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Visualization Rhetoric: Framing Effects in Narrative Visualization IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS, VOL. 17, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2011 2231 Visualization Rhetoric: Framing Effects in Narrative Visualization Jessica Hullman, Student Member, IEEE, and Nicholas Diakopoulos, Member, IEEE Abstract—Narrative visualizations combine conventions of communicative and exploratory information visualization to convey an intended story. We demonstrate visualization rhetoric as an analytical framework for understanding how design techniques that prioritize particular interpretations in visualizations that “tell a story” can significantly affect end-user interpretation. We draw a parallel between narrative visualization interpretation and evidence from framing studies in political messaging, decision-making, and literary studies. Devices for understanding the rhetorical nature of narrative information visualizations are presented, informed by the rigorous application of concepts from critical theory, semiotics, journalism, and political theory. We draw attention to how design tactics represent additions or omissions of information at various levels—the data, visual representation, textual annotations, and interactivity—and how visualizations denote and connote phenomena with reference to unstated viewing conventions and codes. Classes of rhetorical techniques identified via a systematic analysis of recent narrative visualizations are presented, and characterized according to their rhetorical contribution to the visualization. We describe how designers and researchers can benefit from the potentially positive aspects of visualization rhetoric in designing engaging, layered narrative visualizations and how our framework can shed light on how a visualization design prioritizes specific interpretations. We identify areas where future inquiry into visualization rhetoric can improve understanding of visualization interpretation. Index Terms—Rhetoric, narrative visualization, framing effects, semiotics, denotation, connotation. 1 INTRODUCTION Narrative information visualizations are a style of visualization that • What particular conventions are used, and to what extent are often explores the interplay between aspects of both explorative and specific techniques associated with different editorial layers in communicative visualization [38]. They typically rely on a the visualization (such as the data, visual representation, combination of persuasive, rhetorical techniques to convey an annotation, and interactivity)? intended story to users as well as exploratory, dialectic strategies • In what ways can factors external to the visualization itself, aimed at providing the user with control over the insights she gains such as internalized knowledge and conventions at the from interaction. Segel and Heer take an initial step towards individual and community level, interact with the rhetorical highlighting how varying degrees of authorial intention and user strategies used in a narrative visualization to influence interaction are achieved by general design components in narrative interpretation? visualization [38]. This blend of explorative and communicative • How do communicative and explorative rhetorical strategies features presents another research opportunity though: to better effectively work together in a narrative visualization? understand a user’s interpretation process of a narrative visualization This work contributes to InfoVis design and theory by providing in light of the rhetorical conventions that the author employs. By insight into (1) the types and forms of use of particular rhetorical explicating rhetorical techniques and how such techniques may techniques in narrative visualizations, and (2) the interaction between affect user interpretation, researchers and designers alike stand to those techniques and individual and community characteristics of gain a tool for understanding how visualizations communicate. end-users. The first contribution is a taxonomy of how particular In this work we examine the design and end-user interpretation of design elements can be used strategically to directly or indirectly narrative visualizations in order to deepen understanding of how prioritize certain interpretations. This equips designers with a set of common design techniques represent rhetorical strategies that make techniques for designing engaging narrative visualizations capable of certain interpretations more probable. How are rhetorical techniques communicating layered meanings. At the same time, the used in visualization and what are the effects of these techniques on identification of classes of rhetorical techniques provides both user interpretations of data? Studies in semiotics, journalism, and designers and InfoVis researchers with a vocabulary for analyzing critical theory indicate particular rhetorical techniques used to the underlying rhetorical functions of particular design strategies, a communicate an intended message [1, 2, 23]. while evidence from dimension that remains under-discussed in many theoretical decision theory, survey design, and political theory [21, 36, 37] frameworks organized primarily around exploratory visualization. suggests that subtle variations in a representation’s rhetorical or The second contribution of this work is in identifying and persuasive techniques can generate large effects on users’ demonstrating how these conventions interact with characteristics of interpretations of a message. Investigations related to InfoVis the visualization interaction, end-user’s knowledge, and the socio- provide initial evidence that how data is framed or presented can cultural context. This stands to improve designers’ awareness of how significantly affect interpretation [3]. designs might be received differently by individual end-users and Given the motivation to better understand the interpretation how they can cue shared cultural knowledge and associations. These process of visualization, this paper investigates rhetorical strategies “extra-representational” factors also tend to be neglected when and effects in narrative visualization by addressing the following designing or analyzing visualizations based on design principles such research questions: as those proposed by Tufte [45]. Researchers in InfoVis can benefit from a holistic understanding of visualization interpretation capable • Jessica Hullman is with the University of Michigan, [email protected]. of providing insight into how particular interpretations arise as a • Nicholas Diakopoulos is with Rutgers University, result of interactions between a visualization, user mental models, [email protected]. and other external representations. This view is congruent with a Manuscript received 31 March 2011; accepted 1 August 2011; posted online distributed cognition model of InfoVis [26]. 23 October 2011; mailed on 14 October 2011. This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 defines important For information on obtaining reprints of this article, please send terms related to rhetoric and contextualizes these concepts in InfoVis email to: [email protected]. as well as semiotics, decision science, and political theory. We also describe our work in the context of research on narrative 1077-2626/11/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE Published by the IEEE Computer Society 2232 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS, VOL. 17, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2011 visualization. Section 3 outlines many specific visualization rhetoric beyond the visual encoding and interaction design, such as in techniques based on a systematic qualitative analysis of narrative characterizing the domain tasks and data. Additionally, several visualizations, and describes how these techniques form clusters of studies demonstrate that extra-representational preferences and strategies exemplifying different rhetorical operations. Analytical conventions can influence interpretation, such as when the visual devices for understanding the site of techniques and their interaction format cues interpretation frames [3] or individual differences lead to with end-user characteristics are also presented. Section 4 uses two differing visualization usage [56]. As Norman [32] describes, case studies to demonstrate how an understanding of visualization interpretations can be unpredictable when design elements may not rhetoric can provide insight for the analysis and design of narrative immediately communicate the designer’s intended meaning as a visualizations. Section 5 discusses themes emerging from our result of influences on interpretation deriving from the end-user’s analyses and highlights areas for future study. context. Liu and Stasko [26] frame the site of such differences via the mental model concept, arguing that the effects of such 2 BIAS AND RHETORIC IN COMMUNICATION differences on interpretation have been underexplored in InfoVis. This supports a call for further consideration of visualization’s role In this section we address the terminology used in the paper and within webs of situated representations. define visualization rhetoric. We then motivate the importance of our The visualization rhetoric model we propose is likewise work and contextualize it with that of other relevant fields. This motivated by an expanded view of visualization that takes into draws attention to the need for deeper understanding of visualization consideration under-acknowledged facets of design and interpretation as it relates to rhetorical techniques and design. interpretation. For instance, creating a visual representation necessitates simplification,
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