected phylogenetic origin. the febrile pathway is often coupled or absorbed Point 1: Fever speeds and assists recovery from infection, into the larger and more characterized acute phase and thus increases host fitness. This is accomplished response/nonspecific immunological response, of by stunting pathogenic growth and funneling energy/ which fever is a part (Roth & Souza 2001, Kendall resources. 1998). The most obvious effect is the seemingly Matthew Kluger (1979) speculated that there was unbearable and uncomfortable heat. From a normal some type of activating agent released by pathogens body temperature of 98.6 'F /3TC to levels reaching that reacted with the body, and it was this reaction upwards of 102-103'F/39°C, common personal that triggered the febrile pathway. The activating experience is all that is necessary to comprehend the agent is now known to be a variety of exogenous all-too familiar feeling of heat radiating out, not to pyrogens, including bacterial toxins, protein mention the terrible effects of headache and body complexes, and the lipopolysaccharide layer of Gram­ aches that often accompany it. This heat, though, negative bacteria, which are released by the invading may very well be an important activity of the febrile pathogens (Kluger 1991). These agents are recognized response. by the host's macrophages, leukocytes, and other First of all, the higher temperatures greatly immune-function phagocytes (Kluger 1979, Jansky reduce the growth rates and numbers of pathogens. et al. 1995). These cells respond by phagocytizing the In a study determining the influence of temperature substances as well as releasing endogenous cytokine­ on the growth rates of common bacterial pathogens, pyrogen proteins, the most important of which Zwietering et al. (1991) concluded that the optimal are tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-a] (Kluger growth rates of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus 1991), interleukin-113 [IL-113] (Jansky et al. 1995), pyogenes, and Escherichia coli occur at a temperature interleukin-6 [IL-6] (LeMay et al. 1990), and others range of 35-3TC. Even more compelling, their such as interleukin-8 and macrophage inflammatory growth rates drop dramatically thereafter. Normal protein (Vanzee et al. 1991). Functionally similar human body temperature ranges near 37°C, while pyrogens are released in cases of invasion by Gram­ fevers usually range upwards of 37.3-39.8 °C, which positive bacteria, viruses and viral compounds, and is precisely the temperature range that inhibits the fungal components, but supplementary proteins growth of the common opportunistic pathogens, are evoked to recognize specialized pathogenic according to Dr. Kim Chi Nguyen, Kaiser Permanente proteins and components including superantigens, Hawaii (interviewed 04 April 2006). peptidoglycans, and muramyldipeptides (Roth & In addition, the higher temperatures have Souza 2001). been shown to denature pathogenic proteins and Increasing blood concentrations of interleukin- inactivate their toxins. For example, Dr. Kenneth 6-which, according to Roth and Souza (2001), may Toder (2005) explained that surface proteins of the turn out to be the single most important protein common but opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus involved in evoking the febrile response-----travel aureus, including fibronectin- and fibrinogen-binders, via the bloodstream to the brain and specifically to and specialized adhesions, can be denatured by the hypothalamus. The precise mechanism of how heat's action of disrupting the structural hydrogen these large, hydrophilic proteins pass through the and disulfide bonds. He further explained that blood-brain barrier remains largely unclear, but the febrile response temporarily induces protein it is clear that IL-6 and others trigger a rise in the misconformation and renders the pathogenic thermoregulatory set point (Kluger 1979). The body substances functionless at least until the adaptive responds and begins raising its temperature to match defense mechanisms can reach the sites of infection. the set point, resulting in an extended period of The other major activity of the febrile response elevated body temperature: the febrile response. is its funneling of energy and resources. As part of the inflammatory response, temperature elevation Evolving Through the Lineages: The Phylogeny of stimulates the release of histamines from mast cells Fever and basophils that cause vessels to vasodilate. The Evidence for the phylogeny of fever-that is, that increased blood flow, like the swelling of a river, 92 allows quicker and more efficient transport of blood pathogens have the ability to compromise the components of the nonspecific immune response: hosts in varying levels of intensity, (3) among their phagocytic macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, responses to infection is the exhibition of fever and immunological NK cells (Roth & Souza 2001). either physiologically or behaviorally, or at least the Thus, recovery from infection increases and speeds mobilization of an innate immune response, and (4) up. An important implication of the increased the fever can be attenuated similarly with similar body temperature is heat's role as a catalyst for antipyretic substances (Mackowiak 1994, Bernheim immunological reactions. A febrile temperature & ](luger 1976, ](luger 2002, Amaral et al. 2002, increase of 1 ·c actually increases the body's Reynolds et al. 1976, Vaughn et al. 1974). metabolism by 10-20% in what is called the QlO Effect Bernheim and Kluger (1976) evaluated the roles (Roth & Souza 2001, LeMay et al. 1990, Kluger 2002). and responses of the febrile mechanisms among the In addition, fever stimulates the release of vertebrate classes, theorizing that the function of fever leukocyte-endogenous mediator proteins into the among reptiles, birds, and mammals had a common bloodstream and digestive tract (ICluger 2002). origin. Amaral (2002) concluded in his study with the These proteins slow the iron absorption from the box turtle Terrapene carolina that these animals, being digestive tract, and also move free blood iron into the most ancient of the amniotes to diverge from the storage deposits (](luger 2002). The decrease in lineage giving rise to other reptiles and birds, also iron, stimulated by the febrile mechanism, severely exhibit a febrile response. retards bacterial growth since iron is required for Additionally, Reynolds et al. (1976) concluded the cytochrome and electron-shuffling components that teleost fishes exhibit a febrile response-although of bacterial metabolism (](luger 2002, Kendall 1998). a behavioral one-and speculated that the first Yet another substance is stimulated during febrile manifestation of fever occurred behaviorally in the responses-melatonin-which induces the feeling earliest forms of vertebrate marine life, and that the of sleepiness, according to Pharmacist Dennis Niimi physiological manifestation of fever evolved from, (interviewed 05 April 2006). This is another method and in supplement to, the behavioral counterpart. of diverting energy and resources to fighting the Point 3. The febrile response, in the context of general infection quickly and appropriately. immunological mechanisms, appears to have increased in Point 2: The febrile mechanism is found in most classes complexity as the forms of life also evolved. This suggests of vertebrates, suggesting that it has been conserved that natural selection has actively shaped these mechanisms phylogenetically. consistent with increasing fitness. The mechanism of the febrile response has Let us recall that an important assumption in been confirmed in five of the seven extant classes/ phylogenetic reconstruction under cladogenesis was groups of classes of vertebrates (](luger 1979, the idea of bifurcation. One implication of bifurcation Florida Museum of Natural History 2004). While is that there is an implied expectation of organisms to differences in proteins and other aspects are apparent, evolve forward towards increased complexity. While the increasing body of literature overwhelmingly there are definite exceptions to this assumption such points out the suspected phylogenetic origin of this as snakes (no legs) evolving from mainstream lizards immunological response among vertebrate classes. (with legs), the evolution of the febrile response in For purposes of this paper, the representatives of the context of the immunological mechanism shows a each vertebrate class/group of classes are: hagfish­ definite trend towards increasing complexity. lampreys (classes Myxini and Cephalaspidomorphi) The most primitive of the vertebrates, the present­ (Beckman 2005); wobbegong sharks Orectolobus day lampreys and hagfishes, diverged from the later maculates (class Chondrichthyes) (Florida Museum vertebrate groups at an estimated 500-480 million years of Natural History 2004); bluegill sunfish Lepomis ago (University of California Museum of Paleontology macrochirus and largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides 2006). Being the most evolutionarily distant, they (teleost fish classes) (Reynolds et al. 1976); amphibian exhibit primarily an innate form of immunity (that is, frog Rana esculenta (class Amphibia) (Kluger 1979); the organisms mount a singular defense regardless of desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis (class Reptilia) the type or species of the pathogen) however, recent (](luger et al. 1975, Vaugh et al. 1974); chickens and studies have suggested that they employ some degree pigeons (class Aves) (](luger 1979); and modern-day of adaptive immunity (Beckman 2005). Whether this humans Homo sapiens (class Mammalia). form of adaptive immunity derived evolutionarily Manipulation experiments and studies on from an ancient ancestor, or just recently and these representatives have shown that (1) they independently evolved within the lamprey/hagfish are susceptible to infectious pathogens, (2) these lineage, is still up for debate (Vaughn et al. 1974,

93 Beckman 2005), but it is clear that they do not exhibit a pyrogens/cytokines/interleukin proteins is roughly febrile response (Kluger 1979). catalogued, but much is still unknown. Of prime Diverging approximately 460-440 million years significance is what appears to be the evolution of a ago, the sharks and other cartilaginous fish have second means of access to the hypothalamus by the prominent mechanisms of innate as well as adaptive endogenous pyrogens, a supplementary mechanism immunity (University of California Museum of that was first found in humans (Roth & Souza Paleontology 2006, Florida Museum of Natural 2001). Up until the mammals, in representatives in History 2004). Initial studies have suggested the which cytokines/pyrogens play a central role in possible capability of some sharks exhibiting a thermoregulatory resetting such as birds and reptiles, behavioral fever-physically moving to higher­ the primary pathway for cytokine transport from temperature environments to reap the advantages cells to the brain/hypothalamus is the bloodstream of physiologically-induced fever-in response to (Roth & Souza 2001). However, humans appear to infection (Florida Museum of Natural History 2004). have evolved a nerve-mediated pathway, whereby Bony fishes diverged around 440-400 million the vagus nerve serves as another means for the years ago, while amphibians diverged around hypothalamus to trigger therrnoregulatory reset 360-340 million years ago (University of California (Roth & Souza 2001). It is theorized that during Museum of Paleontology 2006). In these groups, pathogenic invasion, the body's cells rapidly activate representatives have distinct mechanisms of innate this complementary system, which causes massive and adaptive immunity, along with behavioral means release of cytokines and other mediators that travel of inducing fever (Reynolds 1976). It is still unknown to the hypothalamus via the bloodstream as well as if endogenous pyrogens/cytokines play any role in via neurological impulses through the vagus nerve; the thermoregulatory reset in these classes (!

94 Table A. Summa1y oflmmune Characteristics ofReoresentatives of Vertebrate Classes Verte- Myxini, Chond- Teleost Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia brate Cephala- richthyes Fishes Classes spidomorphi Organism Lampreys, Sharks Bony Frogs Iguanas, Pigeons, Humans Hagfish Fishes Turtles Chickens Immunity Innate, Innate, Innate, Innate, Innate, Innate, Innate, Primitve Adaptive Adaptive Adaptive Adaptive Adaptive Adaptive Adaotive Febrile None Suspected Behavioral Behavioral Behavioral, Physio- Physiological Response Behavioral Some logical, Phvsiolo!!ical Behavioral Endog. None Unknown Unknown Unknown Yes Yes Yes Pvrogen? Pyrogcn None Suspected Unknown Bloodstream Bloodstream Bloodstream Bloodstream, Pathway bloodstream Vagus nerve Putting it All Together: Evaluating the Origin of the Febrile cannot now, and, by virtue of its nature, may never be Response pinpointed exactly. The assumptions of phylogenetic Based on the information presented in this reconstruction, and especially of bifurcation, paper, I suspect that today's human febrile response­ always remain as a possible culprit in complicating -which is a vital component of the human immune our understanding of the febrile response. Just as response and is crucial to survival to reproductive Vaughn et al. (1974) cautioned, "We cannot rule out age--originated in the vertebrate class sometime after the possibility that fever might have independently jawless fish diverged, but before cartilaginous fish and perhaps recently evolved in [the vertebrate diverged. Interestingly, this suspicion has been set lineages including] reptiles and mammals." Perhaps forth by many field experts. As Vaughn et al. (1974) convergent evolution was at work here; the febrile suggested, "At least the behavioural component of response may have arisen independently in the fever had evolved by the late Palaeozoic or early lineages not through modification in a common Mesozoic, or perhaps even earlier." Kluger (1979) also ancestor, but because of their function in terms of the concluded that "It is probable that primitive bony environment. fishes, some 400 million years ago, began responding It is therefore clearly evident that the aspects to bacterial infection by developing a fever." of the febrile mechanism are, as stated before, an According to Reynolds et al. (1976), the febrile origin enigma for which there is no singular solution (Kluger may have evolved "even before the evolution of a et al. 1975). As Herculean as the talk of explaining terrestrial mode of life." This yields the hypothesis the febrile response may be, making no attempt that, approximately 500-440 million years ago, the to elucidate them at all would be an irresponsible common ancestor to today's sharks evolved the disservice to the scientific community and to all of febrile mechanism in response to pathogenic invasion. humanity, as well as an embodiment of a casual Furthermore, its value as an immune defense and as disregard for the spectacular workings of evolution. a means of survival allowed this trait to be conserved Consistent with those timeless questions for which we phylogenetically throughout the lineages thereafter, can only speculate the answers, our current body of appearing in representatives of cartilaginous fish, knowledge of this temperature-elevating mechanism teleost fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. captures only a glimpse of the essence of its truth. However, the exact origin of the febrile response References

AMARAL, J.P., MARVIN, G.A., HUTCHISON, V.H., 2002. Influence of Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide on the Thermoregulation of the Box Turtle Terrapene carolina. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 75(3), 273-282. ATKINS, E., BODEL, P., 1972. Physiology in Medicine: Fever. New England Journal of Medicine, 286, 27-28. BECKMAN, M., 2005. Jawless Fish Have Form of Adaptive Immunity. Science, 310(5756), 1892-1893. BENNETT, LL., NICASTRI, A., 1960. Fever as a Mechanism of Resistance. Bacteriological Reviews, 24, 16-34. BERNHEIM, H.A., KLUGER, M.J., 1976. Fever: Effect of Drug-Induced Antipyresis on Survival. Science, 193, 237-239.

95 FLORIDA MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, 2004. Antibodies Produced in Shark Immune Systems Could be Used to Detect Human Pathogens [online]. Gainesville, University of Florida Department of Ichthyology. Available from: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/innews/antibodies2004.html [Accessed 15 April 2006]. GENSINI, G.F., CONTI, A.A., 2004. The Evolution of the Concept of 'Fever' in the History of Medicine: from Pathological Picture per se to Clinical Epiphenomenon (and vice versa). Journal of Infection, 49(2), 85-87. JANSKY, L., VYBRIAL, S., POSPISILOWA, D., 1995. Production of Systemic and Hypothalamic Cytokines During the Early Phase of the Endotoxin Fever. Neuroendocrinology, 62, 55-61. KARSEY, D., 1998. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis. KENDALL, M.K., 1998. Dying to Live. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University. KLUGER, M.J., 1979. Phylogeny of Fever. Federation Proceedings, 38, 30-34. KLUGER, M.J., 1981. The Function of Fever. La Recherche, 12, 688-696. KLUGER, M.J., 1991. Fever: the Role of Pyrogens and Cryogens. Physiological Reviews, 71, 93-127. KLUGER, M.J., 2002. Fever in Acute Disease-Beneficial or Harmful? Wien !Gin Wochenschr Middle European journal of Medicine, 114(3), 73-75. KLUGER, M.J., RINGLER, D.H., ANVER, M.R., 1975. Fever and Survival. Science, 188, 167-168. LAURIN, M., 2006. Terrestrial Vertebrates: Stegocephalians: Tetrapods and other Digit-Bearing Vertebrates [online]. (Version 17Jan2006). Available from: http://tolweb.org/Terrestrial_ Vertebrates/14952/2006.01.17 [Accessed 14 April 2006]. In Tree of Life Web Project http://tolweb.org. LEMAY, L.G., KLUGER, M.J., V ANDER, A.J., 1990. The Role of Interleukin-6 in Fever in the Rat. American journal of Physiology, 258, R798-R803. MACKOWIAK, P.A., 1994. Fever-Blessing or Curse? A Unifying Hypothesis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 120(12), 1037-1040. MEHTA, L.H., 2005. Is Aging Truly Inevitable? An Overview of the Fourth Stromboli Conference. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1057, xiii. PENFIELD, W., 1978. The Mystery of the Mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University. REYNOLDS, W.W., CASTERLIN, M.E., COVERT, J.B., 1976. Behavioural Fever in Teleost Fishes. Nature, 259, 41. ROTH, J., SOUZA, G.E.P., 2001. Fever Induction Pathways: Evidence from Responses to Systemic or Local Cytokine Formation. Brazilian Touma! of Medical and Biological Research, 34, 301-314. TODAR, K., 2005. Staphylococcus aureus [online]. Madison, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Available from: http://www.textboolwfbacteriology.net/staph.html [Accessed 14 April 2006]. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MUSEUM OF PALEONTOLOGY, 2006. Adding Time [online]. Berkeley, University of California Department of Paleontology. Available from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/ evo101/IIEAddingtime.shtml [Accessed 15 April 2006]. VANZEE, K.J., DEFONCE, L.E., FISCHER, E., MARANO, M.A., KENNEY, J.S., REMICK, D.G., LOWRY, S.F., MOLDAWER, L.L., 1991. Interleukin-8 in Septic Shock, Endotoxaemia, and After Interleukin-1 Administration. journal of Immunology, 146, 3478-3481. VAUGHN, L.K., BERNHEIM, H.A., KLUGER, M.J., 1974. Fever in the Lizard Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Nature, 252, 473-474. ZWIETERING, M.H., KOOS, J.T., HASENACK, B.E., WIT, J.C., RIET, K.V., 1991. Modeling of Bacterial Growth as a Function of Temperature. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57(4), 1094-1101.

96 throughout his life, even though the relationships The Role of the could be argued to be lacking in true intimacy. The relationship between Dupin and the narrator could Characters of Dupin alternately be argued to be a bit more intimate in "Murders in the Rue Morgue/' since they are and Frankenstein described as living together, walking around with 11 linked arms at night, and Dupin is able to read the in Murders in the narrator's thoughts by observing his actions. Church states in his essay, '"'To Make Venus Vanishu: Rue Morgue" and Misogny as Motive in Poe's "Murders in the Rue Morgue,"" that he considers this ability of Dupin to Frankenstein read thoughts symbolic of the narrator being placed in the "passive/receptive position," since he cannot by Tara Anderson do the same to Dupin (416-417). This relationship is set apart from many others in the community, but Edgar Allen Poe's "Murders in the Rue Morgue" when the two men find out about the murders, they and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein both present intentionally come in contact with other men, like characters that disassociate from and depersonalize the sailor. They justify this as necessary to solve the women. These characters are Victor Frankenstein mystery of the murders and prove the innocence of of Frankenstein and Monsieur C. Auguste Dupin Dupin's friend in the eyes of the authorities. of "Murders in the Rue Morgue." ·Dupin does this The only women mentioned in "Murders in the when he views the murders of the two L'Espanaye Rue Morgue," the L'Espanayes and Pauline Dubourg women as simply a puzzle for him (and the un­ the laundress, are not contacted by Dupin and the named character who narrates the story) to solve. narrator. The L'Espanayes are not spoken to for the The only moral attachment he ever indicates in obvious reasons of being dead, but they did not make his involvement with the murders is related to his (nor have) an excuse for not speaking to Dubourg, a friend, Adolphe Le Bon (a clerk), being accused of woman who is a witness to the murders. Therefore, the crime (Poe 39 & 41-42). Frankenstein continues Dupin and the narrator intentionally set themselves this pattern of disassociation and depersonalization apart from these women, by choosing to not include of women, from his being totally self-absorbed in his them in their lives. obsession with building the monster and then with Dubourg distinctly becomes alienated from his own wretchedness at succeeding, which he does the two main characters because they choose to nothing about (Shelley 29-67 & 103-145). Therefore, not identify her as a person despite her stated this results in him ignoring and disrespecting the connection to the murders by the press. Unlike women in his life. Dupin and Frankenstein willingly the many men who are stated as being witnesses, choose to limit their personal connection with women, complete with a country of origin and discussed by therefore enabling themselves to not develop personal Dupin as the people who heard the two perpetrators, connections to, and respect for, the women in the and the screaming of the L'Espanayes, Dubourg is stories. This limiting of their connection to the women not discussed by Dupin as an important testifier becomes a convenient device for regarding these of information even though her information is women as other than people. still discussed (Poe 48). This is demonstrated The two stories start out from the viewpoint of by statements by Dupin: "The witnesses, as you a man seeking and gaining the companionship of remark, agreed about the gruff voice; they were here another man. These men, the narrator in "Murders in unanimous. But in regard to the shrill voice, the the Rue Morgue" and Robert Walton in Frankenstein, peculiarity is not that they disagreed but that, while become companions with the main characters (Dupin an Italian, an Englishman, a Spaniard, a Hollander, and Dr. Frankenstein) in each of the respective stories. and a Frenchman attempted to describe it, each one These "couples" together establish relationships spoke of it as that of a foreigner." (Poe 44). This is outside of the presence of women. Dr. Frankenstein, opposed to his un-attributed comment: "Madame actually, makes many homo-social relationships L'Espanaye and her daughter lived an exceedingly 97 retired life-saw no company-seldom went out-had relates to the previously mentioned mind reading little use for numerous changes of habiliment" which abilities of Dupin, since it gives more evidence of contained information that had been mentioned in Dupin being a "powerful man," to the point of being the newspaper, in the story, as having been stated by "lethal" (Church 416-417). According to Church Dubourg (Poe 48). It is interesting to note the use of this idea becomes particularly true, because of the the distinctly gender-related terms of Englishman and wording of Dupin's attention as not only being very Frenchman by Dupin (Poe 37-48). engrossed in the newspaper article, but "arrested." Dr. Frankenstein's contact with women is The relation created by Church to Dupin's skills at presented as limited to the female members of his reading thoughts is that the narrator's placement in family, but he makes the effort to do this only at the "passive/receptive position," stated by Church to the insistence of his father and/or when he feels be "womanly", is then reversed by his identification that it will free him from the stress and appearance with Dupin (416-417). When Dupin's discussion of the monster. These actions could be interpreted resumes, it appears initially to challenge the skills of as being selfish when he is using the presence of the Parisian police, in which he claims to have better women, namely Elizabeth his cousin, as a comfort gifts at analysis (Poe 41-42, 56). Church states that this for his "miseries.u These "miseries" are those of the challenge of analytical skills is aimed at making fun of wretchedness he felt at creating the monster and the the masculinity of the Prefect of Police, in particular, monster's enacting revenge on him for not giving the as evidenced by his final comments explaining how monster attention and for abhorring this creation. he (Dupin) solved the mystery rather than the Prefect There is only one instance when Dr. Frankenstein (410). The statement Dupin makes to imply this makes contact with a woman at the insistence of is: "I am satisfied with having defeated him in his another woman. This is when Elizabeth asks him to own castle....our friend the Prefect is somewhat too accompany her on her visit to Justine, their mutual cunning to be profound" (Poe 56). Dupin implies that family friend, after Justine is officially charged with this man is symbolically castrated, which is connected the murder of Dr. Frankenstein's brother, William. to Freudian criticism (Church 410). The ending He can be interpreted as selfish even in this instance, comments of Dupin are, in my opinion, more proof when Frankenstein states: "Dear, sweet Elizabeth, that he views solving the mystery of the murders as a do not weep. You ought to raise me with thoughts sort of game, as first implied with the reference to the of a better life, and elevate me from the petty cares use of certain types of intelligence in chess and card of this world of injustice and strife" (Shelley 56). games (Poe 30-32). All these examples demonstrate His marriage to Elizabeth only comes about due to the ability of Dupin and the narrator to solve a the impatience of his father and after his father's murder mystery without having any sort of emotional acceptance of a delay in the nuptials so that Dr. or moral attachment to it. Frankenstien can travel first. Of course, Frankenstein This attitude by Dupin of not appearing to care claims that this reluctance for, and wish to delay, about the women themselves as people who have marriage has to do with his inability to feel happiness not only been robbed of life, but murdered in a very because of his guilt over the monster's insistence on brutal fashion, continues to be exemplified in Dupin's the creation of a mate. It is hard to believe that this viewing the sailor as completely free of any charges is the complete truth from Frankenstein, because (Poe 53-54). In the imaginary circumstance of this his narration prior to this and after this claim is case being real and tried in a modern court, it seems unreliable (Shelley 42-44, 55-56, & 103-105). All these likely that the sailor would be convicted of second men purposely set themselves apart from women degree murder, since he could not control his animal, through their decisions in the story, in order to not the orangutan, and did not make that great an effort contact them and therefore to deliberately disassociate to stop the murders. For instance, the neighbors themselves from them. were not warned until they heard the screams of the "Murders in the Rue Morgue/' depersonalizes women, an action far too late to save them. Church women in its writing, first when Dupin and narrator states that the importance of these screams is in the read about the murder of the L'Espanaye women in contrast of the sounds to Dupin and the narrator's the newspaper. Dupin lacks any sort of emotional abilities to discuss subjects, including the murders, in response and he does not discuss what he read with a logical fashion. This positions them in the story as the narrator until he reads that his friend, Le Bon, has superior to these women, a reversal of the woman's been arrested for the murders. It appears the women intellectual prowess demonstrated before the attack of become nothing more than murder victims, to Dupin the orangutan. (Church 411). Therefore, this situation and the narrator, in a case involving Le Bon. This is in opposition to reality, leading to the implication

98 that there must be some sort of deeper meaning The depersonalization of women in Frankenstein behind the way the murder investigation is carried is not as direct as it is in "Murders in the Rue out. Morgue." This is mostly due to the fact that Dr. The sailor gets away with the murders, even Frankenstein has connections with women, but though the orangutan has been proven to be he presents a pleasant facade toward them that dangerous, due his murdering of the two women. undermines his true feelings. Throughout the book The original story, in fact, states that the sailor already both his father and Elizabeth ask if he is truly still knew that the orangutan was violent when he brought committed to Elizabeth enough to marry her, because him aboard the ship, yet Dupin vouches for the they can tell that he is preoccupied with something. sailor's innocence (Poe 54 & 56). Dupin claims this is The obvious answer is just what Frankenstein claims only a ruse used to get information out of the sailor. to the reader, that the monster and the monster's Dupin's true motives for obtaining this information demands, and deaths of Frankenstein's loved ones appear to be mostly for personal knowledge, public due to the monster's revenge on Frankenstein, are knowledge, or posterity, rather than for the victim's constantly on his mind (Shelley 103-105). This then families or to free Le Bon. These motives appear to can be interpreted as him being disrespectful to the come from Dupin's sympathizing with the sailor, women in his life, due to his inability to tell them the even though he mentions some partial guilt, when he truth and therefore establish emotional intimacy with states to the sailor: them. I suppose you have called about the Ourang­ The clearest example of Frankenstein's Outang. Upon my word, I almost envy you the depersonalization of women is when the monster possession of him; a remarkably fine, no doubt a very valuable animal. I perfectly well know gives Frankenstein this proposal: that in return for that you are innocent of the atrocities in the Rue building him a male he would leave him and the rest Morgue. It will not due, however, to deny that you of the world alone (Shelley 97-100). Frankenstein's are in some measure implicated in them. Now the response, after he completes the structure of the thing stands thus. You have done nothing which female monster's body, is to rip it apart (Shelley 115). you could have avoided-nothing, certainly, which This is an act of defiance by Frankenstein to both the renders you culpable. You were not even guilty of robbery, when you might have robbed with original monster and nascent female monster, which impunity (Poe 53). he claims has to do with stopping the two monsters Church states that the sympathy Poe evokes in having sex that would then create more monsters. the character of Dupin is actually to the point where He does not think about any of this when creating Dupin directly wishes he were in the sailor's and the male monster, so it could be thought that he the orangutan's place (414-415). The sequence of destroyed and therefore depersonalized the female's events then ends with no one getting blamed for the body due to his inherent hatred of women and or, murders; the orangutan can't be deemed responsible most obviously, the female body's easier association because he is only acting within his normal nature, with sex and progeny connected to pregnancy and the sailor claimed to not be able do anything to stop birth. Frankenstein holds the ultimate choice in the murders, and Le Bon was found to be completely this matter, as opposed to the female monster who innocent. Also, the sailor is able to get the money remained inanimate. This allows Frankenstein to he was originally attempting to gain by bringing keep his power over her destiny and in the process the orangutan to France. Therefore, Dupin and the depersonalizes her, since he does not allow her a narrator's actions lead to the lack of a true resolution chance to form her own identity. Just as Dupin for the murder. depersonalizes women by seeing them only as dead Church does not deny this sequence of events bodies to be analyzed, Frankenstein sees a woman's as having to do with the blatant disregard for the body as something to rip apart; because he has not situation of the women, but he also goes further in yet given it life, so he holds the prerogative to take it stating that this represents misogyny; this is his thesis. away (Shelley 114-116). He also states that this misogyny is symbolic of men The works 11Murders in the Rue Morgue" and forcing women to stay in their place because Dupin Frankenstein present male-female relations as based is presented as jealous of the L'Espyanae' s greater on whether or not the characters are capable of monetary income (Church 409-411). Other portions of connecting with women on a more personal level. It this theory of misogyny as motive for why the women is almost as if inequality is justified in the minds of had to die are not so clear in their relation Dupin's the characters by the fact that they feel no connection possible jealousy of them, because in all other aspects to these women, and so they cannot respect them as Dupin appears to be their superior. people, which are self-imposed actions. The choice is 99 taken from the women to establish these connections, the male characters choice of separation is debateable, though, so the freedom of personhood is also taken but it creates a good excuse in their minds for away from them. The underlying reasoning behind considering the female characters as less than human. Works Cited

Church, Joseph. ""To Make Venus Vanish": Misogny as Motive in Poe's"Murders in the Rue Morgue."" Rhode Island: ATQ. 407- 418. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Norton Critical ed. New York: W.W. Norton. &Company, 1996. Poe, Edgar Allen. "Murders in the Rue Morgue." Stanley Appelbaum ed. The Gold Bug And Other Tales. Dover Thrift ed. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.

100 In response to the income tax loads, Hawaii To Be Or Not To Be: legislature is working to relieve those at the poverty level. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Tax-free? continues to say that leading state legislators and the governor have introduced proposals that would by Kehau A. Hagiwara substantially increase income tax thresholds and reduce state income taxes paid by low-income Benjamin Franklin once said, "In this world families. According to the Center's analysis, both the nothing is certain but death and taxes." This has so governor's proposal and a proposed state Earned far proven true. As a human race, we have learned to Income Tax Credit (EITC) would be sufficient to cope with death; for many, religion provides solace move Hawaii's thresholds above the poverty line, and for this type of "certainty." However, religion cannot guarantee tax refunds to families at the poverty line. resolve the agony of taxation. A tax is defined as a A proposal to increase the standard deduction would sum of money demanded by a government for the also increase thresholds substantially but would leave support of specific facilities or services, levied upon thresholds somewhat below the poverty line and incomes, property, sales, etc. Hawaii is, unfortunately lower than those in the majority of other states. (State for residents, one of the highest taxed states in the Income Tax, 2006). The Center outlines proposals to nation. increase the standard deduction and a proposed state Personal income taxes are particularly EITC. The article also recognizes the government's burdensome here. In fact, when one compares the concern with the income tax problem in Hawaii. average four-person family budget on Oahu to urban There are steps being taken to lessen the burden of U.S. averages, it is the tax category here that out strips income taxes on residents. the Mainland by far. Total personal income taxes A general excise tax Hawaii has is levied on were almost 62 percent higher in Hawaii than in the most goods in Hawaii. Governor Linda Lingle Mainland in 1981; by 1990 that had risen to 76 percent recently proposed to exclude basic food items from higher (Laney, 1992). In reaction to the extreme the state's 4 percent general excise tax (Niesse, burden, the Hawaiian population is demanding some 2007). As part of her plan, Lingle proposed to make sort of relief. In regards to income taxes, Governor foods like mill<, eggs, juice, tuna, and infant formula Lingle's legislation has proposed bills SB 1495, HB tax exempt. The foods were derived from a list of 1407, and HB 1408. SB 1495 proposes an additional federal recommendations for qualifying foods under exemption from tax for those families with children the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for under eighteen. HB 1407 allows for the increase of Women, Infants and Children. State Tax Director standard tax deductible amounts. Finally, HB 1408 Kurt Kawafuchi explained the Governor's motives. provides for an index to the standard deduction, He said, the governor believes that people should not personal deductions and bracket amounts for inflation have to pay a tax to eat, and it encourages people to (L. Lingle, personal communication, February 28, eat more healthily (Niesse, 2007). This decrease in tax 2007). is one way of helping struggling families to cope by Income tax is a major problem in the islands. decreasing taxes (L. Lingle, personal communication, Hawaii has the second highest rates in the nation. February 28, 2007). SB 1496's opposition argues that According to The Center on Budget and Policy taxes will need to go up in other areas. Priorities article, State Income Taxes Pushing Hawaii's Also, not only local peoples would benefit Working-Poor Families Deeper into Poverty, a two­ from this tax exemption. Governor Lingle (personal income family of four in Hawaii with income at the communication, February 28, 2007) retains that while federal poverty line of $19,961 owes $470 in state tourists may benefit from the tax-free foods as well, income taxes for 2005. A single-parent family of three they are not expected to save a substantial amount in Hawaii with income at the federal poverty line because of the types of foods that are exempt. Gov. of $15,577 owes $373 (State Income Tax, 2006). This Lingle recognizes the projected revenue loss of $40 shows just how much families in poverty are being million per year after the first year, but she has not taxed. The large income to taxation ratio may lead to proposed any tax increases in other areas and she tax cuts for low-income families. believes that revenues from other sources will offset 101 the $40 million (personal communication, February Mayor, proposed three things: "1) to increase 28). While this idea is a good start, it is debatable the homeowner's exemption by 20 percent; 2) to whether it is a large enough solution to Hawaii's tax limit increases in assessed valuations to no more woes. than 3 percent a year; 3) to allow homeowners to Some people expressed concerns that making dedicate their property for residential uses for five items tax-free could create more problems than solve years, freezing their assessed valuation during that them. Lowell Kalapa, president of the private Tax time" (Hurley par. 9). These are his answers to his Foundation of Hawaii, said that lawmakers may residents' tax strains. eventually have to resort to raising the general excise However, Lowell Kalapa believes that the tax tax in order to make up for lost revenue (Niesse, breaks for homeowners will only fall on business' 2007). Also, there is the matter of who will actually shoulders, in turn going back to the homeowner benefit from this tax-free idea. Marcus Oshiro anyway. Kalapa would recommend three actions to suggested to give residents a credit on their annual deal more honestly with the property tax system. tax return so that tourists, who pay up to 40 percent First, create a tax circuit breaker credit that allows of Hawaii's total general excise taxes, don't benefit homeowners to pay no more than 3 percent of their from food tax breaks (Niesse, 2007). Governor Lingle income. Second, stop the homeowner' s exemption believes that the tax-exemption would provide that decreases assessed values across the board, more money in the residential tax-payers pocket, because this will build a bigger tax base. In this whereas residents would not receive a tax credit at way the tax rate can be lowered. Third, establish a the end of the year. The proposed tax credit would single rate for all classes of property. (Hurley, 2004, be a set amount, some people would lose out and 'I[ 27). Kala pa's proposition directly refutes Kim's, some people would benefit in excess (L. Lingle, 2007, but it offers an interesting idea of setting a standard February 28). This proposition will be a heavily property tax rate by class. Whatever the outcome of discussed issue in the near future. The excise tax- this situation, it will hopefully benefit the common cut could help families "stretch their dollar" a little person living in Hawaii. further, but it is not the main cloud hovering over the Indeed, something must be done about all people's heads. these taxes. Hawaii's cost of living is only worsened Another major contributor to the local tax burden by the tax burdens set forth by the government. Many is property tax. As the value of Hawaii's land has solutions are being proposed by officials. Reducing escalated, property taxes have skyrocketed. As state income taxes for families in poverty would be Timothy Hurley states, "While the land buys are a good beginning to ease income taxes. A tax credit adding to the county treasury through substantial on the annual tax return would help solve taxes on tax collections, they end up increasing the existing food. Finally, there are several proposals to deal property tax bills as the neighborhood values rise with property taxes. A mixture of both proposals for accordingly" (Hurley, 2004). This tax increase is a property tax may suite residents just fine. In essence, situation found across the state. Families are finding whether the tax is on food, property, or just income, it harder and harder to live in Hawaii because Hawaii's tax policy needs to be revised quickly. of increasing property taxes. But it does get a bit Hopefully further action will be taken to solidify the controversial. However, to relieve the property proposals announced by Hawaii lawmakers. tax burden, Mayor Harry Kim, Hawaii County

References

Hurley, T. (2004, September 8). Spiraling property taxes rile Hawaii residents [Electronic version]. Honolulu Advertiser. Retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://the.lwnoluluadvertiser.com/article/2004/sep/08/ln/ln03a. html/?print=on Laney, L. (1992). Why is the cost of living in Hawaii so high? Will it ever come down? In R. W. Roth (Ed.), The Price of Paradise (pp. 23-31). Honolulu, HI: Mutual Publishing. Niesse, M. (2007, January 25). Tax-free food idea meets opposition. Hawaii Tribune-Herald, pp. Al. State Income Taxes Pushing Hawaii's Working-Poor Families Deeper Into Poverty. (2006, February 22). Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

102 culture, and period. Vernon, (1930). However, Male versus female: one can consider some artists to be more credible than others, due to their popularity and musical Vocal Preferences performance. Thus, there may be a bias toward some popular artists, even if one does not like them in Popular Music & in particular. However, Mursell (1932) notes from references by another study by Sherman, says that, Appreciation of Music "an accomplished singer could not convey to listeners with any precision an intended emotion by singing by Cecily C. Ballio a single note." This notes that even a well-known singer/artist cannot immediately gain a listener's Male versus female: Vocal preferences in popular attention just by singing one note; the singer would music and appreciation of music have to perform a whole song to be recognized. In the new generation of technological So while people have their specific preference for advancement, it seems that almost every person has the kinds of music they like to listen to, the question some sort of device to listen to music. Whether it's is why do they like it? If so, is there a preference for a CD player, walkman, or the now popular iPod a male or a female vocalist? These questions break or mp3 player, people are getting into the hype new ground on the study of music and psychology. of downloading and listening to new music. Each While much research on the connection between individual can practically choose any particular song music and different areas of psychology have been they want, download it and compile it together in done in the past, it is only recently that research has a "playlist," and listen to their favorite songs. This begun to explore music preference and its relation brings into question what kind of songs people like _ to personality and emotion. According to Rentfrow to listen to, but also seeks to explore the emotions and Gosling (2003), they believe that a large part of and reactions to specific songs and types of music the studies have been done by a small cadre of music that are perceived, which are said to differ among educators and music psychologists. each individual. Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez & Altenmuller The phenomena to be explored would be whether (2007). males would prefer a male vocalist over a female It is not uncommon now for new popular artists vocalist, regardless of the genre of the song. It is to remake an old version of a popular song. For believed that females have no particular preference example, the pop artist Jessica Simpson sang a slightly and is divided somewhat evenly between a male or more upbeat version of the song "Take My Breath female vocalist, and may be just the preference for the Away," originally done by the band Berlin. It would musical merit of the song itself. Such an experiment seem that the younger generations like to listen to the has not been explored in the past, as past research remakes more than the older version of the song, yet has concentrated on mostly musical compositions some people still prefer the "oldies but goodies." In of classical music, rather than the new music of this this case, would there be more appreciation toward generation with songs that contain a vocalist. This the original artist, or the artist who sang the remake study seeks to find a significant difference between just as beautifully? Research in the past has explored sexes and their preferences for a male or female this, and tests run by Hevner (1930), states that, vocalist. "These tests are founded on the assumption that the Method creation of an artist whose work has been generally Participants acclaimed for its merit is more beautiful than the same Participants included a large, random sample creation altered by a deliberate attempt to spoil its of an equal number of both males and females for various beautiful qualities." the experiment. A majority of tl1e participants were Each individual has their own musical taste, but college students attending tl1e University of Hawaii one cannot go to say that they have a better taste in at Hilo, as well as residents from the community of music than another, and it could be called good or Hilo. All participants were of random ages, all over bad if it goes along with or differs from the views of the age of 18 as stated in the requirements before an average musician that hails from the same country, participating in the experiment. 103 Materials the room. The first song on the CD would play, and The materials for this experiment included a CD after it had finished, a 10 second pause would cue the with recordings of popular songs of different genres. participant to rate the song they had just heard on The genres were limited to six groups: Pop, Country, the rating scale sheet, they had received. After the 10 R&B, Rock, Classical, and Reggae. A stereo was also second pause, the next song would begin. used to play the CD with the recordings. A radio The rating scale sheet listed the number of each headset was also used for each participant to listen song, and indicated whether a male or female sang to the recordings in privacy, as well as a rating scale the particular song. The scale ranged from O (Strongly questionnaire. dislike) to 10 (Strongly like), for the participant to The goal of the rating scale implemented was indicate the degree of preference toward the song. to measure the preference for either male or female A total of 12 songs were contained on the CD, vocalist for each one of the randomly played songs each playing a random song. Six songs were sung from the CD of which the participant would mark by female vocalists, the other six by male vocalists. their choice after hearing each song. Each song was of a different genre: Pop, Country, R&B, Rock, Classical and Reggae. Each pair of songs Procedure would be exactly the same song, but one song would Each researcher involved in the experiment be done by a male vocalist and the other by a female. went out to recruit as many participants as possible. However, the same song would not be played right The researcher would ask to announce in a college after another. Each song was arranged randomly on classroom whether anyone would like to participate the CD. in the experiment. For community participants, the All of the songs, whether sung by a male or researchers would go out to a public area to recruit female, were all done by the same male or female participants. Flyers were also posted with contact vocalist. This measure was taken to ensure that information to participants who were interested. the participant would recognize the song, but not Participants were given instructions on what recognize the particular artist of the song, so as not to do before being asked to sit in a simple research to give any particular preference toward the song. room, at a table in front of a stereo. The researcher Knowledge of the original artist who sang the song would ask the participant to put on the radio headset, popular at the time may provide the participant with press the play button on the stereo, and then leave a bias toward the particular song.

References

Grewe, 0., Nagai, F., Kopiez, R., & Altenmuller, E. (2007). Emotions over time: Synchronicity and development of subjective, physiological, and facial affective reactions to music. Emotion. Vol 7(4), 774-788. Hevner, Kate (1930). A study of tests for the appreciation of music. Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol 15(6), 575-583. Mursell, J., (1932). Psychology of music. Psychological Bulletin. Vol 29(3), 218-241. Rentfrow, P., & Gosling, S., (2003). The do re mi's of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 6, 1236-1256. Vernon, P.E., (1930). A method for measuring musical taste. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 14(4), 355-362.

104 was no more interesting to me than math class. From Volcano, Reborn this vantage point, Mauna Loa (which was usually at least partially covered by the perpetual rain clouds) by Benjamin Decker was only bigger than it was from town. Little did I know then, that the beauty of this For as long as I can remember, and even longer, visually spectacular park would be revealed to me I have always despised everything about Hawai'i many years later with the help of a woman who was Volcanoes National Park. It only existed in my equally stunning. memory as a cold, wet, dreary and bleak location. It I met a woman named Kim, during the spring was anything but attractive to me. When I revisited of this year. She was working as a live-in intern at Volcano for the first time after several years, I Volcanoes National Park. Our first date was a hike discovered a whole new appreciation for the National across the crater up in Volcano! It had easily been Park and its breathtaking sights; it was like the over a decade since the last time I had been up there. unveiling of a new park. Contrary to every trip that I can remember before this I am certain that I had visited Volcano several day, I couldn't wait to get there. The long, hellacious times before the first time that I can even remember drive that I remembered had suddenly become an being there. When I was child, family visiting from exciting, scenic cruise. the Mainland meant an automatic trip to Volcano. Having anticipated cold, rainy weather, much These family trips would drive a sense of loathing to my surprise, it was an incredibly clear, warm, deep inside me; Volcano was the closest thing to Hell and sunny day. For the first time, I was actually that I could imagine. Perhaps the root of my extreme excited to be there. Kim and I met up and started our dislike for the park can be credited to its long distance first date. As we began our hike, I started to notice from home. Sitting in the car with my (annoying) countless things that seemed so different in the past. sister, for what seemed to be an eternity would drive The vegetation resembled that of a foreign land that me insane. If a trip to Volcano was the reason for I had never before seen. As Kim would comment on which I had been subjected to such torture, then I the ferns, trees, and wild ginger blossoms, I noticed probably hated Volcano before I had even arrived for that they provided a wonderful contrast of colors set the first time. against the dark brown and black landscape of jagged I can't remember any part of our family trips to lava. There was nothing pointless about this hike. I Volcano being vaguely exciting or interesting to even found the company, as well as the scenery, to be most the slightest degree. As I recall, it was always cold interesting. and rainy. I can't remember ever seeing blue skies, The ''big, stupid hole in the ground" had even when it wasn't raining. The hikes that we would somehow managed to transform into a marvelous go on were probably the worst part of any trip to spectacle that demanded both attention and respect. Volcano. First of all, I remember lugging around a bag There, before the two of us, stood the majestic that had been excessively stuffed with all of the things Mauna Loa. For the first time, I had witnessed an that Mom said we would "need" for the trip. Then, unobstructed, panoramic view of Mauna Loa from I would hear comments from numerous members of this vantage point. Every crevice and ravine that had the family about "this beautiful tree," or "that odd been etched into the side of the mountain was visible, fern," or the colorful wild ginger blossoms. All I saw in great detail. It was nothing short of picture-worthy. was a collage of landmarks that were marking the As the summer unfolded after our first date, I gained ever-increasing distance that I didn't want to hike. A a powerful, new perspective of Volcano. Jong pointless walk across a crater that I had hiked Volcanoes National Park had finally been countless times hardly appealed to me. revealed to me. The very negative picture that Along the hikes, all of the women of my family dominated all of my memories of Volcano had been would deem it necessary to stop and take pictures reborn into an image of fascinating beauty and every five minutes. They would shoot rolls and intrigue. I remember witnessing an awesome sunset rolls of film. The crater and Mauna Loa were from the Jaggar Museum parking-lot one evening. always popular subjects to photograph. I cold never Kim was tightly enveloped by my arms. The two of us understand why. The big, stupid hole in the ground stood there, amazed by the complexity of the beauty

105 that was being painted before our eyes. The small, mountain slope, Kim and I agreed that it was one of sporadic clouds that loomed slightly above the skyline the most remarkable sunsets that either of us had ever of Mauna Loa shone in fiery tones of crimson as if witnessed. I thought to myself that this place was the they had been set ablaze. As the seemingly reluctant closest thing to Heaven that I could imagine. sun managed to make its way behind the purple

106 small mattress on the ground, so good thing we had W aihole Valley - The thought to bring a couple of air mattresses! It wasn't that bad, there were just a lot of mosquitoes. Did I Time For Change say a LOT of mosquitoes? I meant a 'freakin ton! We nicknamed this place LAX. It was like a Los Angeles by Andreas Gaeta International Termina, but instead of for planes for every damn mosquito on the East side of Oahu. As the pilot came over the loudspeaker, I "Well, good thing we got the mosquito punks," I said. chuckled to myself. I had always wondered why they (Mosquito punks are smokers that help to keep the give the safety briefing on twenty-minute flights. As little buggers away). the stewardess showed us how to clip one end of the We threw our stuff down, and then proceeded little metal thing into the other, Kalani, Kaeo and I sat towards the halau to watch Kai finish up. Afterwards, back, laughed and enjoyed a beer. we sat and had some beers, talldng story and The three of us were on our way to Oahu, to laughing it up. Kai was an interesting character, a spend a week in a Canoe Halau (school) in the quirky, jumpy little Hawai'ian who always had some Hawaiian Homesteads of Waihole Valley, on the sort of dirty joke or comment. But at the same time, east side of Oahu. We were going to take part in the this beer-guzzling maniac was one of the best canoe building of a double-hull voyaging canoe, comparable builders in Oahu. He had helped in the building to the ones that the initial Hawaiian settlers sailed of Hokule'a as well as Makali'i, two double hulled here thousands of miles from the Marquesas and sailing canoes carved by the Polynesian Voyaging Tahiti. We had been Kona Beach Boys, giving Society for the purpose of preserving Hawaiian outrigger canoe rides and surfing lessons as long as culture and voyaging throughout Polynesia. He we could remember, and had been so busy this past never put you down, but he certainly made you know year that I don't think any of us had been able to who was in charge. After a couple more beers, he told venture off-island for as much as a day. Either way us to enjoy our night, jumped in his old, ratty golf cart we were ready for a little vacation, and I think we all and headed toward his house. We headed up to the were expecting a fun filled party week in Oahu with house, lit five mosquito punks, wrapped ourselves up sun, girls, waves, beers and excitement. No one was tight, and went to sleep. prepared for the experience that we were about to "Boom!!!!" "Holy s--t!" I thought, as I jumped out take part in; one person would ultimately be affected of bed. "What the hell was that?" "Boom!!!!" again. As by this experience more than any other, namely, I sat, up I saw that Kalani was missing and I began to myself. hear voices off in the distance. It was early morning; I That evening, we pulled up to the Halau Wa' a, or rolled over and looked at my phone. It was 6:30. "Ha­ Canoe School, in the back of Waihole Valley, where ha, forget that, I'm going back to sleep" I thought. Not we met Kai Mai'i, the master canoe builder. He was one minute later, "Boom!!!" I jumped up and looked finishing a coat of fiberglass on top one of the two out the window, startled to see Kalani and Kai hurling forty-two foot hulls of the canoe. As we pulled up, mangoes at the tin roof of the tree house. "Time to get Kai finished his last few passes, and then pointed up boys!!" Kai said in a boot camp-almost-fraternity­ out where we were going to be staying. This hale, or pledge-master attitude. By that time, Kaeo was home, was like a tree house. It was about a hundred standing next to me scratching his head; we both yards above the halau, and had a winding lava rock reluctantly grabbed our clothes, and headed down. stairway, which looked lil

108 with some sort of goal, but it was lost in the haze girlfriend, a healthy income to support a happy over the years of unhealthy routines. I was one of family, and peace of mind. This is something that those people, who lost their goals and ambitions I previously thought I may never accomplish, but in the haze, and it took this one educational, life recently have realized is definitely feasible as long as changing experience to find my goals once again I follow the right path, the path which I have now set and start making steps towards the future. A future out for myself. which includes a career, a healthy lifestyle, a happy

109 comes from the conversion of electromagnetic Zero-Point Energy and radiation energy into electrical energy, or more specifically, the conversion of an extremely high Interstellar Travel frequency bandwidth of the electromagnetic spectrum (beyond Gamma rays) now known as the zero-point by Josh Williams spectrum.

"Ere many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by power obtainable at any point in the universe ... _Redlo · · · } [ Mfnowave} ( lnfrarod) ( V~lb!.n J { Ultravloiet) ~ { Gamn-i11 Ray } 101 10l 10.:, 10"5 11)~ 10'n l(l•l(I 10''l it is a mere question of time when men will succeed in Wa,releng:th !11 i:entlmr.ters attaching their machinery to the very wheel work of nature." -Nikola Tesla, 1892

Some call it the ultimate free lunch. Others call Atoms At-0rni~ l\lucl11i it absolutely useless. But as our world civilization is quickly coming upon a terrifying energy crisis with As you can see, the wavelengths from this part of little hope at the moment, radical new ideas of usable the spectrum are incredibly small, literally atomic and energy will be coming to the forefront and zero-point sub-atomic in size. And since the wavelength is so energy is one that is currently on its way. small, it follows that the frequency is quite high. The importance of this is that the intensity of the energy So, what the hell is it? derived for zero-point energy has been reported to be Zero-point energy is a type of energy that exists equal to the cube (the third power) of the frequency. in molecules and atoms even at near absolute zero So obviously, since we're already talking about temperatures (-273°C or OK) in a vacuum. At even some pretty high frequencies with this portion of fractions of a Kelvin above absolute zero, helium still the electromagnetic spectrum, we're talking about remains a liquid, and this is said to be attested to zero­ some really high energy intensities. In fact, Nobel point energy. Also at this unbearable temperature, Laureate Richard Feynman and one of Einstein's atoms are said to undergo tiny atomic or sub-atomic proteges, John Wheeler, calculated that there is more fluctuations according to the Heisenberg uncertainty than enough energy in a cup of coffee to evaporate principle which states that the position of an atom the worlds' oceans! Now some physicists say there's and its momentum (and hence it's velocity since no limit to the intensity of the energy (and therefore momentum equals mass multiplied by velocity) the frequency), but a majority says that we're limited can never be simultaneously accurately measured. by what's known as the Planck frequency which is Modern physics tells us that temperature is just a about 1043 hertz. Note that at our current level of measure of the velocity of the atoms and molecules technology, we're nowhere close to utilizing such that make up an object, so if an object is cooled to high frequencies. To put the Planck frequency into absolute zero, the constituent particles logically perspective, gigahertz radio is about 1010 Hz, visible would come to rest (having a velocity of zero) and the light is about 1014 Hz, and gamma rays stretch into position would be measurable. But this contradicts the 1020 Hz. So whether zero-point energy is capped Heisenberg uncertainty principle. And so the particles or not, we still have quite a ways to go to reach the have these fluctuations (or vibrations) via Heisenberg upper limits, and the cube of 1020 (~1060) Hz is still and are said to be caused by zero-point energy. In an astonishing intensity (even ifwe can't achieve the fact, this is the very idea from which zero-point upper limit of 1043 Hz). And if the intensity of the energy gets its name, since the atoms are at absolute energy is limited to precisely the Planck frequency, zero (or the zero point) and still contain some energy that still implies an energy density of 110 orders of to undergo these fluctuations. So what follows from magnitude greater than the radiant energy from the this is that since even at absolute zero, or very close center of the sun. to it, these atoms still vibrate: the motion from zero­ The last point to be made about zero-point energy point energy never disappears. is that it's homogenous (uniform), isotropic (identical The actual (supposedly) usable energy itself in all directions) and ubiquitous (exists everywhere). 110 Well... that's all well and good, but where did this harness an energy source that once seemed to be out idea come from? of reach. Physical Review has published numerous Zero-point energy is born out of principles of articles which state that it is theoretically possible to quantum mechanics, which is the physics of sub­ tap this energy source for power and propulsion. atomic phenomena. Quantum mechanics predicts the Once a physicist for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory existence of "virtual particles" that pop in and out of (JPL) Dr. Fabrizio Pinto, created Interstellar existence for very short time spans. In 1948, Hendrik Technologies Corp. to develop near-term applications B. G. Casimir predicted and showed that the existence of zero-point energy. In fact, he was given a U.S. of these particles would produce a measurable patent issued last December entitled "Method for attracting force that acts on two uncharged parallel Energy Extraction." plates (in a vacuum) separated by atomic distances. One method that zero-point energy can be extracted is magnetically, a feat which two Russian laboratories claimed to have managed. One of them reproduced and improved a magnetic device previously invented in England and was able to obtain an output of 7 kilowatts. ZPower Corp. of Phoenix Arizona claims that the solution to tapping this energy source is to produce an antenna or receiver which will operate in these extremely high frequencies. Although not the same method proposed by ZPower Corp., Dr. Frank Mead, Director of the Air force Research Laboratory, patented for the first time in history on The force produced by this phenomenon (now Dec. 31, 1996 an invention that would convert zero­ known as the Casimir effect) is proportional to the point energy by this method. He designed spherical inverse of the fourth power of the distance between receivers that would collect zero-point radiation, but the plates (F=k/d4) where k= he/480 where h equals he had to design them so that they would work with Planck's constant and c equals the speed of light. So the high frequencies that zero-point energy offers. as the plates are brought closer and closer together, The following diagram is a schematic of Dr. Mead's the force created by the decreasing number of virtual design. particles between the plates is overpowered by the force created from the virtual particles outside of the plates and thus the plates are forced closer together. But even though this force was readily verified with non-conducting plates, there was still a need in the scientific community to verify this effect with conducting plates. Finally, in 1997, Dr. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos Labs performed the verifying experiment with two parallel gold-plated plates attached to a torsion pendulum with less than one micrometer (micron) between the plates. The results of his experiment matched the theory of quantum electrodynamics to within 5% (a result Dr. Lamoreaux was rather pleased with).

Well, can I like, use this "zero~point energy" to power my toaster and stuff? Just not too long ago, zero-point energy was Physicist Dr. Robert Forward proposed another seemed to be rather elusive since the energy method of extracting zero-point energy using the involved came from such a high frequency of the Casimir Effect, which when published in a journal electromagnetic spectrum. By modern conventional was the first to demonstrate a Casimir Machine. The methods, we were only able to efficiently convert or following is a diagram of his idea. extract energy from lower frequencies. But now physicists are coming up with ways to

111 sound), quiet 1,200-seat hypersonic airliners that fly at 100 mile altitudes as far as 12,000 miles in a mere EL£CTROSTAllC REl'ULSION 70 minutes, and 12.6 hour trips to the moon. In fac,t, according to William B. Scott, the author of "To the Stars", an article in Aviation Week & Space Technology (3/1/04), "Spacecraft capable of interstellar travel will approach the speed of light ... " A manned spacecraft to Mars powered by zero-point energy could theoretically make a trip within 7-40 days which is only dependent on the separation between Earth and Mars. But of course, researchers could be years or even decades away from the breakthroughs needed to build such a propulsion system. So just how likely is a breakthrough in harnessing

FJO. !. Spiral ddgn for,. vacuum-flucmatlon bottery, zero-point energy to usable magnitudes? This is the big question. Hal E. Puthoff, director of the Institute for advanced studies has said, 111'd say our confidence Dr. Forward describes this "parking ramp" level [of a breakthrough] is 50% or better. We have style corkscrew or spring as a zero-point energy some ideas we're exploring, but we're not ready to battery that will tap electrical energy from the talk about them." (Goldes) Even if they're not ready vacuum and allow charge to be stored. The spring to talk, 50% still sounds semi-promising indeed. will tend to be compressed from the Casimir effect, As for when any breakthroughs might be coming but the like charges from the stored electrons will along? Puthoff says assuredly, "We're definitely not cause a repulsive force which will balance out the stumbling around in the dark any more. It's been Casimir Effect. Therefore, during usage, it would be shown that zero-point energy is real and has real compressed since the electrons would be being used consequences. It's definitely a technology that's not and extended when being charged. ready for prime time, but it's definitely ready for serious scientific investigation." (Scott) According Will we be able to go to the stars with this stuff? to John E. Allen, a consultant to BAE Systems, a That would be cooooll ... breakthrough could come about "within a decade or At least two large aerospace companies and one two." (Scott) Who knows? Perhaps zero-point energy U.S. Defense Dept. agency are "betting that 'zero­ will take us to the stars sooner than some of us had point energy' could be the next breakthrough in anticipated. Perhaps mankind as we know it will find aerospace vehicle propulsion". (Scott) If zero-point a way to attach its machinery to the "very wheel­ energy is the next big thing, then vehicles capable of work of nature" and soon explore bodies in the vast some astonishing things are predicted to come about. expanse of the universe. For example, Mach 4 fighters (4 times the speed of

Sources

Scott, William B.. "To the Stars." Future Energy eNews April 5,2004 03/01/2004 03/21/2008 . Valone, Thomas. "Understanding Zero Point Energy." Zero Point Energy: Concept & Experiment. 1999. Integrity Research Institute. 21 Mar 2008 . Goldes, Mark. "Zero Point Energy: Can it become a practical, near-term, alternative?." ZPEnergy.com. 12 April 2004. 21 Mar 2008 .

112 ,. 7 ~