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Scientific Perspective of Guru Nanak's Teachings

Scientific Perspective of Guru Nanak's Teachings

Journal of Critical Reviews

ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 7, Issue 9, 2020

SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE OF NANAK’S TEACHINGS

A. B. Bhattacharya

Pro Vice Chancellor, JIS University, Agarpara, Kolkata 700109, West , [email protected]

Received: 25.03.2020 Revised: 16.04.2020 Accepted: 24.05.2020

Abstract The seeds of modern cosmology, the so called Big-Bang theory of the universe and the future science and technology in a broad sense are visible in the writings of . All these thoughts are compiled during 1604 in the form of Sri Guru Granth , the Sikh holy book. Guru Nanak moved from place to place enlightening the people about the truth of universe and human life. Astronomers during the last century pointed out that universe is expanding and the distance between distant galaxies is increasing with time. In Guru Nanak’s thought, he had already said in his compositions that for countless ages, there was utter darkness; time originated from the sun and the Lord Himself was in a state of nothingness from where ‘He’ came into existence himself. Einstein’s special theory of relativity also showed that energy and mass are two sides of the same coin. According to Guru Nanak, before creation God existed all alone as ‘Nirgun’ form. It means energy (i.e. without material properties) and then got transformed into ‘Sargun form’ (Matter). He further pointed out that there are billions of stars, solar systems and galaxies in the universe and it is almost impossible to account for the whole system as there is no limit, no end. The spread of the universe being limitless, no one knows how much the spread of universe is and so there is no possibility to know the end. The largest contribution of Guru Nanak to mankind was the teaching of "the science of the Word ‘Naam’ which in a true sense is dissimilar to other science disciplines. But it is a perfect science, covering the subject matter in 1430 pages of the Adi Granth, which were compiled and composed nicely by the Sikh prophets. Considering the universes and the big bang theory with an emphasis on oscillating and continuous creation, steady state theory and creation vs. evolution, Guru Nanak was able to balance and science and that is why the or beliefs largely promoted the science and technology. Using emerging technologies NASA are working today for collecting information about the solar planetary system and have confirmed that there are billions of galaxies like ours in the universe. Much information to the line was mentioned in the , hundreds of years back.

Keywords: Creation of the Universe, Modern Cosmology, Big-Bang Theory, Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Special Theory of Relativity, Solar Planetary System

© 2020 by Advance Scientific Research. This is an open-access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.09.117

INTRODUCTION GURU NANAK’S FIRST STATEMENT Prophets in the world have taught and propagated from On this earth, there are many human races, and ethnic time to time. In fifteenth century, Guru Nanak was one of them groups. Religions acted as a divisive force in India in the 15th who was not only founder of the Sikh Religion but also was a century when Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born. He felt there great poet, humanist, philosopher and powerful social reformer could not be two separate Gods, Ram for and Allah for [1-3]. Kabiguru Rabindranath Tagore once said him the teacher as claimed by the people, in general. He believed there is of mankind. only one God for all humanity, only we call Him by any name, Allah, Gobind, God and Ram. If we all believe in one God then Cosmology is a subject that essentially deals with the problem of the creation spiritual unity can be the result. Their way of may vary of the universe. Different religions on the earth have dealt with the problem of but unity among them is natural if their object is single. He was creation of the universe from time immemorial in their sacred texts. The basic able to turn people from violence to peace. He converted tyrants of modern cosmology including the Big-Bang theory of the universe and the into compassionate beings and thus changed painful societies future science and technology are broadly visible in the writings of Guru into blissful communities. People of different faiths listened to Nanak and his successors which are compiled during 1604 in Sri Guru Granth his message and gained from his wise and sacred words. Sahib, the Sikh holy book [4]. Those cosmological concepts available in this sacred text when compared with present day knowledge on astronomy and Guru Nanak declared very clearly his primary interest not in any astrophysics including the particle physics beyond the formation of the metaphysical doctrine but only for the human and his fate which universe it becomes most impressive to anyone about the oceanic depth of means love your neighbor as you love yourself. He preached philosophy and scientific vision of Guru Nanak. It is the purpose of writing the universal brotherhood, peace, harmony and selfless love to all present text to create 'Awareness' about Guru Nanak's Scientific human beings. One of the most important beliefs he propagated Vision to the scientific community in general and to the to the society is that it is always require helping the needy and University students in particular. It is said that in the 15th the poor. Guru Nanak often invited the needy and the poor century, Sir Nicholas Bacon, a member of Corpus Christi College, people into his house. Sweets and ‘’ or community lunches Cambridge, was the person who gave modern science its first are offered to everyone, irrespective of religious faith. born son, a time when Elizabethan England flourished at its peak [5]. When that son Francis Bacon (1561–1626), a member He always emphasized three rules all people should follow. of Trinity College, Cambridge, recognized as a philosopher with These are: (i) (recite the name of the Lord at all his wisdom of universal thought and went on to lay the times); (ii) (do an honest day's work); and (iii) Wand foundation of modern science [6]. However, the great Shako (share your food with those around you). Guru Nanak Renaissance of learning began with Roger Bacon (1214–1294) in taught to the society that all human beings regardless of skin the 13th century [7]. The torch of genius was subsequently taken color, caste, wealth and gender are created equal. up [8] by Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519). The philosophy was thrown into the sky by Copernicus [9] (1473–1543) and Galileo TEACHINGS OF GURU NANAK AND THE GENESIS OF MODERN SCIENCE [10] (1564–1642). Christopher Columbus [11] (1451–1506) took During fifteen century the Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak in India. it into the far horizons of one of the world's mighty oceans. He was a great philosopher and social reformer and had a great vision. He did four long journeys in different directions over a period of two decades with a view to bring in a change. These were in the north, Sri Lanka in the south, Saudi Arabia in the west and Bangladesh in the east. He moved from

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SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE OF GURU NANAK’S TEACHINGS place to place enlightening the people about the truth of universe and human If we just consider the Big Bang theory in an elementary way, the most life. His teachings can be obtained in the holy scripture of the called Sri accepted theory today for creation of universe there was nothing but utter Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS). It is a vast collection of verses recorded in darkness for billions of years. Then after the Big Bang, there were formed ‘’ and it is unique in its explanation. Many of us though try to innumerable planets, solar systems and galaxies in our universe. According to consider him only from religious point of view but indeed if we read his the theory, the explosion from zero volume at zero time created the space and compositions from scientific point of view, it provides a tremendous amount time by conversion of matter into energy and vice versa. Figure 1 shows the of information regarding cosmology and of other branches of science and estimated ratio of dark matter and dark energy in the universe. According to engineering. He had not only a great vision but also a very scientific, the present day accepted theories, dark energy has now dominating role as systematic and analytic mind. His all the approaches to the study of the largest source of energy of the universe and this is in contrast to previous cosmology were perceptive and fully scientific. Guru Nanak answered many epochs when it was insignificant, as evident from the figure. Dark energy may scientific questions in a way which scientists are now agreeing to. be explained by a static cosmological constant or may be that this mysterious energy is not at all constant but has changed over time.

Figure 1 Estimated ratio of dark matter and dark energy in the universe.

Einstein’s special theory of relativity, published more than hundred years consider that Nature wants symmetry and everything in this universe follows back, also showed that energy and mass are two sides of the same coin. This is certain laws of Nature. Guru Nanak was a great social, political and religious linked to his famous equation E = mc2; where E stands for energy, m for mass innovator with spiritual belief. Guru Nanak came out against all artificially and c for the speed of light. Einstein wrote “The idea is amusing and enticing, made divisions and discrimination, not only in word but also in deed. He “but whether the Almighty is ... leading me up the garden path—that I cannot strongly advocated that all the living creatures in this universe are equal and know.” This new concept of Einstein that mass could be transformed into created by one God. In order to remove discriminations, he gave the concept energy later assisted astronomers to understand the enduring power of the of ‘’ and ‘Pangat’. The people who like to participate in the Sangat were sun. Hubble pointed out that universe is expanding and the distance between made to sit together for discussing the teachings and compositions. On the distant galaxies is increasing with time. Guru Nanak’s thought also reflects in other hand, in Pangat, everyone sits down together in a row for the ‘Langar’ an identical way. He said in his compositions (SGGS: p. 3, 9, 157, 176, 469, 930, which is a free meal given to all regardless of caste or religion as a gesture of 1035) that “for countless ages, there was utter darkness”. Time originated equality, i.e., regardless of who is coming from which caste. In addition, there from the sun and the Lord Himself was in a state of nothingness from where are three fundamental principles of Sikhism formalized by Guru Nanak as He came into existence himself. pointed out before. In the Sikh religion, there is no place for any false rituals, myths, and dogma. In fact, Guru Nanak gave highest importance to Word Guru Nanak said that before creation God existed throughout or ‘Shabad’. In an indirect way, this points towards education of human as ‘Nirgun’ form. Its inner meaning implies energy without material beings. He mentioned that if human beings do proper research, only then properties. He suggested that this energy thereafter transformed into matter they will be able to get enlightenment. the so called ‘Sargun form’. According to him God created the entire nature from nothingness. There are billions of stars, solar systems and galaxies in the Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaulti de Galilei [10], an Italian universe and it is almost impossible to account for the whole system as there astronomer, physicist and engineer (1564-1642) believed the is no limit, no end. The spread of the universe being limitless, no one knows theory of Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) that planets revolve how much the spread of universe is. So there is no possibility to know the end. round the sun. For his views of the planetary motion, Galileo was The entire universe moves thousands of miles without an end. Nature, God placed under house arrest by the Inquisition following the order and man are integrally bound to each other. He gave importance equally to of the Holy Office of Rome. This conflict with the is an water, air and earth as these are the most important building blocks of human example of the conflict between authority and freedom of life and society. In Guru Granth Sahib, one can find Guru Nanak’s thought in Europe, particularly in the area of science. Galileo compositions, 974 shabads composed in 19 . He preferred to use the defied directives delivered by the Church to him not to hold or word “He” i.e. ‘God’, the Creator of the Universe, in his compositions. He defend the idea that the earth moves and the sun remains at the described God in Mulmantar in this way: center. His famous book titled "Two new sciences" is considered to be the genesis of modern science and technology. “There is one God, Eternal truth is His name, At about the same time of Nicolas Copernicus [12], Guru Creator of all things and the all-pervading spirit, Nanak (1469 AD), who founded the Sikh religion, was doing the Fearless and without hatred, same in the sub-continent of India. On the science front Nanak Timeless and formless, pointed out that there are universes upon universes, and spheres Beyond birth and death, Self-created, upon spheres, and that many planets had existence like ours. He was of opinion that our Astronomers have yet to discover these spheres and will be able to do it in future. He was very much Guru Nanak added the universe in the opening stanzas of the Aarti: “The optimistic that they should be able to do the same successfully sky is the -platter, the sun and the moon are once the instruments like the telescope and other accessories are the lamps, the stars and the constellations are the properly improved to observe the infinite distances. It is pearls and jewels” interesting to note that while Christopher Columbus was In Modern science, universe is considered to be created by certain laws of voyaging the seas, Guru Nanak walked the land spreading his Physics. Out of those some basic laws like Laws of Gravitation, Kepler’s laws of teachings almost in an identical way as Jesus did some 1400 planetary motion and many other conservation laws have got importance years before. However, the journey of Guru Nanak was much [12]. But still there is a very important question, where do these laws come longer and more widespread. In fact, for spreading his teachings, from? Instead of ‘God’ or ‘He’, scientists used the word ‘Nature’ and they he walked enough to circle the earth three times over.

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The largest contribution of Guru Nanak to mankind was the interestingly how modern sciences can go hand-in-hand with teaching of "the science of the Word" (Naam). In a true sense, religion and God [13]. ‘Naam’ is dissimilar to other science disciplines. But it is a perfect science, covering the subject matter in 1430 pages of the Adi UNIVERSES AND THE BIG BANG THEORY Granth, which were compiled and composed nicely by the Sikh One very basic point in the understanding of how the universe prophets – "The Ten Nanaks". It gives a very pure and special came to be was possible to outline when the Big Bang theory was message for the whole world through personal realization of possible to develop. Briefly, the theory indicated that about 13.8 God. In the 11th century, the impact of in North Western billion years ago, all matters started to expand. The expansion is India had been basically through military conquest and sword. At governed by four different forces. These forces are that time, the Hindu and Buddhist and places of learning gravitational force, weak nuclear force, electromagnetic force were almost destroyed by force. All these actions for obvious and strong nuclear force. Eventually, subatomic particles were reason slated reactions in the polytheistic and produced followed by hydrogen and helium atoms. Owing to the sensitive Indian mind, particularly to the Hindus. The influence of gravity, stars were formed consisting of carbon consequences were severe resulting impassable barriers of particles. Thereafter oxygen and planets were formed in the case hatred and prejudice. People were largely irritated and of the planet Earth. In 1925, Edwin Hubble discovered valuable unfortunate misunderstandings were noted here and there, theory on the Milky Way and proved that objects like galaxies making the mutual relation polluted. were much further away than considered before, thus providing strong support for the Big Bang theory [14]. Figure 2 reveals MODERN SCIENCES IN GURU GRANTH SAHIB historical information of the Universe at a glance, starting from Traditionally there is always a conflict with each other between the Big Bang up to the current epoch. The top of the figure shows God and science. One important factor is that science needs that the inflation generates two types of waves, viz., the empirical supports through some modeling or experiments while gravitational waves and the density waves which imprint the religions with faith in God practically do not like to consider any characteristic polarization signals. The lower part of the figure, empirical approach. But if we go to the depth of Sikhism through on the other hand, shows a plot of the radius of the visible the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, we can note very universe against the age of the universe.

Figure 2 History of the Universe, from the Big Bang to the current epoch (Credit: bicepkeck.org).

The figure represents the characteristic changes of free electrons scatter light as well as the earliest time visible with light. Age of STEADY STATE THEORY the universe up to the modern time exhibits clearly the change of Fred Hoyle (1948), an atheist, was completely against religion the radius from Big Bang to modern universe. who suggested that the universe has neither beginning nor end and so according to his opinion God cannot exist [16]. He was of There are of course many other evidences. Some of them are: (i) opinion that the cosmic matter density remained unaltered. Universe still expanding as confirmed from the red shift, (ii) About his opinion of continuous creation, new matter is always Universe is gradually cooling, thus supporting the expansion formed at a very slow rate as other matter ceases to exist. from a singular starting point, (iii) Helium (25%) as one of the However, this steady state theory is not accepted well by the gradient for making up the universe, consistent with the existing scientists due to Background Microwave Radiation. Most of the theory, (iv) Background Microwave Radiation (BMR), consistent scientists accepted the Big Bang theory as a satisfactory with a large explosion like the singularity explanation to the origins of the universe though the main alternative is accepted as the Hoyle’s concept of the Steady State OSCILLATING AND CONTINUOUS CREATION theory. Another point of interest of the Big Bang theory is to consider what will happen to the universe as it expands [15]. Scientists CREATION VERSUS EVOLUTION have suggested three possible scenarios. These are: (a) A Big An alternative concept was given by the ‘creation scientists’ who Crunch, causing the universe a reduction in size through another specially focused on the idea that everything has been directly Big Bang. This cycle then will be repetitive forever. However, this created by God. They further suggested that all these creations theory has been objected by many scientists arguing that there is were made in six days. This concept is basically based on Genesis not enough matter in the universe to make an oscillating effect. in the . However, all these are largely controversial (b) Continuous Creation making an expansion of the Universe movement as it has no strong logic and also not based on actual forever. This theory is largely accepted by the scientists. (c) scientific evidences. Creationism refutes the concept of Evolution Equilibrium, where the universe stops expanding and attains an [17]. equilibrium state where it remains. The idea of evolution developed long back in a very elementary way. The present day concept involving natural selection was

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first formulated by Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin in the including the earth. It is clearly said: “You yourself created the 1930s. The evolution theory is based on strong argument that all earth and the two lamps of the sun and the moon” (Guru Granth living things we observe on earth originated from a single Sahib, 83); and, “Many millions are the moons, suns and stars” starting point. After a long period, this led to the development of (Guru Granth Sahib, 275). organisms as we find today. Due to strong evidences from DNA and fossils pointing to similarities in the basic building blocks of Scientists with the development of models and technologies are everything, this theory is largely accepted by global scientists slowly getting success to unravel the mystery of creation. Our [18]. However, the main arguments against this theory are those universe is so vast with so many mysteries that it would take established by the creation scientists with many theories like hundreds of years to move to stars and planets beyond our solar intelligent design. This concept is broadly based on the principle system using our present day known methods of travel. There that certain things may not be explained by random events but are so many stars in our galaxy situated thousands of light years instead those may be interpreted by intelligent causes. Theistic away from the Earth. If we consider the extra solar planets and evolution may be assumed as one very important attempt for their locations and characteristics, the subject becomes much making a link between the theories of evolution with more complicated. Scientists always attempted to comprehend conventional religious thoughts of direct creation by God. the mysteries of creation but yet unable to find the Creator's According to this theory, natural selection does not necessarily limits. On the other hand when one meditates on God, many of mean the statement that God could not have created the the mysteries like galaxies, stars, planets, moons, all unfold universe. It notes the theory of Darwin to simply be the process before him. wherein all life including humans developed as a consequence of Not only Sikhs but people of different faiths like the initial creation. Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists loved Guru Nanak. After his Looking to the concept of quantum physics that was started by death, flowers from both the Muslims and the Hindus were put Max Planck in 1900, one may emphasize the world at a over his body and the claim to his body was to go to that subatomic level. The idea established by de Broglie (1927) that community whose flowers remained fresh the longest. On the waves could be considered as other form of particles helped to following morning, flowers of both groups remained fresh but get answer of many questions yet unsolved [19]. Research surprisingly the body was missing; might be it had ascended to contributions based on particles at a subatomic level are not yet the . The incident was undoubtedly a befitting reminder been able to answer many questions and to some extent seem to of his teachings to love God by and it is a profound be random. Examining the quantum world, it is noted that example to mankind of the futility of religious quarrel particles can come into existence spontaneously and events do highlighting that there is only one God for individual and for all; not follow a cause and effect relationship. This may be taken as a God cannot be personalized as all the individuals are better interpretation from where the quantum singularity came created by one God. Guru Nanak had reached heights of spiritual and hence leave no space for God in the creation of the universe. enlightenment and his teachings have paralleled those in the But it may be pointed out that the so called chaos at the Bible: subatomic level is yet an undecided factor at many places and "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and thus it is enough to show that there must be a God. There are the Word was God. All things were made by him; and without many questions yet on this aspect of science and demands him was not anything made that was made. In him was life; and further study for getting better concept and clear understanding. the life was the light of men. And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not." (KJV - John 1:1-5). BALANCE OF SPIRITUALITY AND SCIENCE Sikh Scriptures or beliefs largely promoted the science and Sikhism is considered very important for sharing common technology. In fact, scientists and engineers today are just spiritual bond with Muslims in their monotheistic outlook as well discovering many concepts that were written in Sikh scriptures as for sharing the Indian culture in common with centuries ago. Guru Nanak told to the followers never to use the Hindus and Buddhists [20]. Figure 3 is a photograph of tobacco, drugs or to drink alcohol. Science has confirmed later Kartarpur where Nanak breathed his last. The site is that the overuse of alcohol is dangerous and even some people commemorated by a tomb built over the flowers of Muslims are genetically predisposed to become addicted to alcohol. From while the over the flowers of Hindus. investigation it has been suggested that moderate use of alcohol Newly born Sikhism was to be the common meeting place may extend one’s life sometimes while its overuse can be between these two world culture streams. In fact, keeping this dangerous and results in thousands of deaths every year. idea in mind a prominent Muslim divine was asked to lay the Similarly, smoking has proved to be one of the deadliest 'habits' foundation of the at , , India by causing cancer and many other health problems. Scientists have the Nanak VI and this may be taken as a profound symbol of confirmed today that there are billions of galaxies. Each galaxy future confluence of world culture into a universal culture for the contains billions of stars and millions of planets which are benefit of the mankind. revolving around those stars with millions of moons revolving around those planets. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, has over 200 billion stars and millions of planets. A large number of astronomers under the umbrella of NASA are working dedicatedly for gathering information about the solar planetary system. They have confirmed using improved technology that there are billions of galaxies like ours in the universe. Interestingly, much information to the line was mentioned in the Guru Granth Sahib, hundreds of years back. While Catholicism was burning one scientist and imprisoning Galileo for their opinion that the earth revolved round the sun, Guru Nanak proposed that all the planets were revolving round the sun and in the Guru Granth Sahib it has been clearly said that “There are planets, solar systems and galaxies; there is no limit, no end. He Figure 3 Kartarpur where Nanak breathed his last (vide further pointed out that there are worlds upon worlds of His Wikipedia, for different photographs). Creation. As He commands, so they exist (Guru Granth Sahib, 8). It is further mentioned that God created the whole universe The Golden temple and its beautiful complex is the home of Sikh civilization and one must accept it as a glaring example of

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its spiritual, social and political cultural as well as architectural Jerzy Gassowski, Poszukiwanie grobu Mikolaja facets which has made a distinct and unique civilization in all Kopernika in: Journal for the History of Astronomy 38.2- respects. May 2007. - p. 255. 10. Whitehouse, D. Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science. Sterling Publishing. -2009. - p. 219. -ISBN 978-1-4027-6977-1. 11. Lester, Paul Martin. "Looks Are Deceiving: the Portraits of Christopher Columbus." Visual Anthropology, Harwood Academic Publishers GmbH. -1993. - Vol. 5. - p. 211–227. 12. Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and beyond (3rd paperback ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. - 2001. - p. 40–41. - ISBN 978-0-8135-2908-0. Retrieved December 27, 2009. Figure 4 Sri Harmandir Sahib Ji informally referred to as the 13. Grewal Dalvinder Singh, Scientific Vision of Guru Nanak, Golden Temple; a located in the city of Amritsar National Books Shop, New , -2008. - ISBN-13: 978-81- (vide Wikipedia, for different photographs). 7116-490-5, ISBN: 81-7116-490-0. 14. Bhattacharya, Asit B, Jeffrey M. Lichtman, Solar Planetary Photograph of the Golden Temple, a Gurdwara located in the city Systems, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, of Amritsar is shown in Figure 4. The photograph as shown in the Florida, -2017. -ISBN 9781498762069. figure is one of the most revered spiritual sites of Sikhism. 15. Chen, Hsin-Yu; Fishbach, ; Holz, Daniel E. "A two per Guru Nanak in a very lucid way provided a unique balance of cent Hubble constant measurement from standard sirens spirituality and science. Through his work he was able to give a within five years". Nature. 17 October. - 2018. -Vol. better understanding of how the world around us works and also 562 (7728). - p. 545–547. how to use the world around us for achieving the real meaning of 16. Mitton, Simon . Stones, Bones, Bugs and Accidents. Fred life. As both science and religion have a common role to describe Hoyle: A Life in Science. Cambridge University Press. -2011. , there can never be a conflict between them. -Chapter 12. 17. McGrath, Alister E. Science and Religion: A New Introduction (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. -2010. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS -ISBN 978-1-4051-8790-9. The author declares that the provided information has no 18. Koonin, Eugene V. "Orthologs, paralogs, and evolutionary conflicts of interest. genomics". Annual Review of Genetics. -December 2005. - Vol. 39 -p. 309–338. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 19. McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, Oscar. Introducing Quantum Theory. I am grateful to the Chancellor and Director of JIS University for Totem Books. -2004. -p. 110–114. -ISBN 978-1-84046-577- their encouragement and constant support to me. I like to 8. express my sincere thanks to Mr. T. S. Madan and many others of 20. Shahi, Mukesh Kumar. Period & Emotion: Educate Yourself JIS University for their fruitful discussions. Acknowledgements and your Family. Evincepub Publishing. -2018. -p. 13. - are due to the contributors and different workers in this field ISBN 9789388277655. whose published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and other valuable information enriched me at the time of writing this review article.

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