University of Tennessee, Knoxville Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Masters Theses Graduate School 12-1985 Mississippian Architecture: Temporal, Technological, and Spatial Patterning of Structures at the Toqua Site (40M R6) Richard R. Polhemus University of Tennessee - Knoxville Recommended Citation Polhemus, Richard R., "Mississippian Architecture: Temporal, Technological, and Spatial Patterning of Structures at the Toqua Site (40M R6). " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1985. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/3320 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Richard R. Polhemus entitled "Mississippian Architecture: Temporal, Technological, and Spatial Patterning of Structures at the Toqua Site (40M R6)." I have examined the final electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, with a major in Anthropology. Charles H. Faulkner, Major Professor We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance: Gerald F. Schroedl, Jefferson Chapman Accepted for the Council: Carolyn R. Hodges Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official student records.) To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Richard R. Polhemus entitled 11Mississippian Architecture: Temporal , Technolog ical, and Spatial Patterning of Structures at the Toqua Site ( 40MR6) •11 I have examined the final copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts , with a major in Anthropology. Ch�:F�k� Major Professor We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance : Accepted for the Council: Vicerovost and Dean of The Graduate Sc hool STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Arts degree at The University of Tennessee, Knox- ville, I agree that the Libra ry shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library . Brief quotations from this thesis are allowa ble without special permission, provided that accurate acknowl- edgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from the repro- duction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted by the copyright ho lder. Signature < - � 2(:p� - Date Aw[,..u � 7 :2-6_J I"' s..S MISSISSIPPIAN ARCHITECTURE: TEMPORAL, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND SPATIAL PATTERNING OF STRUCTURES AT THE TOQUA SITE (40MR6) A Thesis Presented for the Master of Arts Degree The ·University of Tennessee. Knoxville Richard R. Polhemus December 1985 Copyright © Richard R. Polhemus, 1986 All rights reserved iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As with most academic endeavors , this work could not have been accomplished without the advice , assistance, patience, and friendship of many individuals. My thanks go fi rst to my committee members , friends and valued colleagues , Dr. Charles H. Faulkner, Dr. Jefferson Chapman, and Dr. Gerald F. Schroed l fo r their patience and help in winnowing the grain from the chaff. I wish to thank Dr. Paul W. Parmalee, Director of the Frank H. McClung Museum, The University of Tennessee , Knoxville, for his cooperation regarding my extensive use of original field records on fi le at that institution as well as many fruitful discussions concerning the prehistory of Tennessee. I am grateful to Dr. William M. Bass , Head of the Depa rtment of Anthro­ pology, The University of Tennessee, for his support and guidance . For comparative data and input from areas outside the East Tennessee Valley am grateful to Dr. Walter Klippel , The University of Tennessee , Dr. David J. Hally , University of Georgia , and Dr. Roy S. Dickens, University of North Carolina. I owe a debt too great to repay to certain individuals. Madeline Kneberg and the late T. M. N. Lew is took the time to answer a boy•s many questions and helped instill an appreciation fo r past cultures . J. B. Graham took the time to teach me how to read the ground like a book and how to extract the most from the resources available . The late James A. Ford taught me much about the diversity of the archaeo­ logical record and the search for patterning as well as how to use a slide rule. Stanley South , treasured friend and colleague for the last iv fifteen years, has broadened my understanding of peoples past and present and continues to provide substantive criticism on my endeavors. The investigation of the Toqua site was fu nded by the National Pa rk Service under contracts CX 5000-5-0213, CX 5880-7-0055, ex 5000-7-5544, ex 5000-8-5560 , ex 5880-8-0180 , ex 5000-9-5944 , and CX 5000-9-5092 . I am grateful to Dr. Bennie C. Keel of the National Park Service for his continued interest in an support of the Toqua investigation. The Tennessee Valley Authority funded the investiga­ tion of the Toqua site under contracts TV 42163A, TV 481 17A, and TV 56256A. am particularly grateful for the help and assistance provided by Mr. Bennett Graham , Mr. Maxwell D. Ramsey , and Mr. Bill Willard of the Tennessee Valley Authority . The Principal Investigators , Dr. A. K. Guthe, Dr. Gerald F. Schroedl, and Dr. Jefferson Chapman, deserve my thanks for keeping things moving and handling logistical problems. I thank my friends and colleagues Bill Baden , Steve Davis , Larry Kimball, and Ann Reed for their assistance in the field and during report preparation . To Andrea Brewer Shea am indebted fo r her diligence in identi fying massive qu antities of paleobotanical remains. To Tom Whyte I am indebted fo r his art work in transforming my working sketches and descriptions into properly proportioned recon­ struction drawings. am also indebted to Terry Faulkner and Neal Brun fo r drafting the figures and to Miles Wright for printing field photographs. My thanks go to Sally Ripatti for her encouragement and proofreading efforts . v Finally , my most heartfelt thanks go to my pa rents for their support. Their interest and support made it all possible. ' vi ABSTRACT The description and analysis of 130 Native American structures from the Toqua site ( 40MR6) provide an architectural typology for determining age , form, and function of Mississippian and historic Cherokee structural remains in East Tennessee. The Toq ua struc- tures , ranging in age from circa A.D. 1200 to circa A.D. 1780 , are examined for temporal, technolog ical , and spatial patterning and are compared with 469 structures from 58 Mississippian archaeological sites in the interior Southeastern United States . Superimposed structures and radiocarbon determinations provided a te mporal sequence of structure types. Closely controlled excava- tions , botanical analysis of construction materials, and technological studies of building materials provided insight into two successive construction techniques . An ea rlier flexed form of building construe- tion had continuous elements making up both walls and roof. A later rigid fo rm of building construction used separate components fo r walls, roof, and roof support system . Study of structure size , form, proportion , elaboration, content, and location provided information concerning structure function and the relationship of contemporary structures to each other. Insight concerning the temporal , technolog ical , and spatial patterning of Mississippian structures was obtained . vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCT ION Mississippian Architecture • • 1 Mississippian Cultures in East Tennessee • 3 The Toqua Site • • . • • • • • • 5 Archaeological Investigation . • • 9 Environmental Setting • • • . • • • • 12 Research Objectives and Limitations 16 The Comparative Sample 19 II. STRUCTURES • • • . • • 20 Introduction • • • • • • • • • • • 20 Description of Architectural Traits • 20 Architectural Typology • • • • • . • • • • • • • • 41 Covered Structu re Type Descriptions • • • • 49 Summary of Other East Tennessee Structure Types • 68 Structure Sequence . • • • • 74 Ill. COMPARISON AND DISCUSS ION 80 Structure Needs • • • 80 Resource Utilization • • 81 Technological Change 96 The Use of Space . • • • • • 1 01 Functional Va riability and Continuity • 110 Architecture and the Ethnohistoric Record 124 Regional Structure Type Comparisons 128 IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS • 134 Summary • ..• 134 Conclusions • • 137 LIST OF REFERENCES 146 APPENDIX 161 VITA •••• 174 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE · 2.1 . Architectural Traits Present in Structures at Toq ua . 22 2.2. Structures and Structure Types by Mound Phase . 77 3 .1 . Construction Materials Identified in Selected Structures . 84 3.2. Technological Characteristics of Construction Materials . 86 3.3. Distribution of Cane and Ten Most Common Wood Types by Zone in Structure 3 . 91 3.4. Identification of Architectural Elements from Structure 1 Bussel Island (40LD1 7) 94 3.5. Functional Attribution of Archaeolog ically Derived Construction Materials . 97 3.6. Ethnoh istoric References to Construction Materials 98 3. 7. Comparison of Percentage of Pu blic Floor Area to Total Floor Area of Type 4a Structures by Site Area . 109 3.8. Feature Summary by Structure Type . • . 114 3. 9. Comparison of Pai red Structures by Mound Phase-- Structure Types 4a and 4b . 11 8 3.10. Comparison of Total Floor Area for Type 4a Structures by Site Area . 11 9 3.11. Comparison of Floor Area of Type 4a Structures by Site Area . • • . 11 9 A. 1. Toqua Structure Data Summary by Structure Type . 162 A.2. Distribution of Structure Types at Sites in the East Tennessee Valley . • . • 165 A.3. Distr ibution of Structure Types at Other Sites in the Interior Southeastern United States . 166 ix TAB LE PAC E A. 4. Structure Designations for Comparative Sample by Site, Source , and Structure Type . • 167 X LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAG E 1.1. Map Showing Site Locations in the Ea st Tennessee Va lley .