Cleaner Transport

Research Cleaner Theme Transport Analysis Report

www.transport-research.info Mobility and Transport Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport

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This report was prepared by: Gareth Horton, Marius Biedka (Ricardo Energy & Environment); Claus Doll, Marcel Soulier (Fraunhofer ISI); Athena Roumboutsos, Amalia Polydoropoulou (University of Aegean)

Coordinated and guided by: Dimitrios Vartis DG MOVE – Unit B3 (Innovation & Research)

Design and layout by: Ricardo Energy & Environment

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© European Union, 2017 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport

Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 2

Contents

Executive summary 6 1. Introduction 10 2 Policy context 11 2.1 Cleaner transport in European transport policy 11 2.2 Cleaner transport in European research programmes 12 3 Scope of the Cleaner Transport theme 14 4 Sub-theme assessments 15 4.1 Alternative fuels 15 4.1.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 15 4.1.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 15 4.1.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 16 4.1.2 Research activities 16 4.1.2.1 Hydrogen 16 4.1.2.2 Biofuels 17 4.1.2.3 CNG, LPG and LNG 17 4.1.2.4 Synthetic fuels 18 4.1.3 Research outcomes 18 4.1.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 18 4.1.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 18 4.1.3.3 Indications for future research 18 4.1.3.4 Implications for future policy development 19 4.1.4 List of projects 20 4.2 Modal shift 22 4.2.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 22 4.2.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 22 4.2.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 23 4.2.2 Research activities 23 4.2.2.1 Urban transport 23 4.2.3 Research outcomes 26 4.2.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 26 4.2.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 27 4.2.3.3 Indications for future research 27 4.2.3.4 Implications for future policy development 27 4.2.4 List of projects 27 4.3 Electromobility 29 4.3.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 29 4.3.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 29 4.3.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 29 4.3.2 Research activities 29 4.3.2.1 Battery research 29 4.3.2.2 Developing vehicle components 30 4.3.2.3 Demonstration of vehicle technologies 31 4.3.2.4 Charging infrastructure for electromobility 31 4.3.2.5 Policy measures and business cases 31 4.3.3 Research outcomes 32 4.3.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 32 4.3.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 32 4.3.3.3 Indications for future research 32 4.3.3.4 Implications for future policy development 32 4.3.4 List of projects 33 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 3

4.4 Low-emissions logistics 36 4.4.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 36 4.4.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 36 4.4.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 37 4.4.2 Research activities 37 4.4.2.1 Sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans 37 4.4.2.2 Supply chain management 37 4.4.2.3 Propulsion concepts and driver assistance 38 4.4.3 Research outcomes 39 4.4.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 39 4.4.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 39 4.4.3.3 Indications for future research 39 4.4.3.4 Implications for future policy development 39 4.4.4 List of projects 40 4.5 Vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime 41 4.5.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 41 4.5.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 42 4.5.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 42 4.5.2 Research activities 42 4.5.2.1 Aircraft 43 4.5.2.2 Aircraft engines 45 4.5.2.3 Aircraft APUs 47 4.5.2.4 Ships 49 4.5.3 Research outcomes 50 4.5.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 51 4.5.3.2 Transferability from research into practical use 51 4.5.3.3 Indications for future research 51 4.5.3.4 Implications for future policy development 51 4.5.4 List of projects 52 4.6 Vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail 55 4.6.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 55 4.6.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 56 4.6.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 56 4.6.2 Research activities 56 4.6.2.1 Road passenger vehicles 56 4.6.2.2 Road freight vehicles 57 4.6.2.3 Rail rolling stock 59 4.6.3 Research outcomes 59 4.6.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 59 4.6.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 59 4.6.3.3 Indications for future research 59 4.6.4 List of projects 60 4.7 Automation 62 4.7.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 62 4.7.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 62 4.7.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 62 4.7.2 Research activities 63 4.7.2.1 Challenge 1: The transition between human and automated driving 63 4.7.2.2 Challenge 2: Field testing 63 4.7.2.3 Challenge 3: Building public confidence 63 4.7.2.4 Challenge 4: Automated goods transport solutions 63 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 4

4.7.3 Research outcomes 63 4.7.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 63 4.7.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 63 4.7.3.3 Indications for future research 64 4.7.3.4 Implications for future policy development 64 4.7.4 List of projects 64 4.8 Modern infrastructure 65 4.8.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 65 4.8.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 65 4.8.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 65 4.8.2 Research activities 66 4.8.2.1 Coordination of energy supply 66 4.8.2.2 Infrastructure – vehicle as a system 67 4.8.2.3 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans 68 4.8.3 Research outcomes 69 4.8.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 69 4.8.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 69 4.8.3.3 Indications for future research 69 4.8.3.4 Implications for future policy development 70 4.8.4 List of projects 70 5 Conclusions and recommendations 74 5.1 Research environment and development 74 5.2 Research activities and outcomes 74 5.3 Indications for future research 77 5.4 Implications for future policy development 79 6 References/bibliography 80 7 Glossary 81 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 5 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 6 Executive summary

This is the fifth Research Theme Analysis Report produced The key findings from a scientific perspective are: under the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) • The significant rise in demand for transport, and the increased continuation project for the European Commission’s impacts on the environment, have been recognised in the Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (DG- European research programmes. The analysis of projects MOVE). It covers the Cleaner Transport research theme. in this study concentrated on larger (in terms of budget The purpose of TRIP is to collect, structure, analyse and and resources) projects – the total budget of the projects disseminate the results of European Union (EU) supported reviewed is over EUR 2.8 billion. transport research, research financed nationally in the European • Significant progress has been made in the development Research Area (ERA) and selected global research programmes. and adoption of biofuels for road transport, particularly The TRIP web portal can be found at www.transport-research. compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas info. (LNG). Progress has also been made in developing hydrogen- The purpose of this Research Theme Analysis Report is to fuelled vehicles. Alternative fuels have also been investigated provide an overview of research performed (mostly) in the EU for aviation, but further large-scale field tests are required collated by TRIP, providing a view across many projects that before the potential impacts can be fully quantified. fall under the theme title. It provides a robust and thorough • Research on modal shift has primarily focused on urban assessment of the reported results from the projects and offers mobility. Most projects investigated ‘soft’ measures to perspectives from scientific and policy points of view. encourage passengers to select low-emissions options (such For the purpose of this review, the theme of Cleaner Transport as public transport) and to encourage freight operators to has been divided into eight sub-themes and the assessments use clean, energy-efficient vehicles. Several projects achieved

have been performed within each sub-theme and across the tangible results in reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions complete theme. The sub-themes considered are: from traffic. Importantly, developments continued after the end of the project in a number of cases, leading to • alternative fuels; further emissions reductions. A key achievement of several • modal shift; projects was that the research activities were not restricted to individual locations, but were integrated into the cities’ • electromobility; urban transport policies and plans. • low-emissions logistics; • Research has identified that battery management systems • vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime; are essential to enable a wider deployment of electromobility. These systems provide improved battery availability, safety • vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail; and lifetime. Progress has been made on developing • automation; improved materials for batteries, including anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, which contribute to a better • modern infrastructure. recyclability, longer lifetime and improved performance. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 7

Projects have also identified the need for improvements to • The development of an innovative infrastructure that the electric power grid to manage the charging of electric supports electromobility operations and the introduction vehicles (EVs), improving the balancing of demand on the or upgrade of advanced infrastructure-to-vehicle (I2V) network and reducing costs to the user. communication systems will increase vehicle autonomy and the optimisation of the charging or refuelling process. As a • An increasing number of cities are establishing some result, the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers may be reduced. form of sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) and Sustainable • Field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies Urban Logistics Plans (SULPs) or in more sectoral Delivery for urban public transport systems (e.g. electric buses and Servicing Plans (DSPs). The concepts and policy strategies (e-buses) and electric bikes (e-bikes)) have shown the proposed by earlier research activities are being exploited potential environmental and economic benefits for modern through these developments and the latest research projects. cities and the high readiness level for a wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations. • Cooperative capacity and freight platforms are now operational, aided by new mobile communication The key findings from a policy perspective are: technologies, which may significantly improve freight transport efficiency. • Existing European policy provides a platform for bringing alternative fuels to market, while research programmes • Clean vehicle technologies may be able to be implemented are supporting the development of innovative new quicker in freight transport than in passenger transport due technologies. In the future, a greater policy focus may be to the shorter life cycles of vehicles and more regular drive needed on supporting the infrastructure requirements of cycles. alternative fuels and ensuring that Member States develop • A very large body of research has been performed on reducing clear strategies to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In the environmental impacts of aircraft through improved particular, regular assessments should be carried out to design and manufacture. This has mainly concentrated on ensure that progress is being made throughout the EU, and reducing the fuel consumption of the aircraft by reducing to justify further policies and research funding in the area drag (using advanced technologies such as flow control and of alternative transport fuels. Analysis of, and collaboration hybrid laminar flow), and reducing emissions of nitrogen with, non-EU countries could also be carried out to ensure oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM) and other pollutants that the EU remains competitive globally. from the engines. The latter research has investigated • Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, reductions in emissions through advances in combustor economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low- design, particularly using ‘lean-burn’ technology. Several carbon/zero-emissions mobility is one of the pillars of the of the technologies identified and developed through the EU’s future policy development for achieving reductions of research projects have been implemented in aircraft types CO and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, the growing that have entered service in the recent past. 2 global competitiveness and emerging business models in an • A major part of European research on ship technology for increasingly digitalised economy, together with continuous reduced emissions has taken place under the HERCULES technological advancements, call for a more integrated project and its follow-on projects. These projects have approach that creates synergies between transport and other developed and tested diesel engine designs with significantly sectors. reduced NOx and PM emissions through a range of • Current research in the field of policy design, regulations and technologies. Other projects have addressed emissions incentives related to electromobility is targeted at different from ships by developing engines with dual-fuel (diesel parts of the transport market. Research results indicate and natural gas) capability or through electric propulsion that campaigns and opportunities for testing EVs, including systems. addressing local conditions, are needed to create acceptance • Technical developments in the field of road passenger and that viable business models for EVs and the relevant vehicles have concentrated on the improvement of engines infrastructure are still problematic. Here, innovative solutions and powertrains. This includes conventional vehicles and (e.g. combining different sectors) are needed. alternative concepts such as hybrid, electric or fuel cell • EU and national bodies should continue to encourage drives. For road freight vehicles, research has focused on all types of cities to establish SUMPs, including special conventional powertrains with an emphasis on reducing consideration of low-emissions logistics aspects. fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. In addition to low fuel consumption during driving, energy efficient auxiliary power • The cooperation of companies and institutions for more units (APUs) are of great importance in the parking mode. efficient freight delivery requires more than providing good For this purpose, innovative fuel cell approaches for power platforms and encouragement. The establishment of urban generation have been examined. goods consolidation centres needs investment, prioritisation in local land-use planning, improved access regulations, • Developments for rail vehicles have concentrated on the financial incentives for cooperation and other tools. improvement of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems

to reduce CO2 and NOx emissions. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 8

• All available means of enforcement and incentive should • To support the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions be used to transform clean modes of freight transport to zero-emissions mobility, research efforts on modal shift (particularly railways) into important market players. This should be increasingly directed towards supporting this also implies a strategic assignment of investment and transition through the development of related knowledge, maintenance funds for transport infrastructure. Agreements technology and skills. on European and national strategies would assist this. • As the total demand for freight transport in Europe has • Aviation and maritime vehicles (i.e. aircraft and ships) are increased significantly in recent years, additional sectors used predominately on international operations and their should also be addressed, such as the modal shift from road regulations, particularly regarding emissions, are set by freight transport to rail, and short-sea and inland waterways international bodies. EU regulations recognise this and EU shipping. bodies are involved in the development of new regulations • Software development is a key issue for EVs. As battery through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) development is largely confined to Asia, vehicle software and International Maritime Organization (IMO). These efforts can be a competitive advantage for European industry. should continue and future policy development (e.g. in This includes battery management systems and embedded relation to a future tightening of the Committee on Aviation systems in other vehicle components. Future research should Environmental Protection (CAEP) NOx standard for aircraft focus on the monitoring and coordinating of the on-board engines should take account of the reductions in emissions systems and their communication with related road or being achieved by the different technologies arising from the energy infrastructure. research projects. • Future research into low-emissions logistics should: • The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, connected and automated vehicles in road transport -- address the promotion and use of DSPs to reduce fuel urgently requires EU action. While the technology continues used in freight delivery and servicing activities, with the to advance, society needs to focus more on the challenges specific goal of reducing GHG emissions and primary and impacts on the transport sector that will occur as a result energy consumption; of the introduction of automated vehicles. -- investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through • Future policy should further support and stimulate the use of goods consolidation centres; the optimisation, convergence and standardisation of -- include an in-depth study of the Swedish municipality infrastructure-based technologies, the full digitisation and consolidation experience to understand the wider high sophistication of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle- effects of the increasing take-up of the concept and its to-infrastructure (V2I) and infrastructure-to-vehicle (I2V) transferability across the EU. communication channels to deliver ambitious targets for reductions in greenhouse gases (GHGs). A high-level • Given the large contribution to GHG and air pollutant coordination of infrastructure investors and operators will emissions made by long distance road transport, future be required to support this. research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research on institutional aspects for more efficient and cooperative The key findings for the direction of future research are: solutions, and for increasing innovation in the sector is of • Much of the research carried out to date on alternative greatest importance for curbing the environmental impacts fuels has focused on road transport, with a small number of freight transport. of projects relevant to aviation. Further research should be • A clear trend through much of the research on aircraft and performed into the potential of alternative fuels suitable aircraft engine technology is the development of design for shipping such as LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These tools to enable the incorporation of advanced concepts in fuels are attractive as part of a long-term strategy as, in the future products, together with the development of small future, each could be replaced by a renewable alternative. components. The full development of major aircraft or engine • Further research is required on the quantification of the costs components for demonstrating new technologies is usually and benefits of switching to alternative fuels. The publication performed by the manufacturers under their own funding of detailed results concerning the emissions benefits from (and hence is not reported). However, there are benefits from European-funded pilot projects would support such efforts large-scale technology demonstration projects with results by encouraging other regions to test alternative fuels. In being available to several manufacturers. addition, life-cycle assessments should be performed for • Research has been performed into reducing emissions of a variety of alternative fuels, with application to different NOx from aircraft engines (particularly using lean-burn transport modes and in different European countries. technology) and soot (or non-volatile particulate matter • The links between the production of transport fuels and (nvPM)) emissions. It is important that future research on other industrial sectors should continue to be explored. This reduced emissions from engines addresses all pollutants (or, should include links between hydrogen generation, energy at least, NOx and soot together) so that any interdependencies systems and integrated biorefineries, in which biofuel, bio- can be considered. based chemicals and power can all be produced. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 9

• The potential for fuel cell APUs to provide significant reductions in the overall fuel consumption of large goods vehicles should be explored. • Moving research efforts from single vehicle components towards a holistic view of the transport system may provide significant benefits. This includes the behaviour of drivers, and their interaction with the vehicle via the human-machine interface and with the infrastructure. A crucial factor needed for this is the provision and exchange of data on all levels. With adjusted driving strategies and improved route choices, further fuel savings may be achievable. • The rapidly growing sector of autonomous driving (‘driverless vehicles’) should also be taken into account in future research on novel infrastructure and V2I/I2V communication technologies. • Increasing the level of automation in the transport system brings about additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging the driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and the smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport systems must be explored. Within the cleaner transport context, further research is required to determine the contribution to low-emissions mobility of automation as an alternative to the use of private vehicles and the conditions under which automated driving will contribute to cleaner transportation. • Future research efforts on automated vehicles should focus on recommended strategies for overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the operation of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) and other regulatory issues. • The integrated development and coordination of secure electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and extension of EVs and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). The combined development of the necessary infrastructure with that for hydrogen-based vehicles and other clean vehicle technologies may provide for faster and more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 10

1 Introduction

This is the fifth Research Theme Analysis Report produced performed across the projects in these sub-themes and across under the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) the full Cleaner Transport theme. The assessments of trends continuation project for the European Commission’s and gaps are mainly based on selected projects within the Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (DG- TRIP database. MOVE), which began in November 2014. It covers the EU-funded projects align with EU policy through the funding Cleaner Transport research theme. and selection process. As such, the trends identified from these The purpose of TRIP is to collect, structure, analyse and disseminate projects may not necessarily be representative of those from the results of European Union (EU) supported transport research, further afield. research financed nationally in the European Research Area (ERA) The aim of achieving reduced emissions during the transport and selected global research programmes. The TRIP web portal of people and goods has existed for many years. For emissions can be found at www.transport-research.info. related to climate change (principally carbon dioxide (CO2)), This Research Theme Analysis Report gives an overview of this has often been driven by a desire to reduce the cost of

research performed (mostly) in the EU collated by TRIP, fuel (CO2 emissions usually have a direct relationship with fuel providing a view across many projects that fall under the consumption), while for emissions related to local air quality theme title. It provides a robust and thorough assessment of (LAQ), the drivers have been mainly legislation and targets. Over the reported results from these projects and offers perspectives time, a considerable amount of research has been conducted to from scientific and policy points of view. investigate technologies and applications for reduced emissions. The initial sift of projects in the TRIP database for review in this This assessment aims to consider: study identified that over 25 % of all the projects had relevance • overall trends in cleaner transport, including key results; to the theme of cleaner transport. Therefore, the study has placed an emphasis on those projects that have resulted in • overall trends in the funding for cleaner transport research; actual reductions in emissions from transport or which have • the alignment of the research with current policy; investigated the impacts of advanced technologies on transport. • policy implications of the results from the research; Section 2 of this report presents the policy context of cleaner transport and Section 3 describes the scope of this theme • any gaps within the research theme. analysis. The subsequent sections then present reviews of the individual sub-themes (as specified above), the research The theme for this analysis was decided in consultation with environment and development, and the research activities DG-MOVE. and outcomes. Conclusions and recommendations are then The assessments for this analysis have been performed on presented at the end of the report. eight sub-themes within the theme of Cleaner Transport. The The preparation of this report has involved the analysis of set of sub-themes, selected following initial assessments of a large number of projects related to the Cleaner Transport the projects and in consultation with DG-MOVE, consists of: theme. To enhance readability, the text of this report refers to • alternative fuels; projects by their standard acronyms (where an appropriate one exists). More details about the projects, including the full titles, • modal shift; are given in the tables at the end of each sub-theme section. • electromobility; • vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime; • vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail; • low-emissions logistics; • modern infrastructure; • automation.

The topic of vehicle design and manufacture is very wide and covers a large range of possible technologies. For this review, the topic has been divided to consider land-based surface transport separately from the other modes (aviation and maritime). The projects identified have been clustered under these sub- themes. The analyses of the trends and gaps have been Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 11

2 Policy context

2.1 Cleaner transport in European transport In the urban environment, journeys tend to be shorter and policy so the switch to cleaner transport modes may be easier. The gradual phase-out of conventionally fuelled vehicles from Transport in all its forms has opened up the world so enabling city streets will be a major contributor to reductions in GHG people and goods to move (or be moved) for business or pleasure. emissions and improvements in LAQ. Travelling to different locations is now part of everyday life. However, as distances travelled have increased, and the speed The policy goals for achieving the required reductions in at which people and goods expect to travel has risen, nearly all transport emissions include: travel now uses modes of transport that consume energy and, • halve the use of conventionally fuelled vehicles in urban in so doing, create emissions. In many cases, these emissions transport and phase them out in cities by 2050; (such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG)) contribute to climate change or are harmful air pollutants (such • low-carbon fuels to meet 40 % of the demand from as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate aviation and reduce CO2 emissions from maritime bunker matter (PM)) and cause local air quality (LAQ) issues. In other fuels by 40 % by 2050; cases, such as cars and trains powered by electricity, emissions • 30 % of road freight journeys over 300 km to switch to may occur remotely through power stations. other modes by 2030 and over 50 % by 2050; These negative impacts of transport on the environment have • a European high-speed rail network to be complete by long been recognised and efforts made to reduce them. The 2050; European Commission’s 2011 Transport White Paper (European Commission, 2011) noted that the European Union (EU) • a fully functional and EU-wide multimodal Trans-European had called for a drastic reduction in global GHG emissions, Transport Network (TEN-T) to be complete by 2030; with the aim of limiting global warming to well below 2°C • connect all core network airports to the rail system by 2050 above pre-industrial levels. To assist in achieving this, the EU and connect all core seaports to the rail freight and, where needs to reduce emissions by 2050 by between 80 % and possible, the inland waterway system by the same date; 95 % compared with 1990 levels. Based on analyses of the emissions reduction potential of different sectors, the European • deploy the modernised air traffic management (ATM) Commission identified that a reduction of at least 60 % was infrastructure by 2020, based on the technologies needed from the transport sector. developed by the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) project. However, it was recognised by the Commission that the transport sector directly employed about 10 million people in In aviation, the technologies being developed under the SESAR the EU and accounted for about 5 % of gross domestic product project are aimed at delivering the full benefits of the Single (GDP). It concluded that curbing mobility was not an option. European Sky (SES) initiative. In addition to improvements Therefore, substantial improvements in technology would be in safety, increases in capacity and reductions in cost, this needed to meet the emissions reduction targets. is aimed at reducing the environmental impact of flights by The White Paper also recognised that changes in travel 10 %1. The primary contribution to the reduction in emissions patterns, including those of freight, would be required to deliver is from increasing efficiency by reducing suboptimal routing the improved efficiency using a combination of modes. of flights.

1 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-525_en.htm/ Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 12

Another key policy aimed at reducing the emissions from 2.2 Cleaner transport in European research aviation was implemented in 2012 when aviation was included programmes in the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). This created the Past and ongoing EU research projects have been scrutinised first major market-based measure for aviation in the world. when preparing this Research Theme Analysis Report on Although the scope of the EU ETS for aviation was subsequently cleaner transport. Because of the close relationship between reduced to flights within the European Economic Area (EEA), the emissions from transport and fuel consumption, much of the capping of emissions from the sector at the average of 2005 research performed into increasing efficiency (for economic to 2007 levels (allowances for emissions above this level must benefits) also contributes to reducing emissions. Therefore, a be acquired from other sectors) provides a strong contribution very large number of projects included in the TRIP database to emissions reductions. From 2021, the International Civil are of potential relevance to this theme. Aviation Organization (ICAO) will introduce its own market- based measure in the form of the Carbon Offsetting and To provide a focus for this review, it was decided to concentrate Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) and the on projects that may have had, or have the potential to EU has committed to joining the scheme from the start. have, a direct impact on emissions (GHG and LAQ-related) from transport. Transport systems are extremely complex In the aviation area, the long-term strategy is guided by the so reductions in emissions are most likely to arise from Advisory Council for Aviation and Innovation Research in Europe combinations of a number of developments in different (ACARE). ACARE has published its Flightpath 2050 (ACARE, n.d.), technologies. It was determined that larger projects, with a vision of the development of aviation towards 2050. Included significant budgets and/or a number of industrial partners, in the goals of Flightpath 2050 are: are most likely to include developments and demonstrations 1. European research and innovation strategies are of combinations of technologies that can be applied to actual jointly defined by all stakeholders, public and private, transport systems, so leading to real improvements in transport and implemented in a coordinated way with individual emissions. For the purposes of this review, it was decided to responsibility. focus on EU-funded projects with total budgets of at least EUR 5 million and national projects with relevant industrial partners. 2. Creation of a network of multidisciplinary technology clusters based on collaboration between industry, universities and The screening of projects in TRIP using these criteria identified research institutes. 255 projects (229 EU-funded and 26 nationally funded projects) with a total budget of over EUR 2.8 billion. 3. Identification, maintenance and ongoing development of strategic European aerospace test, simulation and Under the EU’s 5th Framework Programme for Research and development facilities. The ground and airborne validation Technological Development (FP5), which ran from 1998 to and certification processes are integrated where appropriate. 2002, the primary focus relevant to cleaner transport was on sustainable mobility in urban areas. There was also a growing 4. Students are attracted to careers in aviation. Courses element of technology development for aviation, particularly offered by European universities closely match the needs for unconventional or very large aircraft. of the aviation industry, its research establishments and administrations, and evolve continuously as those needs The analysis of projects in TRIP shows a considerable increase develop. in the number of relevant projects under the subsequent FP6 programme (2002-2006). This shows that there was a In addition to the completion of the SES, the European growing prioritisation of the cleaner transport topic and an Commission also aims to create a single European railway increase in funding for major research and demonstration area to improve the performance of the railway system. As projects. The projects funded under FP6 indicate a significant well as the direct reduction in emissions from the sector emphasis on the development of advanced technologies to through increased efficiency, the reduction in costs should also reduce fuel consumption and emissions from road transport. encourage more passengers and freight to shift from road to There was also a growing number of projects investigating rail, further cutting overall emissions. alternative fuels, such as hydrogen. The 2011 Transport White Paper includes targets for reducing In the aviation area, there was a strong emphasis on and eliminating conventionally fuelled vehicles from urban developing technologies for reduced emissions from engines, areas by 2050. Following this lead, several European cities particularly emissions of NOx and PM. In comparison, there have announced plans to remove the more polluting vehicles. was relatively little research performed into reducing For example, London has announced the ‘ultra low emission emissions from maritime transport. zone’ (ULEZ) to start in 2019, while Paris, Athens and Madrid plan to ban diesel cars and vans by 20252.

2 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/02/four-of-worlds-biggest-cities-to-ban-diesel-cars-from-their-centres Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 13

Under the FP7 programme (2007-2013), there was a very This ambitious initiative aims to improve the safety and large increase in funding for research on cleaner transport. efficiency of the European ATM system, while enabling The focus in road transport was on increasing the efficiency increased capacity to allow for future growth in demand, of conventionally fuelled vehicles. There was also an through cooperation and interconnectivity between the emphasis on the development of technology for electric different national ATM systems employed. vehicles (EVs), including the necessary infrastructure for The Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) is developing their widespread use. In aviation, there was a continued and demonstrating technologies for reducing noise and emphasis on technologies to reduce NOx and PM emissions emissions of CO and other pollutants from future aircraft. from aircraft engines. There was also significant research 2 The follow-on Clean Sky 2 programme has a budget of EUR 4 on the development of advanced technologies to improve billion for technology development under a number of themes, the fuel efficiency of aircraft, including technologies such as including novel aircraft configurations, advances in wing hybrid laminar flow for drag reduction. design and aerodynamics, and breakthroughs in propulsion The FP7 programme was superseded in 2014 by the Horizon technologies. 2020 programme, which will run to 2020. Under Horizon 2020, The Clean Sky (including Clean Sky 2) JTI is developing many of the key elements of cleaner transport remain priorities, technologies that can be applied to a range of aircraft types, with a particular emphasis on improvements in fuel efficiency including large passenger aircraft, ‘green regional aircraft’ and and reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO ). For road 2 advanced fast rotorcraft. vehicles, there is a continued emphasis on the development of electric vehicle technologies, while the emphasis for aviation Major programmes such as SESAR and Clean Sky perform their remains to advance technologies to reduce CO2 emissions. own research, development and technological demonstration activities. However, they also draw heavily on the results from In addition to the research performed under the EU’s FPs, the research performed under the FPs, so providing a route for significant technology development has been achieved under the exploitation of those results. This report is focused on the other major EU programmes, particularly in the aviation field. research performed under the EU FPs and national programmes The SESAR project, led by EUROCONTROL, has been developing that provides the technologies that are exploited through these the technology required to implement the SES initiative. major programmes and other development activities. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 14

3 Scope of the Cleaner Transport theme

As noted in Section 2, there is an identified need to • electromobility – the transition of road transport from fossil reduce emissions from transport to meet European Union fuels to electric power; (EU) and global targets for limiting climate change and • low-emissions logistics – the transition of freight transport improving local air quality (LAQ). to reduce emissions; A range of options exists to reduce emissions from transport, • vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime – including the use of alternative fuels (either to reduce life-cycle the development of technologies to increase the efficiency emissions by using renewable sources or by using fossil-based of, and reduce the emissions from, aircraft and ships; fuels with different chemistry that produce less carbon dioxide

(CO2) per unit of energy), advanced vehicle technologies or • vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail – the changes in the use of vehicles (including modal shift). development of technologies to increase the efficiency of, and reduce the emissions from, road vehicles (cars, vans, The approach to this Cleaner Transport thematic review was to lorries, etc.) and trains; cluster research projects under a number of limited, but relevant, sub-themes to focus on emerging issues (e.g. alternative fuels) • automation – the introduction of automated transport and more traditional topics such as developing new technologies capabilities to increase efficiency and reduce emissions; to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from vehicles. • modern infrastructure – the infrastructure required to The selected sub-themes are: support the transition to alternative fuels and to support reductions in emissions from vehicles. • alternative fuels – the use of non-fossil fuels to power vehicles in all modes; The research performed under these sub-themes is described in • modal shift – the reduction in emissions through the transfer detail in section 4. of passenger and freight movements to more energy- efficient and less polluting modes; Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 15

4 Sub-theme assessments

This section describes the assessments of each of 4.1.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded the sub-themes in turn. For brevity, when discussing research individual projects, the descriptions refer to those projects The projects reviewed in this sub-theme assessment include by their acronym (particularly for projects funded by the research carried out from 2001 onwards and, in total, cover European Union (EU), which commonly have an acronym over EUR 700 million worth of funding. The majority of these as well as a full project title). Further information on the projects have received funding under one of the EU’s Framework projects that are relevant to the sub-theme, including the Programmes for Research and Technological Development such full project title, is given in the tables at the end of each as FP5, FP6, FP7 or Horizon 2020. Other European research sub-theme section. and development (R&D) programmes (e.g. Intelligent Energy 4.1 Alternative fuels Europe (IEE)) have been another source of research funding. 4.1.1 Introduction to the sub-theme Over the period of time covered by this sub-theme assessment, significant progress has been made to kick-start the deployment European transport is heavily dependent on petroleum-based of alternative fuels in Europe. In a number of cases, alternatively fuels such as petrol and diesel, with 94 % of transport fuel fuelled vehicles are now an option to be considered in vehicle derived from oil3. The production and use of these fuels purchase decisions. generates large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO ), which is 2 The screening process for this review identified a significant number contributing towards climate change. In addition, harmful air of large-scale demonstration projects that have been important pollutant emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides for enabling the progress in alternative fuels to date. Although pilot (SOx) and particulate matter (PM) are produced, which can cause projects are costly, they are a key step in the commercialisation local air quality (LAQ) issues. of new technologies and enable practical experience to be gained Therefore, many alternatives to petrol and diesel are being that would be difficult to achieve in a purely research environment. developed to help reduce the environmental impacts of Pilot projects have enabled the feasibility of alternative fuels to transport fuels and the dependence on oil. Alternative fuels be evaluated in greater detail and for potential business cases to have the potential to contribute to cleaner transport systems be developed, while the transfer of learning to other regions has by reducing emissions of life-cycle CO2 and air pollutants. They also been important. These factors can all help to accelerate the are being developed for a wide range of transport modes and deployment of alternative fuels in Europe. are applicable to passenger and freight transport. In particular, hydrogen projects have received significant funding. In Examples of alternative fuels include advanced biofuels, part, this has been facilitated by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint electricity, hydrogen and synthetic fuels. In addition, fuels Undertaking (FCH JU), a public-private partnership established in based on natural gas (such as compressed natural gas (CNG), 2008 with the aim of accelerating the deployment of hydrogen liquefied natural gas (LNG)) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and fuel cell technologies. Under FP7, the FCH JU provided a are identified as alternative fuels by the Alternative Fuels financial contribution of EUR 168 million to the transport and Infrastructure Directive (AFID) and have the potential for long- refuelling infrastructure research area. This level of support is set term oil substitution. Speeding up the deployment of low- to continue and in the funding period 2014-2020 the FCH JU has emissions alternative energy for transport is a main element an estimated budget of EUR 1.4 billion across all research areas. of the European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility (European Similarly, in the biofuels research area, a number of initiatives are Commission, 2016a). Apart from electricity (which is analysed in place to support the development and integration of sustainable in the electromobility sub-theme), research into all the other biofuels in Europe. For example, the European Biofuels Technology alternative fuels mentioned above is described in this sub-theme Platform (EBTP) was established in 2006 to contribute towards analysis. the development of cost-competitive, world-class biofuels. The The aim of this analysis is to provide an insight into the projects EBTP is an industry-led stakeholder forum that is intended to drive that have delivered real results in terms of emissions reductions innovation, promote knowledge transfer and improve European or have resulted in technology commercialisation. Therefore, competitiveness. The Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking the screening process focused on large-scale EU projects (BBI JU) was also established in June 2014 as one of the pillars that received funding of around EUR 5 million or more and of Europe’s Bioeconomy Strategy and is expected to further the projects that involved a large number of partner organisations development of advanced biofuels. across Europe or had important collaborations with industry. In addition, a number of significant national-level projects were also included. Table 4-2 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme analysis, their duration and source of funding.

3 https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/cpt_en Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 16

In addition to funding programmes, public-private partnerships projects taking place across Europe for these fuels. In comparison, and technology platforms, European research activities in the synthetic fuels have received lower levels of investment and are alternative fuels sub-theme is being encouraged by other more at the research stage. activities initiated by the European Commission. For example, This analysis aims to provide a summary of the projects that one element of the recently published Strategy for Low-Emission have delivered improvements in environmental performance or Mobility is speeding up the deployment of low-emissions that are demonstrating excellent emissions reduction potential for alternative energy for transport4. European legislation has the future. As such, a summary of noteworthy projects for each also guided the mandate of research programmes. Legislation fuel type is provided below. Further information on the research relevant to the alternative fuels sub-theme includes the Fuel activities that have been/are being carried out can be found in the Quality Directive, the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive full list of projects that were reviewed (Table 4-2) or by searching and the Renewable Energy Directive. the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) database. 4.1.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 4.1.2.1 Hydrogen Only one purely nationally funded project was identified during the Hydrogen can be used to help decarbonise transport, especially screening process for this sub-theme assessment. This is likely to if the hydrogen is generated using renewable energy. In be because the screening process focused on larger scale projects, addition, hydrogen-fuelled vehicles produce no harmful tailpipe either in terms of value or the number of partner organisations emissions (the only emissions are water). Therefore, they participating in the research. In general, national-level projects are offer significant potential to improve LAQ. A large number of smaller scale, less well publicised or focus on research at an early hydrogen demonstration projects have been carried out across stage rather than being large-scale, proof-of-concept projects. Europe and there are ambitious plans (led by the FCH 2 JU, the As demonstrated by the diversity of partners involved in European- follow-on CH JU, under Horizon 2020) for further activities in funded research projects, there is significant collaboration across this area in the coming years. Significant projects are: Europe on the topic of alternative fuels. Analysis of European- • CHIC (2010-2016) was a flagship zero-emissions bus project, funded projects indicates that most European countries are which aimed to demonstrate the technology readiness for participating in alternative fuels projects, while European networks fuel cell electric buses in European cities. During the project, are helping with knowledge sharing. A number of countries have 23 partners from 8 countries collaborated to enable the also established funding schemes to support the development of operation of 56 fuel cell electric buses and the deployment alternative fuels and deployment of alternatively fuelled vehicles. of 9 hydrogen refuelling stations. Over 8 million kilometres 4.1.2 Research activities were travelled, with savings of over 4 million litres of diesel and an estimated 6 000 t of CO2. The projects included in this sub-theme assessment have • H2ME (2015-2020) and H2ME 2 (2016-2022) aim to develop conducted research into a diverse range of fuel types and their a European network of hydrogen refuelling stations and suitability for all major transport modes. In terms of fuel type, significantly expand the fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fleet. hydrogen projects have received the most funding (more than the In H2ME, activities are focused in Germany, Scandinavia, other fuel types combined – shown in Table 4-1) and there are France and the UK. The learning from this will be used to significantly more high-value projects exploring the feasibility of help other countries develop their own hydrogen mobility this fuel. CNG, LPG, LNG and biofuels have also attracted significant strategies. H2ME 2 aims to treble the existing fuel cell research attention. Along with hydrogen projects, CNG, LPG and fleet in Europe by deploying 1 230 new hydrogen-fuelled LNG projects tend to be larger and attract a higher average level vehicles. Hydrogen refuelling stations with on-site hydrogen of funding per project. This is mainly a reflection of the number generation via electrolysis will also be rigorously tested. of large-scale trials, pilot projects and infrastructure deployment

Table 4-1 Total number and funding of research projects in the alternative fuels sub-theme (by fuel type) Fuel type Number of projects Estimated total funding Average project value

Hydrogen 22 EUR 449 687 915 EUR 20 440 359

Biofuels 11 EUR 116 119 002 EUR 10 556 272

CNG, LPG and LNG 9 EUR 221 468 947 EUR 24 607 660

Synthetic 4 EUR 4 305 610 EUR 10 764 652

Note: Several projects covered many fuel types; the funding for these projects has been double-counted in this table, rather than attributing a percentage of the total funding to specific fuel types.

4 http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/strategies/news/2016-07-20-decarbonisation_en Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 17

• CUTE (2001-2006) demonstrated the potential of a European • BIOMOTION (2007-2010) aimed to help increase the use transport system based on fuel cell and hydrogen technology. of biofuels by improving awareness of them. The project During the project, 27 hydrogen buses were put into service established an expert cluster, 7 regional biofuel information and, in 2 years of operation, travelled a total distance of over centres and promoted the use of sustainable biofuels 850,000 km across 9 cities and transported over 4 million through the ‘BioMotion-Tour’, which ran through 7 European passengers. countries and 35 cities. • HyFLEET:CUTE (2006-2009) followed on from three earlier • ENCLOSE (2012-2015) aimed to improve the energy projects (including CUTE) to further test fuel cell buses and efficiency of city logistics and investigated the use of a install the necessary infrastructure. The project involved the number of alternative fuels, including biogas. The strategy operation of 33 hydrogen fuel cell buses across 9 cities (7 in has been incorporated into the Sustainable Urban Logistic Europe, Beijing and Perth) and 14 hydrogen-fuelled internal Plans (SULPs) of 9 cities across Europe. It is estimated that

combustion engine buses in Berlin. Over 2 million kilometres by 2020, annual savings of over 55 000 tonnes of CO2

were travelled over the course of the project, which was equivalent (tCO2e) will be achieved. considered to be an outstanding success. • BIOGASMAX (2006-2009) created a network of biogas • HySYS (2005-2009) was a more research focused project demonstration projects in 5 countries across Europe. Based that contributed to the development of several low-cost on the work carried out, the project developed a proposal for components for fuel cell and electric drive systems. The a common European standard for biomethane fuel quality. project had close links to industry partners and a number of scientific papers were published as a result of the work 4.1.2.3 CNG, LPG and LNG carried out. CNG, LPG (propane or butane) and LNG have lower carbon emissions compared with those for petrol and diesel. This 4.1.2.2 Biofuels is because of the lower carbon content in the fuel, which Efforts to research, develop and deploy sustainable biomass- results in lower carbon emissions per kilometre travelled. The derived fuels such as bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas are air pollutant emissions from these fuels are considered to underway in Europe. Biofuels are a renewable alternative be similar to those for petrol. The research projects in this (and can be used in a similar way) to oil-derived fuels, offer area are generally high value and focus on issues such as carbon savings and, in some cases, may reduce certain the development of engine technology and infrastructure. A air pollutant emissions. To date, much of the research selection of key projects is summarised below. has centred on road fuels. However, biofuels for aviation • GasOn (2015-2018) and INGAS (2008-2012) have similar are also being produced in small quantities. The usability aims – to exploit the main benefits of gas-powered engines of biofuels for aviation (when produced to the required by developing dedicated, CNG-only engines. INGAS developed specification) has already been demonstrated. Therefore, technology to allow for a 65 % biomethane gas blend to be research efforts usually focus on the technology for used, with the potential for achieving close to zero well-to- production and the scaling up of production to commercial wheel emissions. Meanwhile, GasOn is actively researching levels. In road transport, biofuels can be blended in relatively methods to achieve future CO emissions targets and reduce small quantities with conventional fuels and used in normal 2 air pollutant emissions from vehicles. vehicles or in higher concentrations in dedicated flexible fuel vehicles that have specially designed engines. Some key • HDGAS (2015-2018) and LNG Blue Corridors (2013-2017) projects for a range of biofuels are listed below. focus on the use of LNG as an alternative fuel. HDGAS aims to provide a breakthrough by integrating gas engines into • BEST (2006-2009) demonstrated the potential to substitute heavy-duty vehicles. The technology is expected to deliver conventionally fuelled vehicles with bioethanol-fuelled CO emissions that are 10 % lower than the current state ones. During the project, over 77 000 flex-fuel cars (which 2 of the art. LNG Blue Corridors is building 14 LNG refuelling have engines designed to run on more than one fuel, such stations across Europe and is embarking on a demonstration as bioethanol and petrol) and 310 E85 pumps (E85 is an project involving 100 LNG heavy-duty vehicles. Liquefied ethanol-petrol blend containing up to 85 % ethanol) were biomethane will also be tested to investigate the potential tested across 9 sites. In addition, over 190 bioethanol buses of higher CO savings. and 12 ED95 pumps (ED95 is an ethanol-based fuel for 2 adapted diesel engines) were tested over 5 sites. A variety of • HERCULES-2 (2015-2018) is part of a long-term R&D other vehicles running on different bioethanol/petrol blends programme that targets the development of a fuel-flexible were demonstrated and an assessment for sustainably large marine engine. The dual-fuel combustion engine uses scaling up bioethanol production was carried out. alternative fuels (such as LPG and LNG) in a lean premixed combustion process with a pilot diesel flame for ignition. • BIOSIRE (2008-2011) aimed to transform the environmental In particular, this has been shown to limit NOx and soot credentials of transport in tourist areas. The results showed emissions. a measurable shift towards biodiesel and EVs in the participating regions. The knowledge gained from this could be transferred to other regions. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 18

4.1.2.4 Synthetic fuels Research is also underway to test the use of alternative fuels in heavy-duty vehicles used for freight transport. Chemical conversion processes can be used to produce Projects such as ENCLOSE and BEAUTY (2009-2011) have synthetic hydrocarbon fuels with similar properties to those demonstrated the potential for biofuels to help achieve future for conventional fuels. Synthetic fuels can use the existing emissions limits. These projects have also helped to overcome infrastructure for fuels, are compatible with existing engines technical challenges such as fuel conversion efficiency and and can be used in blends or as a substitute for diesel or jet cold startability. Another project, FELICITAS (2005-2008), fuel (EBTP, 2011). A wide variety of feedstocks can be used investigated fuel cell powertrains and the performance of to produce synthetic fuels, including biomass and natural gas. hydrogen powered vehicles, while HDGAS investigated the This can contribute to energy security. In addition, synthetic applicability of LNG. fuels are virtually sulphur-free and result in lower NOx and PM emissions when used. A selection of research projects in this Biofuels and synthetic fuels have been investigated for use in area are shown below. aircraft. The research projects identified in this assessment were generally smaller scale and at an earlier stage of development • FIRST (2010-2014) conducted fuel injector research for (than for the use of alternative fuels in road transport). They aircraft engines. During the project, alternative fuel blends developed innovative fuels and considered the scaling up of (such as Fischer-Tropsch fuels) were explored with the aim production capability (e.g. ITAKA). As the technologies are of reducing soot emissions. not yet optimised, quantitative information on the potential • Bio-SNG (2006-2009) demonstrated the feasibility of environmental impacts is not available. However, the next biomass-derived synthetic fuels. The pathway used in this stage will be to conduct larger scale trials. Another project, project is based on the gasification of wood chips to produce ECATS (2005-2010), developed a network to further develop a synthetic natural gas (Bio-SNG). A small scale industrial and share scientific expertise in aviation, atmospheric science plant has been set up based on the technology. and industry. • ITAKA (2012-2015) investigated the potential for the large- In the shipping sector, a number of research projects are being scale production of sustainable synthetic paraffinic kerosene conducted to develop ships that use alternative fuels. Most (SPK) for jet fuels. The fuel was based on biomass. notably, HERCULES-2 is developing fuel-flexible engines that will enable high performance and low-emission transport, while 4.1.3 Research outcomes MC-WAP (2005-2010) developed fuel cell systems suitable for large ships. 4.1.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 4.1.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use The research projects in this sub-theme aim to develop cleaner Many of the projects reviewed in this sub-theme have already transport systems through the use of alternative fuels that shown excellent transferability. This has especially been the result in the emission of lower quantities of CO and/or air 2 case for hydrogen fuel cell bus demonstration projects, where pollutants. It is generally considered that a mix of alternative subsequent projects have expanded on the work started in fuels will be required to create a low-carbon transport system earlier projects. This approach is helping to deliver long- in the future, with different fuels showing potential for certain lasting benefits (such as energy savings and reductions in applications. For example, biofuels and synthetic fuels are emissions) in the pilot cities. One example of this is the often seen as renewable, direct replacements for oil-derived HyFLEET:CUTE project, which followed on from three earlier fuels. This is because they can be used in existing vehicles (if projects. To support transferability, it is often beneficial for blended with conventional fuels), are suitable for a variety of projects to produce a summary of the key learning outcomes. transport modes and can use the existing infrastructure used This can help follower towns and cities to set up pilot projects by conventional fuels. On the other hand, hydrogen powered more easily and can enable a faster transition to alternatively vehicles offer the potential for significant improvements in LAQ fuelled transport. (as no harmful air pollutants are released when the fuel is used), but require specialised vehicles and infrastructure. 4.1.3.3 Indications for future research In terms of research progress, a variety of alternatively fuelled Much of the research carried out has concentrated on the vehicles are already being tested for buses in public transport development of alternative fuels for road transport. A few systems across Europe. For example, projects that were part of aviation projects were identified by the project screening, the City VITAlity and Sustainability (CIVITAS) initiative, such as but the shipping sector has received relatively little research MOBILIS (2005-2009) and TELLUS (2002-2006), have tested attention. Therefore, further research should be conducted to CNG and biofuels for buses, while a number of cities have trialled assess the potential of alternative fuels suitable for shipping hydrogen fuel cell electric buses during projects such as CHIC such as LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These fuels are attractive and HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS (2006-2011). Many of the vehicles as part of a long-term strategy as, in the future, each could be tested during these projects continue to run on the streets under replaced by a renewable alternative (biomethane could replace real market operation conditions after the projects have finished, LNG, biomethanol could replace methanol and hydrogen could so delivering continued emissions benefits. Other projects have be produced from renewable resources). also tested the use of alternative fuels during routine use in cars. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 19

Further research on the quantification of the costs and given to support the infrastructure requirements of alternative benefits of switching to alternative fuels is another relevant fuels and ensure that Member States develop clear strategies area of work. To support activities in this area, detailed results to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In particular, regular concerning the emissions benefits from European-funded pilot assessments should be carried out to ensure that progress is projects could be published. This could help to convince other being made throughout the EU, and to justify further policies regions to also test alternative fuels. In addition, life-cycle and research funding in the area of alternative transport assessments for a variety of alternative fuels, transport modes fuels. To avoid fragmenting the market, it is important that and European countries could be performed. the benefits of the cross-border collaborations on research projects are exploited when developing regulations regarding The links between transport fuels and other sectors should the deployment of alternative fuels in different Member States. continue to be explored. For example, promising areas of Analysis of, and collaboration with, non-EU countries could also research include the links between hydrogen and energy be carried out to ensure that the EU remains to be competitive systems, in addition to the potential for integrated biorefineries globally. in which biofuel, bio-based chemicals and power could all be produced. Significant resources have been invested in projects developing and demonstrating the use of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles, 4.1.3.4 Implications for future policy development particularly buses, including the refuelling infrastructure. The lessons of these projects should be collated and, if it is shown Existing European policy provides a platform for bringing that the technology has been successful in reducing emissions alternative fuels to the market, while research funding reliably and sustainably, policy should be developed to promote programmes are supporting the development of innovative new similar applications on a wider basis. technologies. In the future, a greater focus may need to be Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 20

4.1.4 List of projects Table 4-2 Projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-2 Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ALFA-BIRD Alternative Fuels and Biofuels for Aircraft Development 2008-2012 EU (FP7-TPT) https://goo.gl/n4uN4y

ALTER-MOTIVE Deriving effective least-cost policy strategies for 2008-2011 EU (IEE) ALTERnative autoMOTIVE concepts and alternative fuels https://goo.gl/lLvNb8

BEAUTY Bio-ethanol Engine for Advanced Urban Transport by Light 2009-2011 EU (FP7-TPT) Commercial Vehicle & Heavy Duty (BEAUTY) https://goo.gl/phG4hh

BEST Bioethanol for Sustainable Transport 2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) https://goo.gl/dor1bM

BIOGASMAX Biogas Market Expansion to 2020 2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) https://goo.gl/Tvg4ky

BIOMOTION Biofuels in Motion Information, Motivation and Conversion 2007-2010 EU (IEE) Strategies for Biofuels with Consideration of the Special Regional Structures https://goo.gl/7qLleR

BIOSIRE Biofuels and Electric Propulsion Creating Sustainable 2008-2011 EU (IEE) Transport in Tourism Resorts https://goo.gl/URglil

Bio-SNG Demonstration of the Production and Utilisation of 2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) from Solid Biofuels https://goo.gl/O0y6xl

CELINA Fuel Cell Application in a New Configured Aircraft 2005-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/K0QlzS

CHIC Clean Hydrogen in European Cities 2010-2016 EU (FP7-JTI) https://goo.gl/8jp4Lr

CUTE Clean Urban Transport for Europe 2001-2006 EU (FP5-EESD) https://goo.gl/3L4LzF

DREAMCAR Direct Methanol Fuel Cell System for Car Applications 2001-2005 EU (FP5-EESD) https://goo.gl/0fkR9C

DuraPEM Active and stable platinum-transition metal catalysts for 2010-2014 National (Austria) oxygen reduction at high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) https://goo.gl/hFvwez

ECATS Environmentally Compatible Air Transport System 2005-2010 EU (FP6-AERO) https://goo.gl/lEsv6y

ECTOS Ecological City Transport System 2001-2005 EU (FP5 EESD) https://goo.gl/SYuluv

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and 2012-2015 EU (IEE) mid-sized European Historic Towns https://goo.gl/Nt02me

FELICITAS Fuel-cell Powertrains and Clustering in Heavy-duty Transports 2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-2) https://goo.gl/qINR5b

FIRST Fuel Injector Research for Sustainable Transport 2010-2014 EU (FP7-TPT) https://goo.gl/J14xaU Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 21

Table 4-2 (continued) Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

GasOn Gas-Only internal combustion engines 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/1IDJqq

GREENAIR Generation of Hydrogen by Kerosene Reforming via 2009-2012 EU (FP7-TPT) Efficient and Low Emission new Alternative, Innovative, Refined Technologies for Aircraft Application https://goo.gl/cCRPyZ

H2ME Hydrogen Mobility Europe 2015-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/9M9OeD

H2ME 2 Hydrogen Mobility Europe 2 2016-2022 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/Deqs3b

H2OCEAN Development of a wind-wave power open-sea platform 2012-2014 EU (FP7-TPT) equipped for hydrogen generation with support for multiple users of energy https://goo.gl/9cAObY

H2REF Development of a Cost Effective and Reliable Hydrogen 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) Fuel Cell Vehicle Refuelling System https://goo.gl/L3pprU

HDGAS Heavy Duty Gas Engines integrated into Vehicles 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/NtCoQ4

HERCULES-2 Fuel Flexible, Near-Zero Emissions, Adaptive Performance 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) Marine Engine https://goo.gl/VvvBDs

HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS Deployment of Innovative Low Power Fuel Cell Vehicle 2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) Fleets To Initiate an Early Market for Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel in Europe https://goo.gl/KQNhWP

HyFLEET:CUTE Hydrogen for Clean Urban Transport in Europe 2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) https://goo.gl/zL1A6P

HYICE Optimisation of a Hydrogen Powered Internal Combustion 2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3) Engine https://goo.gl/Fdw8rI

HySYS Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicle System Component Development 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3) https://goo.gl/DfRCoi

HyTRAN Hydrogen and fuel-Cell Technologies for Road Transport 2004-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3) https://goo.gl/t9ftDs

HyWays Development of a harmonised “European Hydrogen Energy 2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Roadmap” by a balanced group of partners from industry, European regions and technical and socio-economic scenario and modelling experts https://goo.gl/bh1mwM

INGAS Integrated Gas Powertrain - Low Emission, CO2 Optimised 2008-2012 EU (FP7-TPT) and Efficient CNG Engines for Passenger Cars (PC) and light duty vehicles (LDV) https://goo.gl/hoaeQV

INSPIRE Integration of Novel Stack Components for Performance, 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) Improved Durability and Lower Cost https://goo.gl/TkNQ97 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 22

Table 4-2 (continued) Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ITAKA Initiative Towards sustAinable Kerosene for Aviation 2012-2015 EU (FP7-ENERGY) https://goo.gl/iYqkEo

LNG Blue Corridors LNG Blue Corridors 2013-2017 EU (FP7-SST) https://goo.gl/DCfdef

MC-WAP Molten-carbonate fuel Cells for Waterborne Application 2005-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3) https://goo.gl/2eFQ9U

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-2) https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

SWARM Demonstration of Small 4-Wheel fuel cell passenger 2012-2016 EU (FP7-JTI) vehicle Applications in Regional and Municipal transport https://goo.gl/9w0AVy

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

TIMECOP-AE Toward Innovative Methods for Combustion Prediction in 2006-2010 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) Aero-Engines https://goo.gl/hmlYKk

VOLUMETRIQ Volume Manufacturing of PEM FC Stacks for Transportation 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) and In-line Quality Assurance https://goo.gl/qlQFSC

ZERO REGIO Lombardia & Rhein-Main towards Zero Emission: 2004-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1) Development and Demonstration of Infrastructure Systems for Hydrogen as an Alternative Motor Fuel https://goo.gl/1NT5r7

4.2 Modal shift and 3 were funded by national programmes. Table 4-3 lists 4.2.1 Introduction to the sub-theme the projects that were reviewed during this sub-theme analysis, their duration and source of funding. Modal shift has been a longstanding goal that can make a significant contribution to the decarbonisation of the transport 4.2.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded sector, one of the EU’s key environmental policy objectives. research The European Commission has set specific modal shift targets The EU-funded research on modal shift is largely focused to achieve a more sustainable, safe and efficient integrated on urban transport. Combined with environmental impact transport system. Related strategies and initiatives focus on and climate change policies, this research aims to create a shifting freight from road to less polluting modes, such as culture for clean urban mobility via the development and railway, maritime/short-sea shipping and inland waterway implementation of incentives and measures for a modal shift to transport. The objective for passenger transport is to reduce active travel (cycling and walking), public transport and shared the attractiveness of the private car as a transport alternative mobility schemes. in favour of more sustainable means, particularly in congested urban areas. Building on those policies, the Commission Research on modal shift during the decade up to 2010 was recently published its ‘European Strategy for low-emission largely associated with the CIVITAS initiative. This included mobility’. The main elements include the shift to lower- the implementation of a wide range of integrated, innovative emissions transport modes and zero-emissions vehicles. The and sustainable urban transport strategies and measures role of cities is explicitly stipulated in the strategy in terms for passengers and freight across several European cities. of promoting sustainable urban mobility; the majority of the Many of these made real differences to citizens’ mobility research projects reviewed in this sub-theme are focused on and quality of life. Urban transport is also dominant in recent urban mobility. Modal shift actions often include the concept of research that includes projects addressing, in principle, the intermodality. Projects addressing such topics are also included same themes. However, these now concentrate on specific in this analysis. actions with increased sophistication (e.g. introducing innovative technologies, intelligent transport systems (ITS), A total of 28 research projects were identified under this sub- and an increased use of clean and energy efficient vehicles). theme. Of these, 25 were funded by EU research programmes Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 23

Moreover, a common activity across several urban transport • RENAISSANCE – implementing a clean mini-bus fleet, projects is the promotion/dissemination and training actions converting public transport diesel buses to CNG and for increasing the awareness of sustainable modes and for retrofitting service car fleets; influencing people’s travel behaviour towards adopting a less • Related measures of PORTIS include charging e-buses with energy consuming mobility pattern. alternative energy and introducing a hybrid and innovative In addition to urban transport, projects in this sub-theme public transport system. address modal shift in passenger tourism transport. Long- distance freight transport is addressed in only two projects. 4.2.2.1.2 Enhancing active mobility – walking and cycling Most cities aspire to encourage walking and cycling by 4.2.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded establishing new spaces for pedestrians and designing suitable projects infrastructure to ensure safety and comfort for ‘active mobility’. Only three projects were identified under this sub-theme, all The CIVITAS initiative alone realised 27 innovative measures funded by Germany. Research undertaken in two recently for better walking and cycling facilities in 20 different cities completed national projects follows recent EU directions towards from 2002 to 2012. Related projects examined implemented zero-emissions vehicles for a cleaner urban transport system and the following measures: comprised the introduction of e-bikes for urban commuters to • MOBILIS – developing a pedestrian zone and accessibility train stations and heavy electric trucks (e-trucks) for urban freight scheme, developing an integrated and extended cycling network, logistics. The ongoing project addresses the topic of emissions promoting safe and increased bicycle use and its integration reduction through modal shift. It adopts a wider, theoretical with public transport services, and redesigning public spaces; approach aimed at the development of all-encompassing future mobility system scenarios that would eventually be employed • TELLUS – creating dedicated bicycle lanes; to evaluate new technologies and the impact they have on air • TRENDSETTER – creating bike-and-ride parking and other pollution and the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). facilities, introducing car-free zones and extending the 4.2.2 Research activities bicycle road network; • RENAISSANCE – closing missing links in bicycle path network; 4.2.2.1 Urban transport and introducing a wayfinding and information system that This sub-theme includes five completed CIVITAS projects includes a new range of pedestrian signage, and street (MOBILIS (2005-2009), TELLUS (2002-2006), MIRACLES furniture, pedestrian orientation points, bus shelters, benches (2002-2006) TRENDSETTER (2000-2005) and RENAISSANCE and cycle racks; (2008-2012)) and the ongoing PORTIS (2016-2020) project. • PORTIS – foreseeing the reallocation of road space for The overarching objective of all these multi-initiative projects walking and cycling. is to promote cleaner and better transport in cities. Related activities of each project are discussed in accordance with each In addition to the CIVITAS projects, the MIDAS (2006-2008) theme in the following sections. project designed and implemented a range of measures to encourage the use of walking and cycling. The ASTUTE (2006- 4.2.2.1.1 Cleaner fleets and zero-emissions vehicles 2009) project identified 10 barriers to walking and cycling, and The introduction of cleaner fleets and zero-emissions vehicles developed a best practice toolkit to overcome these – which, in is vital for the reduction of emissions in urban conglomerates. turn, was used to implement related actions in municipalities. In this field, CIVITAS projects have implemented a variety of The MOBILE2020 (2011-2014) project created a user-friendly measures including: toolkit (carbon calculator) to visualise and estimate the CO2 reduction potential by increasing bicycle use in small and • MOBILIS – deploying cleaner-fuelled buses and boats, medium-sized towns – 11 of which began construction of new introducing passenger-friendly waterbuses, and introducing cycling infrastructure during the project’s duration. Also within biogas and particulate filters for buses; the urban fabric, the BITIBI (2014-2015) project set up pilots • TELLUS – introducing clean public and private transport fleets of a bike-train-bike (BiTiBi) service as a seamless, door-to-door (such as trucks powered by CNG, energy-efficient trams and transport service combining bicycle and train. trolleybuses, clean waste collection vehicles) and equipping Two projects adopted personalised information and the public transport fleet with exhaust filters and selective communication technology approaches for modal shift. The catalytic reducers; PTP-Cycle (2013-2016) project delivered a pan-EU coordinated • MIRACLES – developing and introducing clean public e-buses personalised travel plan programme across five European and trolley buses; cities with encouraging results on public acceptance and use. The SWITCH (2014-2016) project applied information and • TRENDSETTER – creating municipal fleets with electric and communications technology (ICT) solutions, such as smartphone CNG vehicles; developing a biodiesel bus and taxi fleet, and applications and Intelligent Health’s ‘Beat the Street’ system, introducing them into the public transport fleet; and using delivered through campaigns that were tailored to the local biogas vehicles for waste collection; requirements of individual cities. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 24

4.2.2.1.3 Car-independent travel The CIVITAS projects implemented the following related measures: Although not essentially a modal shift measure, car pooling and car sharing are aimed at a more sustainable use of the private • MIRACLES – implementing the ‘Bikeabout’ scheme, which car. Accordingly, the CIVITAS projects MIRACLES, MOBILIS, offered the free loan of bicycles to the public; TRENDSETTER and RENAISSANCE set up and implemented • TRENDSETTER – introducing a test fleet of e-bikes and cargo various car-pooling schemes. Some were also integrated with bikes; public transport services to encourage higher vehicle occupancy. In addition, the SocialCar (2015-2018) project is developing an • RENAISSANCE – introducing a bicycle rental system and innovative communication network for intelligent mobility that rickshaw services; includes the sharing of information on carpooling integrated • PORTIS – developing a bike-sharing system and a plan for with existing transport and mobility systems for urban and reducing car dependency for port workers. peri-urban areas. Another popular measure in this category is providing bike- The German project Netz-E-2-R (2012-2014) set up innovative sharing systems that have proved to be able to cultivate a e-bike parks. These offer rental pedelecs and parking spaces for cycling culture in various urban environments. private pedelecs at railway stations in the Stuttgart region, and use an innovative tariff system and cross-links between stations. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 25

4.2.2.1.4 Passenger transport services • TELLUS – introducing consumer-driven goods management from a mobility centre base; Public transport has witnessed a decrease in the number of passengers during the last few years due to the increased • TRENDSETTER – establishing an urban logistics centre; level of car ownership. Therefore, several measures are • RENAISSANCE – implementing urban freight consolidation; targeted at the modernisation of the public transport system and the introduction of integrated ticketing. CIVITAS projects • PORTIS – implementing measures related to mapping freight implemented, among others, the following actions: traffic flows and designing a distribution plan, and improving coordination of freight movement via active traffic-data • MIRACLES – introduced park-and-ride facilities, improved exchange and traffic control. local bus services and developed tramways as part of an integrated public transport system; 4.2.2.1.6 Marketing and awareness raising • MOBILIS – introduced e-ticketing and other improvements of A key goal of modal shift is to change attitudes and travel quality and structure of public transport services, access and behaviour and, eventually, to create a new mobility culture parking management, integration of a demand-responsive – low-emissions mobility in this case. To this end, publicity public transportation service and developed proximity campaigns, dissemination and training activities, educational services at major passenger transport hubs; programmes, marketing and stakeholder/public consultations • TELLUS – introduced environmentally optimised river shuttle, are essential means for raising awareness and sharing best integrated cycling and public transport; implemented large- practices. The majority of the CIVITAS projects included such scale expansion of park-and-ride facilities, introduced activities (the TRENDSETTER, MOBILIS, RENAISSANCE and public transport over water, automated people movers and PORTIS projects). In addition, the following projects included integrated pricing strategies; similar activities: • TRENDSETTER – introduced a smart card system and • MIDAS – organised training workshops to transfer knowledge integrated ticketing, and created park-and-ride facilities; and experience, with particular reference to new Member States; • RENAISSANCE – developed a waterborne public transport system, a personal rapid transit system and intermodal • TRENDY TRAVEL (2007-2010) – successfully disseminated interchanges for public transport; the concept of sustainable and environmentally friendly transport modes to the broader public through the use of • PORTIS – developing integrated designs for traffic information emotional promotion tools; signs, including those for pedestrians, cyclists and vehicle drivers; concepts for the prioritisation of public transport • PROMOTION (2007-2010) – focused on changing traffic, a modernisation of the traffic management system perceptions and increase the awareness of sustainable and the integration of new tram network. modes through training 755 people in sessions held in 10 countries; The ENERQI (2010-2013) project developed a quality monitoring • Go Pedelec! (2009-2012) – raised awareness about pedelecs system for public transport. The system was used to monitor among citizens and municipal decision makers; changes in perceived quality following the implementation of a set of public transport improvement actions in eight European • ACTIVE ACCESS (2009-2012) – endorsed 58 customised cities. The EcoMobility SHIFT (2010-2013) project developed a local campaigns and initiatives, and established 6 lobbies methodology for cities to measure their existing performance to promote walking and cycling; and make informed decisions based on the areas that require • MOBILE2020 (2011-2014) – introduced the new direction improvement. The quality management system that was for planning processes in small and medium-sized towns by developed supports cities in creating and strengthening their formulating national working groups of cycling professionals Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs), and developing and transferred good experiences through workshops and action plans to implement integrated urban mobility. seminars;

4.2.2.1.5 Urban freight logistics • STARS (2013-2016) – focused on campaigns to get more children to cycle to school and setting up an accreditation Goods delivery is one of the main sources of harmful emissions system; in cities. Therefore, several solutions are being examined to coordinate and consolidate urban freight logistics by setting • SmartMove (2014-2016) – promoted the use of public up urban consolidation centres (among others) and promoting transport through active mobility consultancy (AMC) the use of cleaner vehicles. Related measures implemented in campaigns. cities from CIVITAS include: • MIRACLES – setting up Collectpoint to encourage fleet efficiency and home delivery; • MOBILIS – developing web tool to manage loading bays; Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 26

4.2.2.1.7 Intermodality The SEEMORE (2012-2015) project introduced and evaluated energy efficient transport actions for visitors in eight coastal Measures that promote the integration of more than one mode touristic regions. In addition, one of the measures implemented can contribute significantly to reducing emissions through a by PORTIS is related to promoting sustainable mobility solutions modal shift to less polluting modes. to cruising tourists. Multimodal long-distance transport was addressed by the PLATINA (2008-2012) project, which supported the European 4.2.3 Research outcomes Commission and Member States in the implementation of the 4.2.3.1 Achievements of the research under this navigation and inland waterway action and development in sub-theme Europe (NAIADES) action programme. The approach included identifying barriers and developing a European database of The focus on urban transport in this domain remains unchanged good practice for improving inland waterway transport as a low- through the years, with the majority of project outcomes emissions mode. For freight transport, the GIFTS (2002-2005) comprising soft measures aimed at fostering a process of project designed and developed a fully integrated operational transition to less energy intense transport modes and reducing platform for the use of systems that manage door-to-door demand for private vehicles. These include a range of measures freight transport intermodally and unimodally. to encourage the use of walking; cycling and public transport; mobility sharing schemes; cleaner, energy-efficient vehicles; The German KV-E-CHAIN (2013-2016) project investigated the and measures to reduce emissions from urban freight logistics development of a fully electric, long-haul delivery transportation operations. Inevitably, technological advancements have fed chain through the integration of e-trucks into existing fleets into recent research, so the introduction of modern technology and an urban logistics hub. This was intended to foster the and innovation is noticeable in the measures that have been development and implementation of combined electric-powered developed. In addition, recent research has been directed transportation (long-distance rail transport), electric-powered towards encouraging modal shift in the tourism sector and freight transport (by street) and retail transport. developing intermodal systems. There is a continuous flow of The German VEU (2014-2017) project adopts a comprehensive marketing and information campaigns to trigger behavioural approach, aiming to analyse the complete contextual chain change, the key driver to mobility choices. from mobility behaviour and transport formation through to the It should be noted that several projects in this sub-theme environmental and social effects of traffic and mobility. Scenario achieved tangible results in terms of reducing traffic-related CO analysis will be used to depict future mobility concepts, while 2 emissions and private car trips made, and high response rates in assessment results will support decision makers in designing and dissemination and training actions. Most importantly, in several evaluating measures for, among others, a lower-emission mobility. cases, further development continued after the end of a project, which results in increased impact. Another key achievement 4.2.2.1.8 Sustainable tourism regarding CIVITAS projects was that demonstration measures Tourism is an activity that can have a considerable impact did not constitute isolated attempts, but were, in most cases, on sustainable development. Therefore, the sustainability integrated into the cities’ urban transport policies and plans. of European tourism calls for proactive cooperation among The coverage of modal shift in other sectors and, more tourism and mobility sectors. The STARTER (2012-2015) project specifically, long-distance freight transport is minimal in this engaged stakeholders in the development of local travel plan particular selection of projects. However, it includes one of the networks (LTPNs) that would include sustainable solutions most prominent projects to date regarding the increase of the to meet seasonal tourism demand in five different European inland water transport modal share (PLATINA). tourist destinations. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 27

4.2.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use to assist passengers when selecting transport options and to promote interoperability in public transport systems. The goal The transferability from research to practical use has already is to provide seamless trip options and attract users away from been achieved in several projects related to urban transport using private cars. under this sub-theme and the majority of pilot actions are highly transferable to other environments. In addition, the In addition, given that total demand for freight transport in continuous coverage of similar measures builds on initial Europe has increased significantly in recent years, sectors that research and increases the maturity of the outputs. have attracted less research should be addressed, such as the modal shift from road freight transport to rail, and short-sea A common output from several projects was a best practice and inland waterways shipping. inventory, with a focus on success factors and lessons learnt. The latter also largely contributes to the transferability of 4.2.3.4 Implications for future policy development research to practical use. Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, 4.2.3.3 Indications for future research economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low-carbon/ zero-emissions mobility is considered one of the pillars of the Given the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions to Commission’s future policy development for achieving a solid zero-emissions mobility, research efforts should be increasingly reduction in CO and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, directed towards supporting this transition through the 2 growing global competitiveness, emerging business models development of related knowledge, technology and skills. in an increasingly digitalised economy and continuous Innovation should remain a key driver in this domain, as should technological advancements call for a more integrated the efforts to standardise the measurement of the positive approach that creates synergies between the transport sector impact of modal shift towards ‘cleaner’ transport systems. with those related to energy, technology and automation. For passenger transport, research should also consider a shift to car and bike sharing, and other multimodal functions 4.2.4 List of projects (e.g. public transport and cycling). It should also focus on Table 4-3 lists the projects that were reviewed during the the synergies between different modes from a customer assessment of this sub-theme. perspective. There is a need for more mobile phone applications

Table 4-3 Projects reviewed in the modal shift sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ACTIVE ACCESS Encouraging active travel for short trips to improve health 2009-2012 EU (IEE) and the local economy https://goo.gl/vUYBsf

ASTUTE Advancing Sustainable Transport in Urban Areas To Promote 2006-2009 EU (IEE) Energy Efficiency https://goo.gl/ITdBGl

BITIBI Easy and energy efficient from door to door Bike+Train+Bike 2014-2015 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/uxNM8Z

EcoMobility SHIFT EcoMobility Scheme for Energy-Efficient Transport 2010-2013 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/9j1arG

ENERQI Energy efficiency by using daily customers Quality 2010-2013 EU (IEE) observations to Improve public transport https://goo.gl/SCv5P2

GIFTS Global Intermodal Freight Transport System 2002-2005 EU (FP5-IST) https://goo.gl/Jf9VwR

GO PEDELEC! Go Pedelec! 2009-2012 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/TU7kRh

KV-E-CHAIN Comprehensive electric transportation chain for combined transit 2013-2016 Germany https://goo.gl/ZEeJsp

MIDAS Measures to Influence transport Demand to Achieve 2006-2008 EU (IEE) Sustainability https://goo.gl/8ddjec Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 28

Table 4-3 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modal shift sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) Liveable Environments https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

MOBILE2020 More biking in small and medium sized towns of Central and 2011-2014 EU (IEE) Eastern Europe by 2020 https://goo.gl/U0dfuS

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

Netz-E-2-R Integrated Electric 2-Wheeler Mobility in the Stuttgart Region 2012-2014 Germany https://goo.gl/8NlqTL

PLATINA Platform for the Implementation of NAIADES 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/FlqHrf

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability 2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

PROMOTION Creating Liveable Neighbourhoods while Lowering Transport 2007-2010 EU (IEE) Energy Consumption https://goo.gl/ZFwxah

PTP-Cycle Personalised Travel Planning for Cycling 2013-2016 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/rCuvmd

RENAISSANCE Testing Innovative Clean Urban Transport Strategies for 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Energy) Historic European Cities https://goo.gl/UjCQP4

SEEMORE Sustainable and Energy Efficient Mobility Options in Tourist 2012-2015 EU (IEE) Regions in Europe https://goo.gl/EFs3vJ

SmartMove Increasing peoples’ awareness and use of public transport 2014-2016 EU (IEE) through active mobility consultancy with focus on feeder systems https://goo.gl/dJuoDa

SocialCar Open social transport network for urban approach to 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) carpooling https://goo.gl/aWF6ZT

STARS Sustainable Travel Recognition and Accreditation for Schools 2013-2016 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/7U1y4L

STARTER Sustainable Transport for Areas with Tourism through Energy 2012-2015 EU (IEE) Reduction https://goo.gl/lAs5EA

SWITCH Encouraging a SWITCH from car-based to active mobility 2014-2016 EU (IEE) using personalised information and communication technology approaches https://goo.gl/9bSKPt

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

TRENDSETTER Setting Trends for a Sustainable Urban Mobility 2000-2005 EU (FP5-EESD) https://goo.gl/cpO9Pa

TRENDY TRAVEL Emotions for sustainable transport 2007-2010 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/jUAZhC

VEU Transport and the Environment 2014-2017 Germany https://goo.gl/6kx5pe Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 29

4.3 Electromobility 4.3.2 Research activities 4.3.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 4.3.2.1 Battery research After the first attempts to bring battery EVs (BEVs) to consumer With an increase in electric vehicle numbers, the question markets in the 1990s, the attention on non-fossil-fuel powered of their overall sustainability impact or life-cycle costs and cars turned towards several forms of hydrogen powered their associated recyclability, especially of batteries, is raised. propulsion systems in the early 2000s. This was because of the To address this topic, the SOMABAT (2011-2013) project persisting range limitations and the high costs of BEVs. While focused on several aspects. To improve a battery’s recyclability, Japanese car manufacturers built on the idea of combining synthetic materials for anodes, cathodes and solid electrolytes smaller batteries with down-sized combustion engines in hybrid have been developed. To use these materials in a lithium (Li) EVs, European car industries continued attempts to reduce polymer battery, a newly constructed cell management unit emissions and fuel consumption by further improving traditional (CMU) and a model of the battery cells’ behaviour is required. combustion engines. With ever stronger emission regulations, A sustainability assessment of the Li polymer battery has been policy schemes banning exhaust emissions (such as the London carried out, covering its total life cycle from ‘cradle to grave’. Congestion Charge) and the stagnation in the development of The issue of recyclability has also been addressed by earlier hydrogen-based technologies, BEVs re-appeared in the late projects (e.g. NECOBAUT (2012-2015)). 2000s. Boosted by economic stimulus programmes targeted For an advanced battery technology to be developed, not only at bringing as many BEVs as possible onto the road in many does the cell itself need to be improved, but particular attention European countries, BEVs have experienced a renaissance that also has to be paid to the battery management system (BMS). continues today. BMSs are responsible for monitoring and controlling activities, China is pushing the market by constantly expanding battery cell ensuring the safety of the battery, extending its lifetime and production capacity. This, mainly economic, decision may drive keeping it in the desired operating state. The aim of the SMART- down battery costs in the near future to make BEVs competitive LIC (2011-2014) project was to integrate a BMS into a single with fossil-fuel-based alternatives. European industries may battery cell and develop an accurate state-of-health (SoH) have difficulties in competing on battery cell production, but indicator based on an integrated electrochemical impedance local industries are still very competitive in other components spectroscopy (EIS). Moreover, a significant decrease in the total of EVs, such as combining cells to make highly efficient battery costs of ownership was expected. packs and power electronics. Furthermore, hydrogen power, The two different cell types inside a battery, high-power which constitutes a specific way of providing electric power in (HP) and high-energy (HE) cells, are managed with a smart vehicles, has been researched and tested extensively due to its control system. This system contributes to improving the life, superiority for trucks, buses, trains and even aircraft. reliability and cost/performance ratio of the battery system. In this sub-theme, 74 projects have been identified and reviewed. In the SUPERLIB (2011-2014) project, a control system was The majority of these projects were funded by European sources developed for an integrated battery with HP and HE cells. This with the exception of 14 German and 2 French ones. The national included the development of temperature sensors, which are projects were mainly classical test and demonstration activities necessary for improved thermal management of the battery arising from the economic stimulus programmes after the world package. As a result, the range of usable charge states of the economic and financial crises. battery has been increased from 70 % to 90 % and, due to an improved BMS, the battery life has been extended by 30 %, 4.3.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research reducing the total cost of ownership. Research can be divided into a technical and an application- An improved Li-ion cell with 200Wh/kg energy density, oriented stream. Technical studies are looking at battery maximum costs of EUR 150/kWh and enhanced safety is the cell and system performance, materials and production goal of the EUROLIION (2011-2015) project. These criteria can technologies. Application oriented research considers various be achieved by using silicon-based anodes (instead of carbon), aspects of electromobility, including the optimal location of iron and/or manganese/nickel-based cathodes, and newly charging stations, the performance of EVs and their integration designed cost-efficient electrolyte salts. Moreover, a safety in mobility systems. It also considers the public acceptance assessment has been carried out and a full demonstration of EVs, including incentive schemes and policy measures to vehicle was developed. encourage a wider uptake. This is broadly the manner in which Production costs of batteries and more environmentally the research topics are structured below. friendly fabrication were addressed by the GREENLION (2011- 2015) project. Innovative processes were developed using 4.3.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects aqueous slurries for electrode manufacturing, thus reducing In addition to the test and demonstration activities referred environmental pollution. New assembly procedures, including to above, other nationally funded research has included the using laser cutting, high-temperature pre-treatment and non integration of electromobility into new and/or environmentally thermoplastic polymers can improve cost efficiency by 10 %. friendly mobility concepts such as company or car-sharing These measures enable the European industry to compete fleets and public transport. better with the battery production of Asian countries. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 30

The research effort on vehicle batteries continues as there are several projects taking place to further improve Li-ion batteries in terms of energy density, lifetime, recyclability and costs. Current approaches point towards an improved construction of battery components, such as in the eCAIMAN (2015- 2018) project. Another direction is the development of new materials for anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, (e.g. the SPICY (2015-2018) project). Battery monitoring and its proactive management, as examined in the EVERLASTING (2016-2020) project, are still the focus of battery research.

4.3.2.2 Developing vehicle components Besides batteries, the drivetrain, consisting of electric motor and transmission, forms a key part of electromobility. A new and compact powertrain design has been developed in the COSIVU (2012-2015) project. With weight reduction and more efficient powertrains, energy savings of 20 % can be realised. Using powertrain integrated sensors, a control and health-monitoring module helps to expand vehicle durability and reduces the cost of ownership for the end-user due to an improved maintenance forecast. The JOSPEL (2015-2018) and OSEM-EV (2015-2018) projects For enhanced efficiency, comfort and safety of EVs, other focus on climate control in vehicles, while the EDAS (2013- vehicle components need to be improved. The ID4EV (2010- 2016) project is going to build an energy network within the 2012) project focused on the optimisation of brake and chassis FEV using innovative software and hardware solutions. Another systems for the needs of fully EVs (FEV). After defining the software project is SAFEADAPT (2013-2016), which was aimed needs of FEVs regarding system and safety requirements, at novel electric/electronic architecture concepts for safety- an intelligent braking concept was developed. This concept is related vehicle functions. characterised by vehicle dynamics delivering superior comfort For the assessment of the sustainability of electric cars against compared with conventional vehicles. Moreover, it coordinates that of conventional cars, the eLCAr (2012-2013) project the conventional braking via friction and the braking through developed guidelines for the life-cycle assessment of EVs. electrical recuperation of energy in different situations (e.g. soft Inspired by the Joint Research Centre’s Institute for Energy stop and emergency braking). As FEVs with in-wheel electric and Transport’s Well-to-Wheel report (European Commission, motors have higher unsprung masses, adaptive dampers 2011b) and other studies, the Electromobility Concepts improve vehicle comfort and behaviour. The intelligent chassis (2010-2012) study for the German Parliament found that the developed in this project was implemented into a demonstrator environmental footprint of EVs is high due to raw material vehicle fitted with adaptive dampers, sensors and the necessary extraction and cell production, and that they can only compete controllers. with efficient internal combustion-engined cars when operated In addition to developments in hardware components, data close to the limits of their driving range. gathering and processing is also very important for the Through e-bikes and pedelecs, electromobility will motorise optimisation of energy use and vehicle safety of FEVs. Therefore, formerly non-motorised forms of travel and so provide mobility several projects such as EFUTURE (2010-2013), POLLUX (2010- to all or car-free mobility to various groups. Research on e-bikes 2013) and ICOMPOSE (2013-2016) aimed to develop advanced and pedelecs concentrates less on technology and more on software architecture tailored for electric mobility. This includes infrastructure, mobility integration and behavioural change. systems to control battery, powertrain, chassis, driver assistance Examples are the projects GO PEDELEC! (2009-2012) under systems and communication technologies. the CIVITAS programme, PRO-E-BIKE (2013-2016) under IEE Significant levels of energy are required to heat and cool and LockAndCharge (2016) under Horizon 2020. vehicles, which is essential for passenger comfort. A 50 % In aviation, the electrification of aircraft propulsion may reduction of the energy needed for climate control is targeted progress via fuel cell and hybrid technologies. The main by the French ELEC-HP (2011-2014) project, in which an objective of the ENFICA-FC (2006-2010) project was to develop automotive heat pump has been developed. This consists of and validate the use of a fuel cell-based power system for an energy efficient refrigerant and fully brazed aluminium heat propulsion of more-electric or all-electric aircraft for noise exchangers. In addition, new strategies for defrosting and pre- reduction during take-off and landing. Building on these conditioning the vehicle interior have been developed. developments, showcases of fully hybrid electric powertrains in All of the points mentioned above are being developed further small aircraft are planned in the MAHEPA (2017-2021) project. in ongoing projects, with an emphasis on energy efficient More radical aircraft designs are also being proposed by the heating and cooling, and software architecture. HASTECTS (2017-2021) project. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 31

4.3.2.3 Demonstration of vehicle technologies 4.3.2.4 Charging infrastructure for electromobility Implementation of newly developed technologies in The charging infrastructure for EVs includes charging stations demonstration vehicles is the first step towards market and the information network for intelligent grids. National readiness. These demonstration programmes can provide funding for a multitude of investment programmes has allowed valuable data for a future introduction into the mass market. public charging stations to be rolled out in recent years. As Most implementation projects include some form of social the primary research component of these programmes is acceptance and behavioural studies, providing direction to often limited to user acceptance, the respective programmes policy making and technology design. About half of the projects and projects are not listed here. However, there are a number assessed under this topic are national projects funded by of international research activities on smart grids. A core German authorities. Thermoplastic solutions for battery racks, topic is rapid charging, inductive charging, smart and safe instead of the present metal-based technology, and their power management, and debit systems. In this respect, the implementation into two demonstration vehicles has been FASTINCHARGE (2012-2015) project has developed a fast realised by the OPERA4FEV (2011-2015) project. This includes inductive charging technology for en-route charging (installed industrial manufacturing and assembly of the battery racks. at a crossroad) and for a stationary charging station to increase A rack prototype has been assessed through crash simulation driving range with no charging time. and vehicle testing. Integrating EVs into the grid is the research subject of several Testing buses and delivery vehicles with hybrid drives under projects. The E-DASH (2011-2014) project is an approach to real-life conditions in different European cities has been done integrate EVs into smart grids in a sustainable way. A key in the HCV (2010-2013) project. With the HyLine-S (2013- aspect is a real-time data exchange between the vehicle and 2016) and E-BUS Berlin (2013-2016) projects, similar German the power grid through an intelligent charging system. This projects have been carried out using plug-in diesel hybrid buses enables a large number of FEVs to be charged at the same time in the Stuttgart region and fully electric buses in Berlin. at high currents with a near real-time balancing of the grid. Furthermore, sophisticated charge controls can prevent battery An electric commercial vehicle under field conditions, which damage and manage the charging process in the most cost- means real logistical concepts and within a regional cluster, has efficient way for the end user. The German SGI (2013-2015) been tested in the German NaNu! (2013-2015) study. Besides project pursued a similar aim as it tried to optimise charging the effectiveness and practicability of deliveries by electric operations, grid condition and user needs. Further research trucks in multishifts, additional questions to be answered were on the relationship between EVs and the power grid is being the economic benefit for fleet operators and energy suppliers, performed by the ELECTRIFIC (2016-2019) project, which is and the acceptance of night-time deliveries with electric trucks. aimed at novel coordination techniques and ICT tools. Two ongoing projects, RESOLVE (2015-2018) and EU-LIVE The integration of electromobility into current mobility and (2015-2018), are aimed at advanced electric L-category transportation systems is the topic of the ongoing projects vehicles (ELVs) in urban areas and are going to provide real ZeEUS (2013-2017) and FABRIC (2014-2017), whereas a pan- and virtual full-vehicle demonstrators. European ICT network for electromobility services is going to be created in the NeMo (2016-2019) project. Alternative ways of connecting cars to charging stations by mobile charging stations were looked at in the project Mobi (2016).

4.3.2.5 Policy measures and business cases As electric cars still cannot compete with combustion engine vehicles in terms of price, driving range and refuelling time, supporting policy measures are needed to create markets for BEVs. To do so, the European eBRIDGE (2013-2016) project aimed to provide a toolbox for urban planners to support the use of EVs. This included methods for awareness raising among various stakeholders and for knowledge transfer. Target groups were fleet operators, car users, and national and regional authorities. Pilot applications in seven countries or cities showed that providing experience with e-cars substantially lowers concerns against the technology among all stakeholders. Similar goals are pursued by the ongoing I-CVUE (2014- 2017) project. This is aimed at boosting the use of EVs by supporting local authorities and operators with region-specific analyses and decision support tools. The EMOBILITY WORKS (2014-2016) project encouraged municipalities to create new partnerships with the private sector, such as energy companies and vehicle manufacturers. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 32

To make electromobility interoperable, the large, integrated In terms of the battery cell itself, advances have been GREEN EMOTION (2011-2015) project under the EU’s made in materials for anodes, cathodes and electrolytes. Green Vehicle Initiative was aimed at defining Europe-wide These contribute to better recyclability, longer lifetimes and standards for smart grid developments, innovative ICT improved performance. solutions, different types of EVs and urban mobility concepts. Battery technology is not the only factor affecting energy To this end, practical research was conducted in different efficiency and safety of EVs. A vehicle’s climate control, demonstration regions all over Europe with respect to the braking system and, increasingly, the collection and implementation of these proposed standards. The project processing of data with suitable software should also be connected the diverse national electromobility initiatives into considered. a single European platform with 12 demonstration regions. Of specific concern are the business cases for public charging The implementation of electromobility into the power grid stations, user acceptance and the use of electric cars in car- is another major issue. Coordinating charging processes of sharing and company fleets. More specifically, the ELVIRE EVs can lead to improvements in terms of a balanced grid (2010-2013) project looked at an effective communication and to cost reduction for the end user. and service platform to reduce range anxiety for drivers who are concerned about running out of battery power. 4.3.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use Urban freight is considered a key market for expanding All the projects described above were carried out with the the use of EVs due to fewer concerns regarding space and clear goal of a practical use in EVs. The project partners weight with the vehicles. The ENCLOSE (2012-2015) project involved consist not only of research institutions, but also looked at the conditions under which low-emission vehicles include industry partners. First approaches in practical (including those using biogas) can be used successfully in an use have been carried out as described in section 4.3.2.3. urban logistics context. Besides going deep into the needs Moreover, in most projects, the benefit for the end user is and requirements of specific stakeholders, and the potential being addressed as one of the objectives, pointing explicitly of urban logistics hubs, the project analysed the operating towards a mass market introduction of the technologies. patterns of electric and other types of low-emission freight vehicles. The results showed that successful policy measures 4.3.3.3 Indications for future research heavily depend on the local context. The komDRIVE (2013- As indicated by ongoing projects, software development 2017) project addresses freight transport by looking at is a key issue for EVs. As battery development is primarily improved ways for energy storage for the sector. Considering taking place in Asia, advanced vehicle software can provide all options for electrifying goods transport, the DisLog a competitive advantage for European industry. This (2013-2016) project looked at the potential impact on includes BMSs and the embedded systems in other vehicle freight efficiency. components. The monitoring and coordinating of the systems Besides getting cars on the roads, research activities on-board vehicles, and their communication with related road also look at the conditions for restoring the know-how for or energy infrastructure can be seen as promising areas for the industrial production of battery cells in Europe. The future research due to their potential to save energy, improve ELIBAMA (2011-2014) project looked at options to establish safety and reduce costs. production facilities for lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications near large original equipment manufacturer 4.3.3.4 Implications for future policy development (OEM) locations. Advanced ecodesign methods along the Projects looked at in the field of policy design, regulations entire value chain of battery production, and recycling and and incentives are targeted at various parts of the transport refurbishing processes will improve manufacturing costs, market. The projects focused mainly on urban areas. This is safety and sustainability substantially. Operational profiles, where EVs, with their specific driving characteristics and range smart grid solutions and ancillary power grid services limitations, operate best and opportunities can be found to are among the research subjects of the project. Ongoing create acceptance for electric passenger cars, delivery vehicles research under the ELIPTIC (2015-2018) project is looking and infrastructure. Two core messages that can be identified at innovative case studies and business models for a future from the studies are: EV infrastructure. • campaigns and opportunities for testing EVs are needed to 4.3.3 Research outcomes create acceptance - addressing local conditions seems to be of utmost importance here; 4.3.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme • viable business models for vehicles and, in particular, for infrastructures are still problematic. Here, innovative BMSs are essential for the future success of electromobility. solutions are needed (e.g. combining different sectors and An actively managed battery has the advantage of keeping applications). the battery in a beneficial operational status, thereby improving safety and lifetime, which leads to lower costs. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 33

4.3.4 List of projects Table 4-4 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-4 Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

COSIVU Compact, Smart and Reliable Drive Unit for Fully Electric 2012-2015 EU (FP7-ICT) Vehicles https://goo.gl/id4drC

DisLog Electric vehicles for efficient urban distribution logistics 2013-2016 Germany https://goo.gl/hPjxuq

eBRIDGE Empowering E-Fleets for Business and Private Purposes in 2013-2016 EU (IEE) Cities https://goo.gl/Z4gkzH

E-BUS Berlin Fully electric bus operations including recharging 2013-2016 Germany infrastructure https://goo.gl/ZQovvv

eCAIMAN Electrolyte, Cathode and Anode Improvements for Market- 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) near Next-generation Lithium Ion Batteries https://goo.gl/mgpq0z

EDAS Holistic Energy Management for third and fourth generation 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) of EVs https://goo.gl/Zo73xT

E-DASH Electricity Demand and Supply Harmonizing for EVs. 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/C4RBtw

EFUTURE Safe and Efficient Electrical Vehicle 2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/skA73y

eLCAr E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations 2012-2013 EU (FP7-ENV) https://goo.gl/Am7BUj

ELEC-HP High energy efficiency heat pumps for electrified vehicles 2011-2014 France and trains https://goo.gl/jNTVbe

ELECTRIFIC Enabling seamless electromobility through smart vehicle- 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) grid integration https://goo.gl/ZHsFtb

Electromobility Concept Electric mobility concepts and their significance for the 2010-2012 Germany Study economy, society and the environment. https://goo.gl/0FAfdM

ELIBAMA European Li-Ion Battery Advanced Manufacturing for Electric 2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) Vehicles https://goo.gl/a7ZyBY

ELIPTIC Electrification of Public Transport in Cities 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/TzReoV

ELVIRE ELectric Vehicle communication to Infrastructure, Road 2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT) services and Electricity supply https://goo.gl/z0j1bt

E-MOBILITY WORKS Integration of e-mobility in European municipalities and 2014-2016 EU (IEE) businesses https://goo.gl/KEjm3H Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 34

Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and 2012-2015 EU (IEE) mid-sized European Historic Towns https://goo.gl/Nt02me

ENFICA-FC Environmentally Friendly, Inter City Aircraft Powered by Fuel Cells 2006-2010 EU (FP6) https://goo.gl/LVUyUF

EU-LIVE Efficient Urban LIght Vehicles 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/zAON4s

EUROLIION High energy density Li-ion cells for traction 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/Rgm12v

EVERLASTING Electric Vehicle Enhanced Range, Lifetime And Safety 2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) Through INGenious battery management https://goo.gl/XFjbq1

FABRIC FeAsiBility analysis and development of on-Road chargIng 2014-2017 EU (FP7-SST) solutions for future electric vehiCles https://goo.gl/gXd1B2

FASTINCHARGE innovative FAST INductive CHARGing solution for Electric 2012-2015 EU (FP7-SST) vehicles https://goo.gl/lhLNlb

GO PEDELEC! Go Pedelec! 2009-2012 EU (FP7-IEE) https://goo.gl/TU7kRh

GREEN-EMOTION Green eMotion 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/n7uxFU

GREENLION Advanced manufacturing processes for Low Cost Greener 2011-2015 EU (FP7-NMP) Li-Ion batteries https://goo.gl/QC6Hrv

HASTECS Hybrid Aircraft; academic reSearch on Thermal and Electrical 2017-2021 EU (Horizon 2020) Components and Systems https://goo.gl/x1ug30

HCV Hybrid Commercial Vehicle 2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/Iuogec

HyLine-S Operation of a Hybrid Bus Route in Stuttgart 2013-2015 Germany https://goo.gl/EXtJSK

ICOMPOSE Integrated Control of Multiple-Motor and Multiple-Storage 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) Fully Electric Vehicles https://goo.gl/dz2ukG

I-CVUE Incentives for cleaner vehicles in urban Europe 2014-2017 EU (European Investment Fund) https://goo.gl/tCDAqQ

ID4EV Intelligent Dynamics for fully electric vehicles 2010-2012 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/GWX1wP

JOSPEL Low energy passenger comfort systems based on the joule 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) and peltier effects. https://goo.gl/xzgDSF

komDRIVE Electric potential of commercial vehicle fleets as 2013-2016 Germany decentralised energy source for urban distribution grids https://goo.gl/0tsei3 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 35

Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

LIFE97 ENV/E/000247 Development of the production process of five ZEUS 1997-1998 EU (LIFE) electrical vehicles and the testing of their behaviour in their real environment. https://goo.gl/u7WZVD

LockAndCharge Ground-breaking and convenient electronic bicycle fleet 2016 EU (Horizon 2020) management system available for the mass adoption. https://goo.gl/2wOIyk

MAHEPA Modular Approach to Hybrid Electric Propulsion Architecture 2017-2021 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/zQJbuA

Mobi The Mobi Charger, a novel mobile Electric Vehicle charging 2016 EU (Horizon 2020) station that requires no installation costs, offers easy scalability and utility bill savings for users. https://goo.gl/ok03Qz

NaNu! Multiple Shift Operation and Night Delivery with Electric 2013-2015 Germany Commercial Vehicles https://goo.gl/KcAYTF

NECOBAUT New Concept of Metal-Air Battery for Automotive 2012-2015 EU (FP7-NMP) Application based on Advanced Nanomaterials. https://goo.gl/N6ecqi

NeMo NeMo : Hyper-Network for electroMobility 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/gzIO9Q

OPERA4FEV OPerating Energy RAck for Full Electric Vehicle 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/dXBTSg

OSEM-EV Optimised and Systematic Energy Management in Electric 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) Vehicles https://goo.gl/XqcAXP

POLLUX Process Oriented Electrical Control Units for Electrical 2010-2013 EU (FP7-JTI) Vehicles Developed on a Multi-system Real-time Embedded Platform https://goo.gl/IwcGOP

PRO-E-BIKE Promoting Electric Bike Delivery 2013-2016 EU (FP7, IEE) https://goo.gl/3fne2o

RESOLVE Range of Electric SOlutions for L-category Vehicles 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/BEhsMC

SAFEADAPT Safe Adaptive Software for Fully Electric Vehicles 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/i8RHNx

SGI Smart Grid Integration 2013-2015 Germany https://goo.gl/naXlFV

SMART-LIC Smart and Compact Battery Management System Module 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) for Integration into Lithium-Ion Cell for Fully Electric Vehicles https://goo.gl/Jff1Bv

SOMABAT Development of novel SOlid MAterials for high power Li 2011-2013 EU (FP7-NMP) polymer BATteries (SOMABAT). Recyclability of components. https://goo.gl/U9cKzq

SPICY Silicon and polyanionic chemistries and architectures of Li- 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) ion cell for high energy battery https://goo.gl/zIQmH9 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 36

Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SUPERLIB Smart Battery Control System based on a Charge-equalization 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) Circuit for an advanced Dual-Cell Battery for Electric Vehicles https://goo.gl/9T7Ei4

ZeEUS Zero Emission Urban Bus Systems 2013-2017 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/0bflZI

4.4 Low-emissions logistics in broader studies. Therefore, the true volume of evidence on 4.4.1 Introduction to the sub-theme options, drivers and barriers of cleaner freight transport and logistics is much larger. Based on 2008 estimates and the ongoing recovery of demand for passenger and goods transport since the economic crisis, it is 4.4.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded possible to estimate that freight transport and logistics accounted research for between 16 % and 18 % of road vehicle kilometres in the EU, The research activities identified under this sub-theme have been Switzerland and Norway in 2014. At the same time, they were divided into three main streams: planning, management and responsible for between 26 % and 28 % of greenhouse gas vehicles. In general terms, it can be seen that research progressed (GHG) emissions and for 37 % of air pollutants. Across Europe, from more technology-centred optimisation solutions for single road transport generated 75 % of tonne-kilometres (excluding vehicles, companies or corridors towards larger contexts. For the pipelines). three main topic areas within the sub-theme, the key research Methods of reducing the environmental impact of goods directions have been: transport include using more fuel-efficient and less polluting • SULPs. Up to the mid-2000s projects on clean logistics vehicles; utilising vehicles more efficiently; shifting demand to concentrated on specific branches and market segments. cleaner modes; and the overall avoidance or shortening of trips The load and capacity trading platforms developed in these by improved planning of production, supply, warehousing and projects are now considered to be an integral part of urban distribution activities. Therefore, transport activities performed sustainability and mobility planning. By considering logistics by light and heavy duty vehicles deserve specific attention when as an integral part of urban development, the citizens and considering cleaner transport. Some environmental issues of final customers are now more the focus of research, rather freight transport and logistics are addressed by European and than the shipping and supply industries. national legislation, policies and research activities. These include: • Cooperation and supply chain management. In a similar • the allowance for a differentiation of charging systems on manner to the planning aspects, supply chain management the Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T) based on systems based on pure technical trading platforms have vehicle emissions, through the EU’s Eurovignette Directive evolved into ones based on cooperation platforms and (DIR 2011/76/EC and previous versions), providing the ground networks. There is an increasing focus on the benefits for similar national rules; and risks of data mining and data sharing issues across • the emission-differentiated large goods vehicle toll companies, modes, economic sectors and institutional levels. systems in Germany and Austria following the rules of the Safety and business issues have been recognised as being Eurovignette-Directive; more limiting to overall efficiency gains in goods transport and logistics than the technical issues. • the installation of environmental zones and envisaged complete bans of high emission combustion vehicles in many • Electromobility, fuels and powertrains. Attention has turned European cities; from biofuels to electric propulsion and various types of hybridisation of commercial vehicles. A better understanding • national logistics master plans and agendas; of driving patterns, improved battery capacity and increasing • investment programmes for clean and alternative-fuel vehicles. problems with low carbon biofuels have led to a strong growth of field test projects with electric or hybrid vehicles. However, there are a number of issues not yet addressed Latest developments in the field include hybrid overhead- properly by transport policy. These include effective and user- wire trucks, which may significantly reduce the environmental friendly systems for modal shift and bundling of transport flows, impact of freight transport. highly efficient and low-emissions urban goods distribution

systems, and a mandatory fuel and CO2 emission standard Most of the research projects concentrate on the urban area, for goods vehicles. where freight causes the most profound impact in terms of air pollution, noise, safety and the availability of space. The In this sub-theme, 20 projects, mostly European-funded attention on intermodal solutions for long-distance goods research projects, with the main focus on cleaner logistics transport has reduced, but may be re-animated by the EU’s were identified. Logistics also often appears as a specific case Shift2Rail Joint Undertaking. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 37

4.4.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded The focus of the ECOSTARS (2011-2014) project was on the projects energy efficiency and sustainability of vehicle procurement, fleet management and driving styles in urban road goods transport. The five national projects on cleaner freight transport identified The study built on the ‘ECO Stars: Fleet Recognition Scheme’ for this review are all from Germany. The investment and implemented by several UK cities since 2009 and extended the research programme ‘Show Windows Electromobility’5 has concept to other European cities. Besides gaining higher media brought a number of test and demonstration cases for clean coverage, and a deeper understanding of fuel and CO efficiency, vehicle and delivery concepts to fruition. In that context, the issue 2 and fleet standards, ECOSTARS participants reported fuel efficiency of low-noise and low-emissions night-time goods distribution in gains of 1-5 % through driver training, 0.2-10 % from navigation urban areas seems to be of particular interest. The low number aids, 3.5 % from low-resistance tyres, more than 8 % from on- of national projects identified does not allow conclusions to be board telematics advices and additional savings from reducing drawn on the overall direction of national research in Europe. vehicle speed limits from 85 km/hour to 83 km/hour. 4.4.2 Research activities Further activities in the field of clean urban freight transport strategies have long been addressed by European research, for A look across the projects on sustainable logistics contained example through the CIVITAS programme (on projects such as in the TRIP database suggests three focus areas of research: TELLUS (2002-2006) and MIRACLES (2002-2006)). Research • sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans; on integrated urban solutions for freight (and passenger) services has continued under Horizon 2020. The PORTIS (2015- • supply chain management; 2018) project is looking at solutions particularly for port cities, • alternative propulsion and vehicle concepts. while 2MOVE2 explores the integration of freight and e-delivery into SUMPs and urban development plans. These broad topic areas contain various types of project with differing goals. In the following, the research highlights 4.4.2.2 Supply chain management identified are presented. The EURIDICE (2008-2011) project was established to create the necessary concepts, technological solutions and business 4.4.2.1 Sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans models to establish an information services platform centred Inspired by the concept of SUMPs, SULPs aim to establish on the context of individual cargo items, and their interaction strategies for communities to make urban freight and delivery with the surrounding environment and the type of user. services cleaner and smarter without compromising on their The basic idea of the project was to develop the Intelligent efficiency. The ENCLOSE (2012-2015) project considered a Cargo concept in which elements of cargo delivery services broad suite of measures, including urban consolidation centres, are combined according to the actual context. Business optimised urban freight transport and delivery plans, clean processes, public policy aspects, energy efficiency, safety, threat vehicles and low-emissions technologies, restrictions and detection and other features of urban logistics systems were public incentive policies, last mile and value added services, addressed simultaneously by the EURIDICE platform. Industrial and the integration of city logistics processes within the overall demonstrators proved the capabilities of the system. management of urban mobility. Guidelines were drafted for In an international comparison of energy reduction measures, SULPs, specifically for small and medium-sized historic towns the INTERACTION (2006-2008) project applied a standardised in Europe. Demand analysis for the target cities, knowledge sector-assessment approach to explore options for cost distribution, the integration of SULPs into SUMPs, and the efficiency, and fuel and CO reductions in supply chains with a assessment of green vehicles and logistics schemes formed 2 focus on shippers. Actions investigated included reducing delivery the core pillars of the ENCLOSE research. The project found that frequency, adjusting loading units, adjusting vehicle technology, making comparisons between different towns is difficult due optimising planning systems and introducing clean vehicles. A to individual settings and backgrounds. Therefore, strategies CO reduction potential of 6-13 % was identified per company. need to be individualised case by case. 2 The project anchored the results with industry and implemented Having similar objectives to SULPs, the TRAILBLAZER (2010- them into policy agendas of participating countries. 2013) project promoted the concept of Delivery and Servicing EU-funded research in integrated freight optimisation platforms Plans (DSPs) with four pioneer cities in Sweden, Italy and Croatia. can be found from the early 2000s onwards (e.g. the GIFTS The DSPs have a common aim – to increase the efficiency (2002-2005) project). Current research within the Horizon 2020 of the urban goods delivery system – but their performance programme translates insights from road-based logistics to indicators and the actions to be implemented were specific other modes such as shipping in the SYNCHRO-NET (2015- to each municipality. The changes in fuel consumption were 2015) project. The step from the more technology-oriented evaluated against baseline scenarios and were benchmarked platform concept to collaborative networks of actors along against a 10 % efficiency target. Large fuel savings through the freight supply chain is being investigated by the NEXTRUST goods consolidation centres were contrasted by moderate (2015-2018) project. savings through policy interventions alone.

5 http://www.transport-research.info/programme/show-windows-elektromobility Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 38

4.4.2.3 Propulsion concepts and driver assistance behaviour and network management. For these tasks, the project developed and evaluated technical solutions and The most direct way of curbing the environmental burden from assistance systems. Cooperative information exchange played freight transport is the technical improvement of vehicles, a major role in this endeavour. powertrains, fuels and driving styles – or not to use motorised options at all. The latter idea is taken up by the connected Electromobility and other forms of alternatively fuelled vehicles projects CYCLELOGISTICS (2011-2014) and Cyclelogistics in urban freight distribution are researched by many national Ahead (2014-2015). Starting from the premise that light goods and local programmes around Europe. For Germany, the key in cities are often transported over very short distances by projects have been KV-E-Chain (2013-2016) on the use of EVs heavy vehicles, a shift of 25 % of goods movements from road in combined transport chains, DisLog (2013-2016) on urban to cycling-related solutions may be feasible. To address this distribution, NaNu! (2013-2015) on urban night time delivery potential shift, several instruments were tested and assessed and HCV (2010-2013) on equipping buses and trucks with by the projects including campaigning and promotion to advanced second-generation hybrid powertrains. The specific industries and individuals, motivating municipalities to adopt section on electromobility elsewhere in this report describes regulations where necessary and testing cargo bike products. further research activities in broader detail. The projects also resulted in the foundation of the European CycleLogistics Federation; training workshops; the support of 110 start-up companies and 35 local cooperation initiatives; and the setting up of consolidation centres and low emission zones by municipalities. With a focus on the operational efficiency of urban logistics, the CITYLOG (2010-2012) project investigated the potential of telematics services, vehicle technologies for load unit handling and innovative load units. The project followed the hypothesis that more efficient and flexible services reduce the number of vehicle kilometres. Test laboratory solutions were discussed with stakeholders in three European cities. Major findings of the project included: • the policy relevance of allocating road capacity between passenger, freight and non-transport users; • the superiority of clean and silent vehicles; • the benefits of information technology (IT) based city logistics solutions for road pricing.

Flexible vehicle concepts without any specific infrastructure requirements are considered key to sustainable and efficient logistics. This topic is addressed by the CITY MOVE (2010-2012) project. Using the latest state-of-the-art technologies, the project aimed at developing a breakthrough in the design of standard vehicle platforms to create a new and flexible concept for urban delivery vehicles. With the participation of leading freight vehicle manufacturers in Europe and other key stakeholders, the project created a vehicle concept with a hybrid powertrain, flexible payload configurations and active collision avoidance systems. In doing so, the project translated concepts (such as multimodality, and park and ride) from passenger to goods transport. Alternative vehicles with electric and hybrid propulsion for postal services have been tested and assessed in four European countries by the GREEN POST (2007-2010) project. Promotion of best practice, information exchange, economic assessments, management training and public awareness raising through information campaigns formed the core objectives of the study. Drivers and their driving behaviour was the focus of the ECOMOVE (2010-2013) project. It identified that fuel economy could be improved by 20 % through optimising routes, driver Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 39

4.4.3 Research outcomes • give consideration to future projects that investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the use of goods 4.4.3.1 Achievements of the research under this consolidation centres (i.e. those made by suppliers); sub-theme • give consideration to future projects that investigate the wider An increasing number of cities are establishing some form savings that can be achieved through the implementation of of sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale SUMPs area-wide DSPs and their transferability across the EU; and SULPs or in more sectoral DSPs. The concepts and policy strategies proposed by earlier research activities are now being • give consideration to in-depth longitudinal studies of the realised through these actions. Swedish municipality consolidation experience to understand the wider effects of the increasing take-up of the concept It can also be identified that cooperative capacity and freight and its transferability across the EU. platforms, thanks to new mobile communication technologies, are operational and may lead to an enormous boost in freight Given the large contribution of long-distance road transport transport efficiency. However, these platforms need to carefully to GHG and air pollutant emissions, and against a background respect the reluctance of shippers and their customers to share of massive financial and acceptability problems of rail freight sensitive data with their competitors. services, future research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research and demonstration projects indicate that clean vehicle Research on institutional aspects for more efficient and technologies can be implemented quicker in freight transport cooperative solutions and for increasing innovation in the sector than in passenger transport due to the shorter life cycles appears to be of greatest importance for curbing environmental of vehicles and, in many cases, more regular driving cycles. and climate loads of freight transport while maintaining its However, economic viability must also be guaranteed. economic competitiveness.

4.4.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 4.4.3.4 Implications for future policy development Virtually all of the projects that were reviewed involved From the research priorities formulated above, the following extensive stakeholder communications. Therefore, the results policy recommendations have been derived: should be relevant for practical application. However, there • EU and national bodies should continue to encourage all is generally limited information on whether good ideas and types of cities to establish SUMPs with special consideration sustainable solutions are maintained after project funding has given to logistics aspects. The types of incentive that work terminated. Specific activities to prolong project impacts beyond best for this purpose and how the (extended) SUMPs may the funding periods have been reported by the INTERACTION look like will vary from region to region. project only. • The cooperation of companies and institutions for more In particular, in the urban context, projects have stressed the efficient freight delivery requires more than just providing point that each city is unique in its structure, culture, mentality good platforms and encouragement. Establishing urban and economic situation. Therefore, solutions cannot be easily goods consolidation centres needs investment money, transferred and their impact cannot be easily predicted with a respective priorities on local land-use planning, access simple instrument. So, the design and assessment of actions regulations, financial incentives for cooperation and to promote clean logistics in cities should be tailored for each other tools. To prolong their operation beyond the initial municipality. funding horizon requires concepts of the additional value generated for the city. The mix of tools is subject to the 4.4.3.3 Indications for future research local context. The TRAILBLAZER project lists a number of issues for future • All available means of enforcement and incentives should research directions in the field of clean freight transport: be used to transform clean modes of transport, particularly • continue to promote the use of DSPs and servicing plans to railways, into vital market players. This also implies a secure ongoing savings in fuel used in freight, delivery and strategic assignment of investment and maintenance funds servicing activities with the specific goal of reducing GHG for transport infrastructures. Agreed European and national emissions and primary energy consumption; strategies would help in that respect. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 40

4.4.4 List of projects Table 4-5 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-5 Projects reviewed in the low-emissions logistics sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

2MOVE2 New forms of sustainable urban transport and mobility 2012-2016 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/NvTsCJ

CITY MOVE City multi-Role Optimised Vehicle 2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/a7PdSI

CITYLOG Sustainability and Efficiency of City Logistics 2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/VqRBdw

CYCLELOGISTICS CYCLELOGISTICS Move goods by cycle 2011-2014 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/5wnFkW

Cyclelogistics Ahead Cyclelogistics ahead - A key step towards zero emission 2014-2015 EU (IEE) logistics in cities https://goo.gl/6SNEVm

DisLog Electric vehicles for efficient urban distribution logistics 2013-2016 Germany https://goo.gl/hPjxuq

ECOMOVE Cooperative Mobility Systems and Services for Energy Efficiency 2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/WhGH69

ECOSTARS ECO Stars Europe 2011-2014 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/fqX2P0

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and 2012-2015 EU (IEE) mid-sized European Historic Towns https://goo.gl/Nt02me

EURIDICE European Inter-disciplinary Research on Intelligent Cargo for 2008-2011 EU (FP7-ICT) Efficient, Safe and Environment-friendly Logistics https://goo.gl/ZDRuOn

GIFTS Global Intermodal Freight Transport System 2002-2005 EU (FP5-IST) https://goo.gl/Jf9VwR

GREEN POST Green alternative postal vehicle project 2007-2010 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/khgW1c

HCV Hybrid Commercial Vehicle 2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/Iuogec

INTERACTION INternational Transport and Energy Reduction ACTION - 2006-2008 EU (IEE) Energy efficiency equals cost efficiency: engaging sectoral organisations as champions and messengers to reduce energy use in freight transport https://goo.gl/FqCZKW

KV-E-CHAIN Comprehensive electric transportation chain for combined 2013-2016 Germany transit https://goo.gl/ZEeJsp

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) Liveable Environments https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

NaNu! Multiple Shift Operation and Night Delivery with Electric 2013-2015 Germany Commercial Vehicles https://goo.gl/KcAYTF Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 41

Table 4-5 (continued) Projects reviewed in the low-emissions logistics sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

NEXTRUST Building sustainable logistics through trusted collaborative 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) networks across the entire supply chain https://goo.gl/ElRZE9

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability 2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

SYNCHRO-NET Synchro-modal Supply Chain Eco-Net 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/I1a2dM

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

TRAILBLAZER Transport and Innovation Logistics by Local Authorities with 2010-2013 EU (IEE) a Zest for Efficiency and Realization https://goo.gl/zT0NwB

4.5 Vehicle design and manufacture – A new regulation covering emissions of non-volatile particulate aviation and maritime matter (nvPM) is being developed by the Committee on Aviation 4.5.1 Introduction to the sub-theme Environmental Protection (CAEP). These regulations are updated every few years. When first implemented, the regulations apply This sub-theme addresses technology developments for the to newly certificated aircraft (or engines). When a regulation reduction of harmful emissions from aircraft and ships. is updated, it is common to require newly manufactured aircraft (or engines) to comply with the previous version of Globally, commercial aviation contributes 2-2.5 % of manmade the regulation at the same or similar time (for example, the CO emissions. However, demand from air travel is increasing 2 CAEP/8 NOx regulation was introduced for newly certificated at a high rate and this is expected to lead to more than 100 % engines from the beginning of 2014, while newly manufactured growth in demand (as measured by revenue tonne-kilometres engines were required to comply with the previous, CAEP/6, (RTK)) by 2050. Air travel also contributes to emissions of NOx, regulation from the beginning of 2013). both around airports and through the rest of the flight. The emissions close to airports occur at low altitude and lead to For shipping, IMO has published regulations covering the air quality problems in the vicinity, while the emissions during emissions of NOx, SOx and PM in the marine pollution (MARPOL) cruise occur at higher altitudes and contribute to climate regulations (particularly Annex VI). A recent update to MARPOL change. Other emissions produced by aircraft engines include also includes regulations on the energy efficiency of newly PM, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). The latter built ships. two are only produced in very small quantities. The emissions of CO2 from aircraft and ships are highly Another key impact of aircraft arises from the noise that they correlated with the amount of fuel consumed (for example, produce, which can have significant health effects on the the consumption of 1 kg of aviation kerosene produces populations living and working close to airports. approximately 3.16 kg of CO2). As fuel is a major part of the overall operating costs for aircraft and ship operators, there are International shipping contributes about 2.7 % of global CO 2 strong economic and environmental pressures to reduce fuel emissions, with domestic shipping and fishing a further 0.6 % consumption. This combination of economic and environmental (International Maritime Organisation, 2007). Forecasts by the pressures provides the strongest impetus to the development Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicate growth of new technologies for aircraft and ships. Conversely, NOx is in CO emissions will be between 2.4 and 3 times that of 2007 2 produced in the combustion chambers of engines as the result by 2050. As for aviation, although present-day emissions are low of the high pressures and temperatures found there. A key compared with other sources (particularly power generation), the technology to reduce fuel consumption is the use of higher rapid growth in demand and the limited options for alternative pressure ratios for aircraft engines – the equivalent parameter sources of energy (at least in the near term) may lead to them for a maritime diesel engine is referred to as compression becoming dominant sources of GHGs in the future. ratio. Therefore, the drive to reduce NOx emissions at the same

Emissions from aircraft and ships are generally governed by time as CO2 emissions requires a continuing development of international regulations defined by the International Civil combustion chamber and fuel injector technology. Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime The emissions of SOx from diesel engines are a result of the Organization (IMO), both classified as ‘specialised agencies’ sulphur content of the fuel. The need to reduce the emissions of the United Nations (UN). For aviation, ICAO has defined of this pollutant is leading to requirements to use low-sulphur regulations covering the emissions of CO and noise from 2 fuels. aircraft and NOx, HC, CO and smoke from aircraft engines. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 42

4.5.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded The funding for research on maritime projects has been research significantly lower than that for aviation. Under FP6, projects to the value of approximately EUR 60 million were funded on Research into the development of new technology for maritime vehicle technologies, which grew to EUR 108 million aircraft and engines has long been a major element of EU under FP7. Thus far, projects to the value of EUR 80 million research programmes. The requirement for publicly funded have been funded under Horizon 2020. research not to subsidise the development of new products leads to the research covering only ‘pre-competitive’ In comparison to the number of projects concerning aircraft and technology development. Nonetheless, a significant number aircraft engine technologies, significantly fewer large projects of technologies that have been introduced to reduce fuel have been identified from TRIP for maritime technologies. consumption and emissions from aircraft may be traced back The key areas of interest have been more efficient and to public research projects. lower emissions maritime diesel engines (particularly under HERCULES (2004-2007) and follow-on projects) and electric During the FP5 programme, the larger research projects (that ships (e.g. the POSE2IDON (2009-2012) and E-ferry (2015- have been selected for this review to attempt to identify 2019) projects). research results with the greatest chance of having contributed to emissions savings in practice) concentrated on advanced 4.5.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded aircraft concepts, such as flying wing designs (e.g. the VELA projects (2002-2005) project) or technologies for tilt-rotor aircraft (e.g. the DART (2002-2006) project). Only very few nationally funded projects have been identified that are relevant to this sub-theme and are likely to have During the FP6 programme, there was significant emphasis on contributed to real emissions savings. The selection of projects aircraft engine technology development, which was particularly for this review took into account the number and relevance targeted at reduced emissions. The technologies investigated of the project partners. In particular, selecting those projects included advanced combustor designs (for example, the where one or more partners was a manufacturer of aircraft, INTELLECT D.M. (2004-2007), TIMECOP-AE (2006-2010) and engines, ships, etc. The small number of projects identified, TLC (2005-2010) projects) and management of airflow within in comparison with EU-funded projects, reflects a situation the engine (e.g. the ADVACT (2004-2008) and AIDA (2004- in which individual EU Member States face difficulties in 2008) projects). funding large projects that are likely to have direct impacts on Under the FP7 programme, there was a continuing emphasis emissions from aircraft or ships. on the development of aircraft engine technologies, In the aviation field, only Germany appears to have funded particularly for reduced emissions of NOx and PM (for significant projects. Those identified were all performed in the example, the IMPACT-AE (2011-2015) and LEMCOTEC 2007-2011 timeframe. Three projects researched technologies (2011-2015) projects). There were also investigations of and design methods for improving aircraft engine efficiency and ‘step-change’ technologies, such as the use of fuel cells in reducing emissions. place of the traditional gas-turbine-based auxiliary power unit (APU) on aircraft (e.g. the GREENAIR (2009-2012) project). In the maritime field, only a single project was identified. This Aircraft technologies that were investigated included active project, VORTEX (2003-2005) investigated improvements in flow control (the AFLONEXT (2013-2017) project) and propeller design to improve efficiency and reduce noise on surface coatings (the AEROMUCO (2011-2013) projects). boats used on inland waterways. Both of these technologies were investigated as part of a move towards integrating hybrid laminar flow technology (for 4.5.2 Research activities reduced aerodynamic drag) on aircraft surfaces, which has Within the sub-theme of ‘vehicle design and manufacture – been introduced on some recent aircraft designs. aviation and maritime’, research has been found to be divided The technologies investigated under FP7 continue to attract attention into a number of different topics, particularly related to the under Horizon 2020, including aircraft laminar flow (WINNER (2016- part or technology of the aircraft or ship being investigated to 2019)) and PM emissions (SOPRANO (2016-2020)). attempt to reduce emissions. These topics include: Considering only the larger projects (those most likely to have led • aircraft; to real applications through a large budget or industry-relevant • aircraft engines; partners), the funding for EU-funded projects6 on aircraft and engine technology development was about EUR 300 million • aircraft APUs; under FP6, EUR 260 million under FP7 and EUR 28 million to • ships. date under Horizon 2020. With the expectation that further large projects on aircraft and engine technology development will be In addition, some projects have been identified covering related funded under Horizon 2020, this shows a consistently high level topics, such as the assessment of emissions and of related policies. of funding for aviation technologies over time.

6 Recognising that the EU funds only part of the total costs of the projects under these research programmes. The figures quoted here are the total project costs. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 43

4.5.2.1 Aircraft VELA assessed the ability of existing tools to assist the design of flying-wing aircraft by comparing the aerodynamic results The improvement of aircraft technology and design is with those obtained from wind tunnel tests of two aircraft fundamental to reducing emissions. An aircraft with lower designs. Following this validation, the tools were applied to aerodynamic drag will need less thrust to maintain flight, which the optimisation of further aircraft designs, taking account will reduce the fuel consumption and emissions. Similarly, an of constraints such as passenger cabin dimensions and floor aircraft with a lower weight (through the use of lightweight angles. Structural analyses of the designs were performed materials or construction) will require less lift to fly, giving lower to assess pressure loads on the design and to optimise the drag and, hence, less thrust needed. structure (for weight reduction). Other aspects of the flying- An improvement in the fuel efficiency of an aircraft will lead to wing designs that were considered in the project included a reduction in CO2 emissions. However, the impact on emissions the design of the control system and requirements related to of other pollutants, in particular NOx, may not reduce in line airport integration and passenger evacuation in an emergency. with CO . Therefore, there has been considerable research into 2 Projects that have research improvements in aircraft improvements in the design of aircraft engine combustors to technologies have included AVERT (2007-2009). This project also achieve reductions in the emissions of other pollutants. targeted a 10 % improvement in aircraft lift-to-drag ratio In addition to evolutionary improvements to aircraft and during cruise (so giving a 10 % reduction in fuel consumption engines, research has been performed on more revolutionary for an aircraft of the same weight) through improvements to approaches to meeting the demand for air transport with lower flow control technologies giving reduced vortex drag. emissions, such as the use of airships for cargo transport (as The flow control technologies investigated included devices for described below). controlling the transition of the air near the aircraft surfaces from a laminar to a turbulent state and skin friction control 4.5.2.1.1 Airframe design and technology devices. Devices with particular relevance to low-speed control The majority of recent research that is related to airframe (for when the aircraft is taking-off or landing) included those design and technologies investigated improvements to for blowing into the flap gap (the gap between the flap and the particular aspects of the aircraft design rather than the total rest of the wing structure) and for controlling flow separation aircraft design. However, an exception to this was the VELA at the wing leading edge. project that considered the needs for future aircraft designs All the flow control devices investigated were based on based on ‘flying-wing’ concepts. In principle, such layouts could microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology. A key part offer significant improvements in fuel efficiency. However, of the project was the validation of the ability to manufacture considerable technology improvements are required before the devices in sufficient quantity, and to an adequate quality they could replace the traditional ‘tube and wing’ aircraft layout. and durability for application to aircraft in service. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 44

The devices were then tested in wind tunnel models to Another project that addressed improvements on fuel confirm their performance and their potential contribution to consumption and emissions through reducing airframe drag the development of more fuel efficient aircraft designs in the was the AEROMUCO project. This project investigated improved future. coatings for application to aircraft surfaces, particularly the wing. These coatings were intended to reduce the adhesion A subsequent project with several of the same partners that also of insects and dirt to maintain a smooth surface and hence investigated active flow control was AFLONEXT. In this project, improve the retention of laminar flow close to the surface, which includes a total of 40 partners, the aim is to investigate so reducing drag. In addition, the coatings were intended to the use of active flow control to increase aerodynamic reduce the energy required for in-flight de-icing systems on performance and reduce drag through applications to: aircraft wings. The coatings investigated were customised to • achieve hybrid laminar flow on the fin; the particular requirements of the locations on the wing surface (avoiding contamination near the leading edge, avoiding ice • improve the aerodynamic performance of the outer part of build-up on the upper wing surface). The tests on the different the wing; coatings included confirmation of their resistance to ice build- • control flow separation at the junction between the wing and up and erosion through rain or abrasion. As well as academic the engine pylon, particularly during take-off and landing; institutions, the project team for AEROMUCO included aircraft manufacturers Airbus, Alenia Aermacchi and Dassault Aviation, • actively manage the flow conditions at the wing trailing edge providing a route to exploitation of the project results. to reduce aerodynamic loads on the structure; A further project that is investigating improvements in wing • reduce the aerodynamic interaction between the aerodynamics through the use of coatings is the WINNER undercarriage and flaps to reduce noise during the landing project. This project aims to develop multifunctional coatings approach; to provide erosion protection (primarily for carbon-fibre wing • reduce vibrations in the undercarriage during take-off and panels, which are particularly susceptible) and resistance to landing. ice build-up. Plasma vapour deposition has been identified as a key technology for applying such coatings. The project plans to demonstrate several of these technologies on a test aircraft to raise their readiness level to prepare them 4.5.2.1.2 Aircraft systems for inclusion in production aircraft. Other technologies will be As well as airframes, developments to aircraft systems developed further through laboratory level demonstrations or have also been researched. The MOET (2006-2009) project in large-scale tests in wind tunnels. investigated the development of aircraft electrical systems as The majority of fuel burn and emissions produced from an part of the ‘more electric aircraft’ concept (in which systems aircraft occur during the cruise portion of the flight. However, such as control surfaces and anti-icing units are powered the need for the wings to be able to generate the lift required electrically rather than using hydraulics or pneumatics). As well during the (low-speed) landing and take-off phases requires as the development of concepts for the on-board electrical compromises in the wing’s design. The need to reduce fuel networks, the project also performed some validation tests on consumption and emissions encourages the use of longer, high fully integrated systems. The project showed good progress in aspect ratio wings, but the ability to use such designs is limited developing the required systems for a ‘more-electric’ aircraft by the compromises for low-speed flight. Therefore, the SADE (a concept that has since been implemented on the American (2008-2012) project investigated the use of ‘morphing’ wing Boeing 787 aircraft) and noted that further progress was structures to achieve the same increase in low-speed lift without needed on a number of technologies: the constraints on the wing structure. The specific morphing • For the electrical power system: elements investigated were the ‘smart leading edge’ and the ‘smart single slotted flap’. Both devices contribute to the ability -- simplification of the architecture (only one high voltage to achieve the required low-speed lift without requiring the network – 230 V alternating current (AC) or 270 V direct large internal wing structure. Another benefit is the reduction current (DC), but not both); in discontinuities in the wing surface (where traditional high- -- multipurpose power-electronics motor controller units; lift devices are attached) improving the aerodynamics and contributing to the ability to maintain laminar airflow across -- higher power-to-weight ratio for power electronics; the surface, giving lower drag in the cruise phase. -- reduction of electrical load analysis budget at aircraft Research during the SADE project focused on laboratory-scale level; wind tunnel experiments investigating the ability of the wing -- higher power distribution centre integration; structure (and skin) to withstand the forces caused by the morphing and also from the flight loads. The results showed -- smart management of generators overload capability. that the wing skins were capable of accommodating the forces from morphing without damage and that the deflections due to flight loads were small. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 45

• For other aircraft systems: The INTELLECT D.M. project aimed to develop a design methodology for low-emissions ‘lean-burn’ combustors. The -- wider use of power-electronics motor controllers (not just lean-burn combustor concept had been proposed as a means air-conditioning and engine start); of obtaining low emissions (particularly of NOx) by using a lean -- reduce the electrical environmental control system (ECS) (low fuel:air ratio) flame throughout the combustor. This is in and cooling system drag penalty; contrast to the more conventional approach that has a rich (high fuel:air ratio) zone near the entry to the combustor with more air -- ECS ground operation optimisation; added to lean the flame out further downstream. While offering -- higher integration of the ECS and liquid cooling system; low emissions, the lean-burn combustor concept introduces problems with achieving a stable flame and the project used a -- power electronics cooling to be investigated further; knowledge-based engineering tool to develop design rules for -- hydraulics deletion to be investigated further (specifically achieving a stable flame across the flight envelope. The project for regional jets); also used a Monte Carlo statistical approach combined with a large eddy simulation (LES) computer program to model the -- electromechanical actuators (EMA) for flight control flow of the fuel spray in the combustor to assist in developing actuators and landing gear to be investigated further an understanding of designs for good stability. (specifically for regional jets). The project produced guidelines for the design of lean-burn The German ELFA (2007-2010) project built on the progress combustors (for low NOx emissions) that are able to provide of MOET (and other projects) to focus on the development reliable and safe operation. Particular aspects of the combustor of specific technologies. ELFA was split into three sub- operation that were considered included ignition, lean blow-out projects (VELKESA, BREZEN and AKTUEL) that focused on air- and altitude relight. conditioning and ice-protection systems, hydrogen fuel cells The TECC-AE (2008-2012) project also investigated the design and electrical actuators, respectively. Although it was a national of lean-burn combustors for low NOx emissions. In this project, project, a key feature of ELFA was that it was led by Airbus, the emphasis was on the development of combustor designs giving a route for the exploitation of the project results. using staged fuel injectors. The projects developed a design for a new combustor concept known as the ‘trapped vortex 4.5.2.1.3 Novel aircraft types combustor’. The design concepts developed by the project were In addition to research on reducing the fuel consumption and validated through rig tests. emissions from conventional aircraft, there has also been a At a similar time, a German national project (GerMaTec (2007- number of studies focusing on unconventional aircraft. The 2011)) investigated improvements in the design of fuel injectors LAPCAT (2005-2008), ATLLAS (2006-2009), LAPCAT-II (2008- for lean-burn combustors. The focus of the research was on 2012) and FAST20XX (2009-2012) projects all investigated the vibrations (particularly acoustically driven vibrations) that the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. The occur in an engine and how they contribute to the difficulties in investigations also included consideration of improving the fuel achieving stable fuel spray patterns and, hence, stable flames. efficiency of such aircraft types. Although the results indicate that the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft The IMPACT-AE project also investigated the development of (including for sub-orbital space flight) may be feasible in the the technology to design low emissions lean-burn combustors. future, the technologies developed do not contribute to reducing The project brought together the major European aircraft engine emissions from current and near-term future (subsonic) aircraft manufacturers with universities, research establishments and will not be discussed in further detail here. and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to form a consortium including the key European capabilities in the topic. 4.5.2.2 Aircraft engines The main effort was on the development of the design system itself to provide the capability to design successful lean-burn Except for airframe noise and unintentional leaks of fluids, the combustors for future engines. Another aim was to allow the majority of pollutants emitted from an aircraft in flight are from design of aircraft engine combustors to be accomplished in a the engines. The engines also play a major role in determining shorter time. As well as the gas flows within the combustor, the the fuel efficiency of the aircraft. As a result, they have a large methods developed included heat transfer analyses to allow influence on the fuel consumed and emissions produced. Therefore, advanced wall-cooling concepts to be designed. it is to be expected that a significant part of the funding on aircraft research goes into research on engine technologies. The development and application of advanced design methods for combustors was also the focus of the TIMECOP-AE project. 4.5.2.2.1 Combustion This project investigated the application of a range of different analysis methods, including LES, to the detailed modelling of A key area of technology development that contributes flows inside combustors and also generated rig test data for to reduced emissions from aircraft engines is the engine validation. Areas of development in the tools included models combustion chamber or ‘combustor’. The combustor lies at for turbulence, chemistry, turbulence-chemistry interactions, the heart of an aircraft gas-turbine engine. It is in there that and for modelling liquid sprays. the fuel is burned and the emissions are generated. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 46

The TLC project also analysed the performance of different The Horizon 2020-funded SOPRANO project is also investigating modelling tools, incorporating different turbulence models of the reduction of soot emissions from aircraft engines. It is doing different levels of complexity, when applied to the calculation this through the design and analysis of innovative combustors of flows in aircraft engine combustors. (for reduced soot emissions) and rig tests for validation. The LEMCOTEC project identified high compressor pressure 4.5.2.2.2 Turbines ratios (up to 70:1) as a key route to the achievement of more efficient engines, giving reduced fuel consumption and lower The AITEB-2 (2005-2009) project investigated improvements

emissions (particularly of CO2). However, the use of such high to the design of engine turbines for greater efficiency. It pressure ratios also leads to an increase in NOx emissions. evaluated the use of a range of different analysis tools, based Therefore, as well as compressor technology (needed to on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods, but with achieve high pressure ratios), the project also investigated a range of temporal and spatial detail. Although the more improvements in combustor technology to avoid high NOx advanced methods were found to give closer comparisons to emissions. experimental results, further developments were identified as being needed to improve the accuracy in particular areas. The project investigated advanced fuel injector technologies These included turbine film-cooling flows and areas of high for lean-burn combustors as a means of achieving reliable and heat transfer. stable operation with low NOx emissions. Advanced fuel control systems were developed to provide the required control of the Developments in turbine design technology were also fuel flows through the injectors. considered by the German national project ME2 Turbine (2007- 2011). It focused on the development of more efficient low- In addition to the achievement of low NOx emissions, research pressure turbines, with an emphasis on their performance at has also been performed into reductions in emissions of soot low Reynolds numbers (as occur when an engine is operating from combustors. The FIRST (2010-2014) project developed at altitude). A rig test also demonstrated the feasibility of using improved numerical tools for the design and analysis of fuel titanium aluminide (TiAl) blades in such a turbine, giving a injectors to improve the control of fuel atomisation and, hence, reduced engine weight. reduce harmful emissions. The project also performed tests on fuel sprays to provide validation data for the numerical The HYSOP (2010-2014) project also investigated the use of methods under development. The project partners included all novel materials, particularly silicide-based composite materials, the main European aircraft engine manufacturers, providing an to reduce the weight of turbines, but are still able to survive in exploitation route for the methods that were developed in the the difficult environment of an aircraft engine. design of combustors for future engines. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 47

4.5.2.2.3 Other components 4.5.2.2.5 Environmental assessment As well as research targeted at reducing the emissions of The ability to assess the effects of technologies and policies pollutants from combustors, several projects have investigated on the environmental impacts of aviation is key to ensuring developments to the design of other engine components to the correct decisions on which technologies and policies improve efficiency and reduce fuel consumption and emissions. should be pursued. The wide range of impacts of aviation Improved actuators and sensors were the focus of the ADVACT (noise, climate change, LAQ and economics) presents and STARGATE (2012-2015) projects. Both projects aimed to difficulties in fully assessing the impacts of policy measures. improve the actuation of devices for managing the airflows The TEAM_PLAY (2010-2012) project created a modelling within an engine, which can help to improve the stability of framework to combine and advance European modelling the engine operation and, hence, allow it to be designed for a capabilities to support the European perspective in the higher efficiency. international policy arena. The AIDA project investigated the design of intermediate TEAM_PLAY brought together a wide range of European models ducts (e.g. the ducts between the low-pressure and high- for the analysis of the economic and environmental impacts compressor compressors in a two-spool engine). The aim was of aviation, with data exchange between the models through to understand the airflow in these ducts better so that engines each communicating with a dedicated data warehouse. The could be designed with shorter ducts (without incurring airflow project developed a tool suite that provides full capabilities separations), so reducing weight and giving a reduction in the for analysing the long-term effects of policies, including fuel consumption. The potential for a 2 % reduction in fuel interdependencies. consumption (and CO2 emissions) was identified for optimised duct designs. The project team included the major European 4.5.2.3 Aircraft APUs engine manufacturers, giving a route for the exploitation of the An additional form of engine that is fitted to most aircraft project results in the design of future engines. is the APU. The APU usually takes the form of a small gas The E-BREAK (2012-2016) project concentrated on developing turbine engine that is connected to an electrical generator and improved seals and abradable components in the low-pressure is configured to provide electric power for the aircraft systems systems of gas turbine engines. The aim of this was to reduce and/or high-pressure air for cabin air-conditioning. The APU the efficiency losses that occur as these components wear, is only used when the aircraft is on the ground (as the main so improving the efficiency of the engine in service. The engines provide the necessary electric power and air once the technologies investigated also included active tip-clearance aircraft takes off) and has only a small contribution to GHG control to increase turbine efficiency. emissions. However, the APU does contribute significantly to emissions that affect LAQ (mainly NOx and PM), particularly as The German VerDeMod (2007-2011) project developed all its emissions occur very close to the ground. improved designs for compressor stator vanes to give improved efficiency. The research included fixed and variable stators, and Some projects have investigated options for reducing emissions considered the potential benefits of using non-axisymmetric from APUs. In particular, two projects have considered the annulus designs. The recent advances in CFD software allowed potential to replace the APU with a fuel cell to produce electric the design optimisation to also take account of the flow power. The CELINA (2005-2008) project reviewed the potential unsteadiness. application of existing fuel cell designs to replace aircraft APUs. The project identified that the power-to-weight ratio of 4.5.2.2.4 Technology demonstration existing designs would need to be improved to match those of conventional APUs and that it would be important to use all the The demonstration of technology on major aircraft engine outputs from the fuel cell (electricity, heat, water and exhaust components is a highly expensive process that is normally gases) to maximise efficiency. To maintain a long service life, undertaken by the engine manufacturers. One such project the project identified the need to develop kerosene reformers was VITAL (2005-2009), which was performed by a consortium (to generate hydrogen from the aircraft’s aviation fuel) and to comprising a number of major European manufacturers, improve the tolerance of the fuel cell to sulphur and carbon. research institutions and universities. The research brought together a range of technologies developed under previous The GREENAIR project pursued one of those challenges, namely projects and demonstrated them through large-scale rig tests. the development of reformer technology for on-board hydrogen Included in the demonstration rig tests were: generation. Two different options for reformation were investigated – partial dehydrogenation and plasma-assisted • two fully instrumented fans targeted at direct-drive and fuel processing. The project advanced the technology level of counter-rotating turbofan designs; both of these options, although both require more work to make • low-pressure compressor (‘booster’) designs; them ready for a production application. • turbines for direct-drive turbofan and geared turbofan applications; • composite high-torque engine shafts. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 48

4.5.2.4 Ships ships in complex environmental conditions. The results of these analyses were validated through model tests and were reported It is apparent from the analysis of the research projects on aviation to the IMO for consideration in future developments of the EEDI. and maritime vehicle design that there is very much less emphasis on the latter than on the former. Nonetheless, there has been, and 4.5.2.4.2 Propulsion continues to be, some significant research performed to improve the technology and reduce emissions from ships. As for aviation, it is the propulsion system of a ship that creates the pollutants that are emitted. Improvements to these 4.5.2.4.1 Ship design systems to reduce emissions have been the focus of a number of research projects. The STREAMLINE (2010-2014) project used the latest design and analysis tools (based on CFD models) to investigate Foremost among the EU-funded research projects on ship improvements to ship design to improve efficiency (and reduce propulsion has been the HERCULES series of projects. emissions). The particular elements considered included the This series commenced with the HERCULES project, which optimisation of ship design (with particular reference to reducing was subsequently followed by HERCULES-B (2008-2011), cavitation), distributed propulsion systems (for inland vessels), HERCULES-C (2012-2014) and HERCULES-2 (2015-2018). increased diameter propellers (for ocean-going vessels) and a In each case, the project partners comprised a number of novel propulsion concept based on a ‘whale’s tail’ concept. European designers, manufacturers and operators. The total value of these four projects is over EUR 100 million. The JOULES (2013-2017) project is studying improvements to ship design through the use of an integrated assessment approach. The HERCULES project concentrated on the development of The aim is to develop tools for predicting energy consumption and engine designs featuring advanced combustion concepts emissions during the design phase so that the complete design with intelligent multistage turbocharging, energy recovery can be optimised to reduced fuel consumption and emissions. and compounding. Internal measures for emissions reduction and exhaust aftertreatments were also developed. The design The HOLISHIP (2016-2020) project is continuing work to concepts that were developed were demonstrated through rig develop an integrated design environment for ships to tests. The results showed: achieve lower emissions. A particular focus of HOLISHIP

is the additional difficulty caused by the nature of ship • 1.4 % reduction in CO2 emissions; designs – they are frequently ‘one-off’ or bespoke designs, • 50 % reduction in NOx emissions; optimised for a particular application. This creates challenges to efforts to develop design guidance and methodologies for • 40 % reduction in PM emissions. reduced emissions. The aim of the project is to integrate all design requirements and constraints (technical constraints, The subsequent HERCULES-B and HERCULES-C projects targeted performance indicators, life-cycle cost and environmental greater reductions in emissions through more extreme combustion impact) at an early stage in the design process. In this way, it pressures. The results from HERCULES-C, which included the is hoped that ships can be designed for lower environmental use of gas direct injection on a diesel engine and exhaust gas impacts and a reduced design time. recirculation, showed NOx emissions 80 % below IMO Tier 1 levels. The research also included efforts to improve performance The LeanShips (2015-2019) project aims to validate the retention, so that the engine’s fuel efficiency will degrade by no potential of new technologies for reduced emissions by more than 5 % over its anticipated 20-year lifetime. demonstrating them on full-size ships. In most cases, the ships on which the technologies will be demonstrated are existing A further follow-on is the HERCULES-2 project. The key operational ships, so the results of the trials will provide technologies under investigation include a fuel flexibility capability, real-world evidence of the effectiveness of the technologies, which will allow engines to be switched from one fuel type to including the ability to retrofit them to in-service ships. The another, including alternative fuels, quickly and easily. The project ships that will be involved in the trials include small to mid- is also developing the application of new materials to provide size ships for intra-European waterborne transport, vessels higher temperature capabilities for improved efficiency, the for offshore operations and those for the leisure and cruise improvement of exhaust gas aftertreatment to give a ‘near-zero’ markets. Initial estimates indicate that fuel savings of up emissions capability and adaptive control system concepts to to 25 % should be achievable, together with reductions in assist in retaining performance throughout an engine’s lifetime. emissions of NOx and PM of 10-100 %. Another project that investigated improvements to maritime Like other transport modes, international shipping has diesel engine efficiency wasHELIOS (2010-2013). This project introduced minimum standards for energy efficiency (related developed a dual-fuel capability for two-stroke marine diesel to GHG emissions). These standards have been introduced as engines, allowing them to run on CNG or LNG and diesel fuel. the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) by the IMO. However, The technology was designed to be retrofittable to in-service concerns have been expressed that the regulations may leave diesel engines. Tests showed that higher efficiencies and lower ships with insufficient power and steering ability to manoeuvre emissions were achieved when the engines ran on the natural safely in adverse conditions. The SHOPERA (2013-2016) project gas fuels than on diesel. The project coordinator was a major investigated these concerns using high-fidelity hydrodynamic European marine-diesel-engine manufacturer, which should simulation tools to analyse the manoeuvring performance of ease the widespread application of the technology. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 49

4.5.2.4.3 Alternative power/propulsion technologies The POSE²IDON project pursued the application of the concept to this class of vessel through the reduction in size and increase Although the primary focus for improved efficiency and reduced in efficiency of electric machines using high temperature emissions has been on developments to the traditional marine superconductivity. Other technologies that were investigated diesel engine, work has also been performed on alternative power included an active stator design (also aimed at reducing the and propulsion technologies for ships. size of electric machines), and wireless monitoring and control As in other modes of transport, electric power represents systems. The project encountered delays and so demonstration a potential approach to achieving significant reductions in of the full target reduction of 20 % in fuel consumption was emissions. The POSE²IDON project investigated the ability to not achieved. However, the project was able to determine that obtain enhanced efficiency through the ‘electric ship’ concept. In the 20 % reduction in fuel consumption would be achievable this concept, the main on-board engines (usually diesel engines) once the high-temperature superconducting machines reached are used to generate electricity that, in turn, powers the electric ‘industrial maturity’. motors that power the propellers. This is in contrast to the Another project that is investigating electric ships is the conventional configuration in which the diesel engines power E-ferry project. However, this project is targeting the the propellers directly. The main advantage of the electric-ship development of a 100 % electric, emission-free, ferry that concept lies in the ability to operate the engines at, or near is able to carry passengers and vehicles over distances of to, their best efficiency condition, with different size engines more than 5 nautical miles. Planned applications include being used when lower power is required, such as in coastal medium-range (about 10 nautical miles) connections on the waters. This is in contrast to the situation when the engines Danish part of the Baltic Sea. The ship is designed to have a are connected directly to the propellers and must be throttled lightweight construction, featuring carbon fibre in the vessel back to a lower power condition (with reduced efficiency and superstructure, to maximise energy efficiency. It is anticipated higher emissions) when lower power is required because the that the e-ferry will reduce CO emissions by 2 000 tonnes layout that is imposed by the fixed link between the engine and 2 per year when in service. As well as the operational CO the propeller makes it difficult to incorporate additional engines 2 emissions savings, the design considerations also include for the low-power condition. savings in other emissions (NOx, SO2 and PM) and the life The electric-ship concept is in widespread use for large, ocean- -cycle emissions over the design life of 30 years. going ships, but has not been exploited for smaller merchant ships. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 50

4.5.3 Research outcomes The LEMCOTEC project also investigated future combustor developments for reduced NOx emissions, particularly in the 4.5.3.1 Achievements of the research under this context of future increases in compressor pressure ratios leading sub-theme to further challenges for managing NOx emissions. In addition 4.5.3.1.1 Aircraft to considering the design requirements for high pressure ratio engines, the project also developed and tested a new fuel injector Aircraft are highly complex vehicles and research is able to design intended for use in a lean-burn combustor. contribute to improvements in many specific aspects. Another pollutant that has been investigated is soot. Two In the area of aircraft aerodynamics, and particularly active flow projects, FIRST and SOPRANO have considered the development control, the AVERT project made progress in the development of of combustor designs for reduced soot. The FIRST project also the flow-control technologies, including the manufacture of the performed tests on fuel sprays to provide validation data required MEMS devices, which are now being followed up with for design tools that include soot generation models. These flight test demonstrations by the AFLONEXT project. The results developments in design and analysis tools will enable future from the studies to date have contributed to the understanding combustors to be designed for reduced soot emissions, though of how flow-control devices can be manufactured and integrated it is important that the reduced NOx emission technology (such with the airframe. If the flight tests are able to demonstrate as lean burn combustors) is integrated with the reduced-soot the expected reduction in aircraft drag, the technology will technology. be able to contribute to significant improvements in the fuel consumption of future aircraft designs. Other projects have also developed design technology for reducing fuel consumption (and hence CO emissions) Other projects that have targeted reductions in airframe 2 by improving the efficiency of other engine components, drag have also progressed the knowledge of the technology, particularly compressors and turbines. Projects such as particularly the necessary mechanical aspects to implement AITEB-2, ME2 Turbine and VerDeMod have improved the it in airframes. For example, the SADE project advanced the knowledge of how advanced CFD methods can be applied to understanding of the mechanical design aspects of morphing designing compressors and turbines for greater efficiency. This wings, which are expected to lead aircraft with a lower drag improved knowledge will be exploited by engine manufacturers in the future. Similarly, the AEROMUCO and WINNER projects when designing future engines (and, potentially, improved have successfully demonstrated the properties of coatings that compressors and turbines as part of upgrades for existing have been developed with the aim of enabling higher levels engine designs). As well as improved aerodynamic designs, of laminar flow, giving reduced wing drag, on future aircraft research has been performed on using alternative materials wings. Although these projects do not immediately lead to the to obtain reduced fuel consumption through reduced weight. incorporation of these low-drag technologies in aircraft wings, The HYSOP project developed the manufacturing technology they provide important steps towards the final exploitation of to allow turbine blades and vanes to be manufactured from a the technology. silicide-based composite material. As well as giving reduced Another technology that has the potential to reduce aircraft weight components, such materials also have lower cooling fuel consumption is the ‘more-electric aircraft’, in which many requirements to traditional metallic components, giving further of the functions conventionally performed by hydraulic or improvements to the engine efficiency. pneumatic systems are performed using electric systems. This As described above, several projects developed or investigated technology is already incorporated in the Boeing 787 aircraft improved design methods for small engine components. The and is expected to be more widely used in the future. Two VITAL project brought several of these elements together to European projects (MOET and ELFA) have contributed to the design and test major components (e.g. fan and compressor advancement of this technology through the development of assemblies), including novel configurations such as counter- the relevant electrically powered devices and understanding rotating fans. The project produced results from these major of the requirements for the on-board electric management assembly tests, which are normally only performed by engine systems. manufacturers, that will contribute to the development of Research projects have contributed significantly to the advanced future engine technologies. development of aircraft engine technology for reduced Addressing the topic of environmental impact analysis, the emissions. A key future engine concept is the lean-burn TEAM_PLAY project successfully developed a capability for combustor, which is expected to offer significantly reduced modelling the environmental and economic impacts of a wide NOx emissions. Several projects (INTELLECT D.M., TECC-AE, range of policy options, including interdependencies, through GerMaTec and IMPACT-AE) have contributed to the development the construction of a dedicated data warehouse and the linking of the design capability to enable these combustors to be of several European models to it. The capability that was incorporated in future engine designs. This early capability developed was demonstrated on an aircraft CO standard test development is important given the protracted development 2 case and has been presented to European policy makers for cycles for new aircraft and engines. potential application to future policy development. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 51

4.5.3.1.2 Ships 4.5.3.3 Indications for future research A major part of European research on ship technology for The existing research projects are already well aligned with the reduced emissions has taken part under the HERCULES project requirements for future aircraft, ship and engine (aviation and and its follow-on projects. The projects have developed and maritime) designs. The inclusion of the major manufacturers in tested diesel engine designs with significantly reduced NOx and many research projects ensures that the results are exploitable PM emissions through multistage turbocharging and exhaust in future products. aftertreatments. Tests performed under the HERCULES-C A clear trend through much of the research, particularly on project demonstrated NOx emissions of 80 % below the IMO aircraft and aircraft engines, is the development of design Tier 1 levels. Continuing efforts are expected to result in further tools that will enable the incorporation of advanced concepts improvements, giving near-zero emissions from future engine in future products, together with the development of small designs. components. The full development of major aircraft or engine HELIOS, another project targeting reduced emissions from components for demonstrating new technologies is usually ship diesel engines, developed retrofittable technologies for performed by the manufacturers under their own funding (and dual-fuel operation, allowing the engine to operate on diesel is not reported). However, there are benefits (as exemplified by or natural gas (CNG or LNG) fuels. The results showed higher the VITAL project) from large-scale technology demonstration efficiencies and lower emissions when the engine was run on projects with results being available to several manufacturers. the natural gas fuels. On a specific area, research has been performed into reducing The E-ferry project is also targeting the development of a ship emissions of NOx from aircraft engines (particularly using lean- with near-zero or zero emissions. In this case, the approach burn technology) and soot (or nvPM). It is important that future is a 100 % electric ship design. When it is put into service, research on reduced emissions from engines addressed all the electric ferry that is being developed is expected to save pollutants (or, at least, NOx and soot together) so that any

2 000 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year compared with a interdependencies can be considered. conventionally fuelled ship. 4.5.3.4 Implications for future policy development 4.5.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use A common feature of aviation and maritime vehicles (aircraft The majority of research projects are developing improved and ships) is that they are used predominately on international design capabilities or understanding of technologies for operations and their regulations, particularly regarding application to the future design of aircraft, engines or ships. emissions, are set by international bodies. EU regulations The involvement of the major European aircraft and engine recognise this and EU bodies are involved in the development manufacturers ensures that successful design methods or of new regulations through the ICAO and IMO. These efforts technologies can be exploited in future products. However, the should continue and future policy development (e.g. in relation long gestation period for new aircraft or engines, together with to a future tightening of the CAEP NOx standard for aircraft the need to ensure that any new technology can be integrated engines) should take account of the emissions reductions being with other technologies and will operate reliably and safely, achieved by the different technologies arising from the research extends the period between research and incorporation in projects. an in-service product. The complexity of the final product In addition, the development of future EU policies related development also often makes it difficult to trace a direct link to emissions from aviation and maritime sources (e.g. air between the research and the product. quality regulations) should take account of the low-emissions Examples of research with clear applications on near-term technologies being developed and the improvements in future aircraft include the work on developing the technology for emissions that may be expected when these technologies are hybrid laminar flow on aircraft surfaces for lower aerodynamic ultimately incorporated in in-service aircraft and ships. drag, so reducing fuel consumption and emissions. The Boeing 787 aircraft type now incorporates this technology on the fin and tailplane, and it is expected to be applied to further future aircraft types. Another low-emissions technology that is expected to be included in future aircraft engines is that of lean-burn combustors, the General Electric GEnx engine already includes many elements of lean-burn combustion. A significant body of research has been performed to develop these technologies and the results of this research will be exploited in future engine designs. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 52

4.5.4 List of projects Table 4-6 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-6 Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ADVACT Development of Advanced Actuation Concepts to Provide 2004-2008 EU (FP5-GROWTH) a Step Change in Technology Use in Future Aero-engine Control Systems https://goo.gl/P7oM3u

AEROMUCO AEROdynamic Surfaces by advanced MUltifunctional Coatings 2011-2013 EU (FP5-GROWTH) https://goo.gl/9lMxGj

AFLONEXT 2nd Generation Active Wing Active Flow- Loads & Noise 2013-2017 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) control on next generation wing https://goo.gl/mBhevP

AIDA Aggressive Intermediate Duct Aerodynamics for Competitive 2004-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) and Environmentally Friendly Jet Engines https://goo.gl/yISB9A

AITEB-2 Aerothermal Investigations on Turbine End-walls and Blades II 2005-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/ufD5qv

ATLLAS Aerodynamic and Thermal Load Interactions with 2006-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) Lightweight Advanced Materials for High-Speed Flight https://goo.gl/9x85Im

AVERT Aerodynamic Validation of Emission Reducing Techniques 2007-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/FMcVK6

CELINA Fuel Cell Application in a New Configured Aircraft 2005-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/K0QlzS

DART Development of an advanced rotor for tilt-rotor 2002-2006 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/RvejOZ

E-BREAK Engine Breakthrough Components and Subsystems 2012-2016 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/xQsNBx

E-ferry Prototype and full-scale demonstration of next generation 2015-2019 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) 100 % electrically powered ferry for passengers and vehicles https://goo.gl/S2UDrn

ELFA System requirements and integration aspects for electrical 2007-2010 National (Germany) air vehicles https://goo.gl/1i0ZXm

FAST20XX Future high-altitude high-speed transport 20XX 2009-2012 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/nUlY7J

FIRST Fuel Injector Research for Sustainable Transport 2010-2014 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/J14xaU

GerMaTec Low noise and low emission lean combustion technology 2007-2011 National (Germany) https://goo.gl/UTYb8D

GREENAIR Generation of Hydrogen by Kerosene Reforming via Efficient 2009-2012 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) and Low Emission new Alternative, Innovative, Refined Technologies for Aircraft Application https://goo.gl/cCRPyZ

HELIOS The Development of a New Ship Engine Generation 2010-2013 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE) https://goo.gl/XGt9rf Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 53

Table 4-6 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

HERCULES High-efficiency Engine R&D on Combustion with Ultra-low 2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Emissions for Ships https://goo.gl/OObb8j

HERCULES-2 Fuel Flexible, Near-Zero Emissions, Adaptive Performance 2015-2018 EU (FP7-Transport) Marine Engine https://goo.gl/VvvBDs

HERCULES-B Higher-efficiency Engine with Ultra-Low Emissions for Ships 2008-2011 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/rMgaWI

HERCULES-C Higher Efficiency, Reduced Emissions, Increased Reliability 2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) and Lifetime, Engines for Ships https://goo.gl/FKUxJj

HOLISHIP HOLIstic optimisation of SHIP design and operation for life 2016-2020 EU (FP7-Transport) cycle https://goo.gl/oJRHZM

HYSOP Hybrid Silicide-Based Lightweight Components for Turbine 2010-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) and Energy Applications https://goo.gl/fKMi69

IMPACT-AE Intelligent Design Methodologies for Low Pollutant 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) Combustors for Aero-Engines https://goo.gl/bbYzZs

INTELLECT D.M. Integrated Lean Low Emission Combustor Design 2004-2007 EU (FP7-Transport) Methodology https://goo.gl/y3gBNr

JOULES Joint Operation for Ultra Low Emission Shipping 2013-2017 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/axTne2

LAPCAT Long-Term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies 2005-2008 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/wc42d0

LAPCAT-II Long-term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies II 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/DL3DS4

LeanShips Low Energy And Near to zero emissions Ships 2015-2019 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/p9IZW7

LEMCOTEC Low Emissions Core-Engine Technologies 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/nhFBwg

ME2 Turbine Enhancement of turbine efficiency and electric power 2007-2011 National (Germany) https://goo.gl/D9BwN9

MESEMA Magnetoelastic Energy Systems for Even More Electric 2004-2007 EU (FP7-Transport) Aircraft https://goo.gl/SX4m1e

MOET More Open Electrical Technologies 2006-2009 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/xXKyCc

POSE²IDON Power Optimised Ship for Environment with Electric 2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) Innovative Designs on Board https://goo.gl/ZJrvUI

SADE Smart High Lift Devices for Next Generation Wings 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/U2zjLu Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 54

Table 4-6 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SHOPERA Energy Efficient Safe SHip OPERAtion 2013-2016 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/eDr69L

SOPRANO Soot Processes and Radiation in Aeronautical inNOvative 2016-2020 EU (FP7-Transport) combustors https://goo.gl/ksWGNs

STARGATE Sensors Towards Advanced Monitoring and Control of Gas 2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) Turbine Engines https://goo.gl/uZjcZs

STREAMLINE Strategic Research For Innovative Marine Propulsion 2010-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) Concepts https://goo.gl/2lg29E

TEAM_PLAY Tool Suite for Environmental and Economic Aviation 2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) Modelling for Policy Analysis https://goo.gl/YdlJL6

TECC-AE Technologies Enhancement for Clean Combustion in Aero- 2008-2012 EU (Horizon 2020) Engines https://goo.gl/RvW9Hs

TIMECOP-AE Toward Innovative Methods for Combustion Prediction in 2006-2010 EU (Horizon 2020) Aero-Engines https://goo.gl/hmlYKk

TLC Towards Lean Combustion 2005-2010 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/qaI2jy

VELA Very efficient large aircraft 2002-2005 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/O5eVp7

VerDeMod Design and simulation of compressors for vision 10 aircraft 2007-2011 National (Germany) engine concepts https://goo.gl/8KfP6b

VITAL Environmentally Friendly Aero-Engine 2005-2009 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/5X0yDe

VORTEX New technologies for Hydrodynamic Optimisation of 2003-2005 National (Romania) Transport and Technical Ship Propellers for Improving their Performances and for Observing the European Standards Regarding the Transport Safety and Comfort Aboard https://goo.gl/0HeBdw

WINNER smart WINg panels for Natural laminar flow with functional 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) Erosion Resistant COATings https://goo.gl/xTAe69 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 55

4.6 Vehicle design and manufacture – road 2011 Transport White Paper and succeeding international and rail and national roadmaps and platforms, many cities and some countries (including Sweden and China) announced plans to This section summarises current research in the design and phase out carbon fuels by 2030. construction of road vehicles and rail rolling stock. In the case of road vehicles, there are two main categories: Following the diesel-gate affair (which affected several car manufacturers, and consequent trade restrictions to the US • light vehicles primarily for passenger travel; market), recent EU legislation has targeted cutting carbon • heavy vehicles primarily for cargo movement. emissions from cars. In addition, the enormous efforts of China to expand battery capacities and improve price efficiency have However, the definition of these two categories is not precise as also influenced market dynamics. However, energy efficiency the first group includes cars and small vans for goods transport, and fuel economy are not only driven by fuels and powertrains. and the second group may include buses and coaches. Aerodynamics and lightweight construction play an essential Within these categories, focus areas for research have been role for low-emissions cars or trucks. While the role of publicly powertrains, vehicle configuration/materials and the interface funded research to the success of battery powered cars may with the driver. Due to the smaller number of projects identified, be limited, material and construction science should have it has not been possible to define a similar structure for rail benefited from European and national research funds. rolling stock. With the options for decarbonising and cleaning road transport In total, 55 projects were identified on road and rail vehicle taking shape, research attention has now moved to fuels and construction and design. The majority of these, 43 projects, propulsion technologies for railways. The sector has long were on road passenger and freight vehicles, 11 were on rail profited from its image as the ‘clean’ mode. However, with rolling stock and 1 project dealt with both modes. Based on the cars and trucks being powered by renewable electricity, the contents, volume and dates of the project entries in the TRIP sector needs to catch up. This is particularly the case for diesel- database, 23 road and 3 rail projects were identified for more powered elements of the network and services. New rail vehicle detailed elaboration in this section. concepts are also required to reduce noise pollution and to 4.6.1 Introduction to the sub-theme improve rail’s suitability for intermodal freight services. By enabling new or better concepts to shift goods from road to In the period after the world economic and financial crisis, road rail will help to make transport cleaner overall. It should be vehicle propulsion technology appeared to be at a crossroads. noted that this section focuses on the technical development In the early years of the 21st century, the pathway to exit oil- of vehicle or vehicle components. Another way of decarbonising based combustion technologies was not clear – with biofuels, road and rail transport is through the use of alternative fuels. hydrogen and electricity having equal chances to lead. Now, This topic is covered in section 4.1 and is not addressed by the electromobility seems to be ahead of competing technologies. projects covered in this section. Inspired by technical options, the European Commission’s Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 56

4.6.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded High-speed electric motors have significant potential for the research reduction of weight and size, but normally have less torque capability. Therefore, a multispeed geartrain is needed to keep The overall trends of European-funded research in the field of the acceleration performance of the vehicle as high as possible. road and rail vehicle technologies are towards downsizing and ODIN (2012-2015) aims to develop a compact, efficient, highly turbocharging of combustion engines for greater fuel efficiency. integrated electric motor for a typical entry power level urban There are only a few projects on ‘end-of-pipe’ technologies for EV. The project partners focus on optimising the integration filtering exhaust fumes. of mechanical and electrical components into one electrical In terms of large goods vehicles, the latest research projects drive housing. have investigated the use of fuel cell APUs for supplementary Due to their small size and light weight, ELVs can contribute to power. reducing traffic in cities, emissions and noise. In the RESOLVE Rail technology projects have dealt with heat recovery systems (2015-2018) project, two demonstration ELVs are being for a more efficient and sustainable use of traction power. developed to build a cost and energy-efficient basis for future Further topics are international cooperation and standardisation. ELVs, thus providing an alternative to the conventional car for Infrastructure issues related to rail vehicle technologies are not transport in urban areas. considered in this section. Besides BEVs, fuel cell drivetrains are seen as the most promising technology for sustainable mobility. However, 4.6.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded to meet the requirements for mass production, the system projects components of fuel cell hybrid vehicles have to be improved. Only one national project was identified under this sub-theme For this reason, the HYSYS (2005-2009) project has been set – a French project covering alternative diesel technology. up as a consortium of OEMs and suppliers to develop fuel cell Therefore, it has not been possible to identify trends in national system components (air supply, hydrogen supply, humidifier, projects. and hydrogen sensors) that are suitable for mass production. This also includes electrical drive components (electric motor, 4.6.2 Research activities power electronics and battery). In terms of road vehicles, this review considers passenger 4.6.2.1.2 Lightweight construction vehicles for individual and public transport. Freight vehicles are considered separately. In addition to more efficient powertrains, weight reduction measures can contribute to lower emissions and fuel 4.6.2.1 Road passenger vehicles consumption. While weight reduction technologies are already 4.6.2.1.1 Powertrain implemented for expensive cars in low quantities, these concepts are not extensively used in mass-produced vehicles. A key point of research activities for road passenger vehicles is the development of improved engine and powertrain concepts. In this context, the development of a multimaterial, lightweight The NICE project (2004-2008) focuses on five integrated and affordable car-body concept (including a front structure combustion systems for different types of fuel (petrol, demonstrator for results validation) is the focus of the SLC diesel, CNG and synthetic biomass-based fuels). While fuel (2005-2009) project which involves seven European car economy and reduced emissions are major goals for petrol manufacturers. The goal is a weight reduction of up to 30 %,

and diesel engines, implementing modern technologies (e.g. which will lead to a reduction in CO2 emissions of 8 g/km. At turbocharging) into CNG engines is the key to gain market the same time, today’s structural performance standards must share. For biofuels, additional potential in terms of costs and be met. Another constraint is the cost of lightweighting, which fuel economy can be addressed by new engine designs. The should not exceed EUR 5/kg. Using a multimaterial approach of goals for petrol and diesel engines have been achieved by a aluminium, new steel, magnesium and fibre-reinforced plastics, combination of turbocharging and downsizing. Additionally, it a car body has been developed that has achieved a 35 % has been shown that diesel engines can meet Euro 6 emission weight reduction. The additional costs for each kg of weight limits without NOx-aftertreatment. Turbocharging is also a saved totalled of EUR 7.8, so a further reduction to EUR 5/kg promising technology for CNG engines as it increases torque is needed for a fully economical solution and power. The EVOLUTION (2012-2016) project was a more recent A 10 % higher fuel conversion efficiency in CNG engines with project covering vehicle lightweighting. It demonstrated the specific aftertreatment systems for passenger cars and light feasibility of the sustainable production of a 600 kg weight FEV duty vehicles is the main objective of the INGAS (2008-2012) for urban use. The existing concept of the body-in-white has project. In three different technological approaches, fuel been completely reviewed through a design strategy aimed at reductions of 10-16 % have been demonstrated. Moreover, reducing the number of parts and using innovative lightweight the weight of the storage system has been reduced by 50 % materials technologies such as aluminium alloys and polymers. with only a small increase in costs, while a 30 % cost reduction could be realised using an improved 3-way catalyst. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 57

4.6.2.1.3 Driver-to-vehicle interaction and routing Further developments for these technologies have been examined by the FELICITAS (2005-2008) project for road The benefit of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and marine use. By recuperating kinetic energy, FELICITAS which are already implemented in modern vehicles, was demonstrated the feasibility of an energy efficiency of measured in the euroFOT (2008-2012) project. This project 60 % for 200 kW PEFC units and a high power density of consisted of a large field test and revealed improvements to 0.32 kW/kg. In addition, durability, robustness and reliability driver behaviour, traffic safety and fuel efficiency with overall were improved significantly. Using SOFC for heavy-duty cost savings. It was shown that cars and trucks equipped with applications is challenging due to the low power density and adaptive cruise control (ACC) and forward collision warning restricted maturity of some core components. This sets strong (FCW) have a higher fuel efficiency – 3 % and 2 % respectively. limitations for instant migration from stationary to mobile Driver behaviour and optimised routes can contribute to a SOFC applications. In terms of marine use, the harsh conditions significant reduction in fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. of the marine environment were a great challenge for all SOFC Therefore, inefficiencies in terms of route choices, driving developments. performance, and traffic management and control were Developments on low-emissions powertrain concepts for addressed by the ECOMOVE (2010-2013) project to reduce conventional petrol and diesel engines in light-duty vehicles fuel wastage to a minimum. Structured in several sub-projects, have been carried out in the POWERFUL (2010-2013) project. ECOMOVE focused on the interaction between driver, vehicle, Sub-project V1 of POWERFUL focused on an extremely infrastructure and traffic management systems. Additional downsized engine, integrating the electronic valve control and information from driver assistance systems can support drivers other add-on technologies to reduce CO emissions by 40 %. and road operators to avoid inefficiencies (e.g. through route 2 By the end of the project, a 30 % CO reduction was achieved. choices and driving behaviour). 2 A downsized four-stroke diesel engine achieving emissions

Drivers are often not aware they have a major influence on their 10 % lower than Euro 6 pollutant limits and CO2 emissions vehicle’s fuel consumption, potentially leading to significant 20 % lower than 2005 levels was developed in sub-project V2. unnecessary emissions. Therefore, the ECODRIVER (2011-2015) A core element in the approach for reducing NOx and soot was project concentrated on the driver-powertrain-environment the low temperature combustion (LTC) technology. The objective feedback loop to encourage a more efficient driving behaviour. of sub-project V3 was to downsize a two-stroke diesel engine Human-machine interfaces such as graphics, haptics and voice to achieve emissions 10 % lower than Euro 6 pollutant limits messages were examined to determine their impact on the and CO2 emissions 20 % lower than 2005 levels. driver behaviour in terms of eco-efficient driving. This was Low-emissions powertrains for heavy-duty vehicles were also carried out for a number of different vehicles – ranging from developed in three sub-projects of the CORE (2012-2015) cars and vans to heavy trucks – with conventional powertrains, project. Focusing on turbocharger systems, variable valve but the conclusions are also relevant for hybrid or EVs. actuation, reduced friction and low-temperature aftertreatment, Key for the acceptance of FEVs is an adequate operating range, simulations showed a CO2 reduction of 11-18 % for three which can be achieved by enhanced battery technologies diesel powertrains and one natural gas truck. and efficient energy consumption. For the latter, new driving Developing subsystems for a heavy-duty powertrain based on strategies and driver assistance systems can contribute to the integration of a new engine concept was the objective of meeting the goal of saving energy. In the OPENER (2011-2014) the GREEN (2005-2008) project. The new engine concept was project, data from different on-board and off-board sources characterised by flexible components, an improved combustion were merged. With particular emphasis on coordinating electric process, model-based closed-loop emission control, high power drivetrain and braking system – supported by data from radar, density and an integrated exhaust aftertreatment system. In video, satellite navigation, car-to-infrastructure and car-to-car sub-project A1 of GREEN, a CNG heavy duty multi-cylinder communication systems – drivers were able to adapt their engine for urban buses was developed, giving advantages in route and driving style to achieve the best energy efficiency terms of emissions (80 % reduction in NOx and PM emissions), and thus electrical driving range. global warming index (-7.4 %), thermal efficiency (equal to current heavy duty diesel engines) and power density (+20 % 4.6.2.2 Road freight vehicles compared with current CNG values). Sub-project A2 evaluated 4.6.2.2.1 Powertrain and engine the potential of variable valve timing and fuel injection, in combination with tailored exhaust aftertreatment systems, As with passenger cars, further efforts are required to accelerate to reduce emissions. In sub-project A3, an innovative, highly the commercialisation of fuel cell technologies for heavy-duty flexible prototype fuel injection system was developed. The transport. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC) and solid oxide potential of a diesel engine with a high brake-mean effective fuel cells (SOFC) are seen as the most promising technologies. pressure (BMEP) was investigated in sub-project A4. In summary, GREEN achieved very low emissions values together with improved fuel consumption, on heavy-duty gas and diesel engine applications. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 58

4.6.2.2.2 Auxiliary power unit The CONVENIENT (2015-2015) project targeted a 30 % reduction in the fuel consumption of long-distance freight For truck applications, the increasing demand for electrical transport vehicles by developing an innovative heavy-truck power (e.g. air-conditioning and media devices) has led to an concept. The holistic approach included innovative energy- increasing need for an on-board electric power generator which saving technologies and solutions, including hybrid transmission, operates at a high efficiency and with very low emissions. In electrified auxiliaries, solar panels for the truck and semi-trailer, the FCGEN (2011-2015) project, a fuel cell-based APU, with and advanced aerodynamics. However, the most relevant a diesel fuel processor that converts diesel fuel to hydrogen, and novel aspect of the project was the on-board energy was regarded as one of the most promising options as it management system, which considered the truck, semi-trailer, combines high efficiency, low emissions and the use of the driver and the mission as a whole. Three prototype heavy-duty same fuel as the main engine. APUs for yachts moored in vehicles were designed to demonstrate and validate sustainable harbours are seen as another application for this technology. fuel-saving technologies. The overall objective of the FCGEN project was to develop and demonstrate a proof-of-concept in the laboratory environment, A considerable amount of energy is wasted due to the lack of thereby improving key components in terms of stability and an overall on-board management strategy for thermal and cost efficiency. As a result, the generation of electricity using electrical energy. This was addressed by the EE-VERT (2009- an autonomous polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell- 2011) project, which used a co-ordinated and predictive based APU running on commercially available diesel fuel has approach to the generation, distribution and use of energy. In been demonstrated. this context, the electrification of auxiliary systems is central. For this reason, brake energy is recuperated, waste heat is Using an SOFC as an APU was the topic of the DESTA (2012- recovered and solar cells are used to create electrical energy, 2015) project. SOFC technology offers advantages over other so bridging the gap between conventional vehicles and hybrid fuel cell technologies due to its compatibility with conventional EVs or FEVs. The actual savings achieved will depend on the road fuels such as diesel. Key components of the system driving conditions, the energy management strategy applied include a DC/DC converter, electrical junction box, batteries and the behaviour of the driver. However, initial indications and battery state of charge sensor, control panel and wireless suggested that the amount of energy saved should exceed router, isolation monitor, keypad and vehicle engine control unit 10 %. For a large vehicle, CO savings of 40 % for the auxiliary (ECU). In addition, various optimisation tasks were performed to 2 system are possible. improve system performance, lifetime and reliability. As a result, the first European SOFC APU aboard a heavy duty truck was 4.6.2.2.4 Platooning successfully demonstrated. The solution has considerable fuel

savings potential, resulting in lower costs and CO2 emissions. It Several projects at a national level (e.g. the KONVOI (2005- will also reduce engine hours, engine maintenance and service 2009) and UK DfT Feasibility Study for Heavy Vehicle Platoons costs. on UK Roads (2013-2014) projects) and at a European level (e.g. the SARTRE (2009-2012) project), have examined the 4.6.2.2.3 Reducing fuel consumption/overall energy technical requirements for the platooning of vehicles on public management roads. As a result of improved aerodynamics through the short gaps between the vehicles, environmental benefits in the form As fuel is a major factor in operational costs, there are of a reduction in fuel consumption of up to 15 % have been commercial pressures for manufacturers to reduce the fuel realised. This leads to a lower CO emissions and reduced consumption of trucks. 2 freight transport costs. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 59

4.6.2.2.5 Ongoing projects 4.6.3 Research outcomes Alternative engine and powertrain concepts are under development 4.6.3.1 Achievements of the research under this in different projects. The objective of the HDGAS (2015-2018) sub-theme project is to provide a LNG vehicle that complies with the Euro Technical developments in the field of road passenger vehicles VI emission regulations and achieves a CO reduction of 10 % 2 concentrate mainly on the improvement of engines and powertrains. compared with state-of-the-art technology. It also needs to achieve This includes conventional vehicles and alternative concepts such as an operating range of at least 800 km and must be competitive in hybrid, electric or fuel cell drives. Since 2010, several projects have terms of performance, engine life, cost of ownership, safety and focused on eco-efficient driving behaviour and routing that can be comfort to 2013 best-in-class vehicles. Further developments for achieved by suitable human-machine interfaces and data exchange hybrid powertrains, in terms of increased functionality, improved between vehicle and traffic management. performance, comfort, safety and emissions, are being carried out in the ECOCHAMPS (2015-2018) project. This includes For road freight vehicles, strong research activities can be observed developments for passenger cars and commercial vehicles (buses, in terms of conventional powertrains with an emphasis on and medium and heavy duty trucks). improved fuel consumption and reduced CO2 emissions. Extending the focus to the overall energy management of a vehicle enables 4.6.2.3 Rail rolling stock additional fuel savings (e.g. by recovering brake and thermal For the non-electrified part of the railway network, diesel-electric energy, which can then be used for auxiliary components). Besides trains (diesel multiple units (DMU)) are used. To recover some of low fuel consumption during driving, energy efficient APUs are of the lost heat and to increase the efficiency of DMUs, the French great importance in the parking mode. For this purpose, innovative TRENERGY (2013-2016) project aimed to evaluate the use of fuel cell approaches for power generation have been examined. a Rankine cycle. These systems (and their derivatives such as They are characterised by producing hydrogen from diesel fuel organic Rankine cycles (ORC)) have already been investigated and turning it into electrical energy. This comes with a significant in the past for transportation means, but have been mainly reduction in fuel consumption, emissions and costs. used for stationary equipment or for heavy ships. For lighter transportation means, several scientific and technical bottlenecks Developments for rail vehicles concentrate on the improvement still have to be addressed. Therefore, the key aspects of the of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems to reduce CO 2 project are to select a best control approach for an ORC system, and NOx emissions. design a compact highly efficient, low-power turbine design and test a more environmentally friendly working fluid for 4.6.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use transportation applications such as pentafluoropropane (R245fa). Most of the projects analysed under this sub-theme are closely linked to practical implementation, either through the The aim of the CLEANER-D (2009-2013) project was to achieve development of technologies and prototypes or more directly emission levels below the limits established by the European though scaling up of technologies for mass production. Due to Directive 2004/26/EC, covering emissions from non-road mobile the nature of the subject, OEMs and technology suppliers were machinery, by improving and integrating emissions reduction involved in most projects as partners or associated entities. All technologies for diesel locomotives and rail vehicles. The project of the projects were specialised in solving specific problems in aimed to find the best balance between environmental and vehicle performance, emission reductions, etc., such that the economical requirements to avoid a shift from rail transport to a less share of basic research tends to be rather low. sustainable mode such as road. In the project, two different ways of lowering exhaust emissions were implemented. NOx emissions can 4.6.3.3 Indications for future research be reduced by using exhaust gas recirculation inside the engine. An alternative is a selective catalytic reduction exhaust aftertreatment, Most of the projects described above focus on improvements which is used for smaller railcar engines, which have to comply with in the technology of existing vehicle components. Although a 2.0 g/kWh NOx limit, and for larger engines in the US market. promising results have been achieved, breakthrough innovations of new vehicle concepts with the potential to replace current Developments in the field of lightweighting are not only pursued technologies are not in sight. However, fuel cell APUs may for road vehicles, but also for the rolling stock. The SUSTRAIL represent such a breakthrough to some extent. (2011-2015) project aimed to initiate a new rail era by designing novel freight vehicles that use lightweight materials. The project As has been already shown in some of the projects, moving planned to develop new track infrastructure, which involved the research efforts from single vehicle components towards optimised track geometry, ground stabilisation and innovative a holistic view of the transport system may bring benefits. This monitoring techniques. The developments should improve rail includes the behaviour of drivers and their interaction with the freight efficiency and reliability, while reducing maintenance vehicle via the human-machine interface, but also with the frequency and costs. With this holistic approach, a higher reliability infrastructure. A crucial factor for this is the provision of data and increased performance of the rail freight system can be and its exchange at all levels. With modified driving strategies achieved as a whole and profitability for all the stakeholders can and improved route choices, further fuel savings seem to be be increased. reachable. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 60

4.6.4 List of projects Table 4-7 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-7 Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

CLEANER-D Clean European rail – diesel 2009-2013 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/S4azfV

CONVENIENT Complete Vehicle Energy-saving Technologies for Heavy- 2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) Trucks https://goo.gl/Si5QOM

CORE CO2 REduction for long distance transport 2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/zuHWzo

DESTA Demonstration of 1st European SOFC Truck APU 2012-2015 EU (FP7-JTI) https://goo.gl/JeYyAU

ECOCHAMPS European COmpetitiveness in Commercial Hybrid and 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) AutoMotive PowertrainS https://goo.gl/uhSOFo

ECODRIVER Supporting the driver in conserving energy and reducing 2011-2015 EU (FP7-ICT) emissions https://goo.gl/8vERkM

ECOMOVE Cooperative Mobility Systems and Services for Energy 2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT) Efficiency https://goo.gl/WhGH69

EE-VERT Energy Efficient Vehicles for Road Transport 2009-2011 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/J9XWIv

euroFOT European Field Operational Test 2008-2012 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/OmnPSq

EVOLUTION The Electric Vehicle revOLUTION enabled by advanced 2012-2016 EU (FP7-NMP) materials highly hybridized into lightweight components for easy integration and dismantling providing a reduced life cycle cost logic https://goo.gl/GCezSC

FCGEN Fuel Cell Based Power Generation 2011-2015 EU (FP7-JTI) https://goo.gl/dWIfYa

FELICITAS Fuel-cell Powertrains and Clustering in Heavy-duty 2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Transports https://goo.gl/qINR5b

GREEN Green Heavy Duty Engine 2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/9jVctA

HDGAS Heavy Duty Gas Engines integrated into Vehicles 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/NtCoQ4

HYSYS Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicle System Component Development 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/DfRCoi

INGAS Integrated Gas Powertrain - Low Emission, CO2 Optimised 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) and Efficient CNG Engines for Passenger Cars (PC) and light duty vehicles (LDV) https://goo.gl/hoaeQV Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 61

Table 4-7 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

KONVOI Road train using electronic coupling – development and 2005-2009 Germany evaluation of implementation (Project no. 19G5024). https://goo.gl/PI3LJ5

NICE New Integrated Combustion System for Future Passenger 2004-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Car Engines https://goo.gl/0LGDOI

ODIN Optimized electric Drivetrain by Integration 2012-2015 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/AOzxVN

OPENER Optimal Energy Consumption and Recovery based on 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) system network https://goo.gl/hp89ZM

POWERFUL POWERtrain for FUture Light-duty vehicles 2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/PgMJuJ

RESOLVE Range of Electric SOlutions for L-category Vehicles 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/BEhsMC

SARTRE Safe road trains for the environment; Developing strategies 2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) and technologies to allow vehicle platoons to operate on normal public highways with significant environmental, safety and comfort benefits https://goo.gl/g7n1aK

SLC Sustainable Production Technologies of Emission-reduced 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Lightweight Car Concepts https://goo.gl/fU84lp

SUSTRAIL The sustainable freight railway: Designing the freight 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) vehicle track system for higher delivered tonnage with improved availability at reduced cost https://goo.gl/HP2kEm

TRENERGY Train Energy Efficiency via Rankine-cycle exhaust Gas heat 2013-2016 France recovery https://goo.gl/9efjsj

UK DfT Feasibility UK DfT Feasibility Study for Heavy Vehicle Platoons on UK 2013-2014 UK Study for Heavy Vehicle Roads Platoons on UK Roads https://goo.gl/Kwshpn Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 62

4.7 Automation 4.7.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded 4.7.1 Introduction to the sub-theme research The number of projects available in this sub-theme is limited. Automated vehicle technologies allow the transfer of driving Except for the MA-AFAS (2000-2003) project, which covered functions from a human driver to a computer. Automation, and aviation aspects, all other projects concern road automation in particular digitalisation, of driving will revolutionise road for passenger and freight vehicles. Four were concluded around transport. Highly automated driving is estimated to reduce 2010, four have been completed recently and one is ongoing. congestion, so contributing to lower emissions, and enhancing The overarching focus has been on addressing the challenges traffic safety. However, there is also evidence that suggests the of advancing levels of automation. An increase in the level opposite might be the case. and sophistication of automation is sought after in terms of During the past two decades, significant efforts have been employing cooperative vehicle technologies and ensuring that allocated to the advancement of the technology and level automation responds dynamically to the situation and the of automation. Large automotive manufacturing actors are driver. In addition, attention has been paid to the autonomous competing with new market actors related to the Internet active path. Two projects focused on introducing automation of Things (IoT), in collaboration with a plethora of software in goods transport systems. Another important issue brought developers, to reach Level 5 automation within the next 5 forward is the identification and alleviation of all barriers years. (technological, legal and administrative) that hinder the market introduction and adoption of automated systems, Today, with Level 2 automation introduced, the challenges and the effective integration of automated vehicles in the facing the deployment and market introduction of high and full transport network. automation become more apparent. Notably, the transition from one level of automation to the next increases the requirement 4.7.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded for a seamless interaction between human and automated projects driving, and for field testing. It also raises the challenge of The recently completed national project under this sub-theme mixed (automated and conventional) traffic, especially with was funded in Germany. It focused on the advancement of respect to traffic safety and of building public confidence in vehicle automation technology through the development and the technology. testing of novel autonomous concept vehicles. It also adopted Finally, automation without using alternatively powered a forward-looking approach on the future use of these vehicles vehicles limits the potential benefits to the environment. in the urban environment. This sub-theme includes a total of 10 research projects, of which 9 were funded by EU research programmes, while one was funded by a national programme. Table 4-8 presents a list of the research projects under this sub-theme together with their duration and sources of funding. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 63

4.7.2 Research activities project with the goal of achieving a more effective organisation of urban transport. In the field of automation, it focused on The research projects in this sub-theme may be considered removing barriers to the large-scale introduction of automated as examples of research to address the challenges in the systems. The project demonstrated that there is interest from advancement and market introduction of highly and fully the public and transport stakeholders in automated transport automated vehicles. systems. However, it highlighted the need for an increased effort to conform to widely accepted certification guidelines. 4.7.2.1 Challenge 1: The transition between human and automated driving The CATS (2010-2014) project introduced novel services for more efficient urban mobility, either through the short-term Three projects in this sub-theme face this challenge: rental of clean autonomous vehicles or the use of flexible • HAVEit (2008-2011) dealt with the next generation of ADAS public transport shuttles along a line at fixed time intervals. by developing and validating a scalable and safe vehicle The introduction of such innovative services in cities was architecture with an optimised task partition between the intended to enhance mobility, accessibility and safety, while

driver and the highly automated vehicle. The project achieved reducing congestion, noise and CO2 emissions. The autonomous significant intermediate steps towards the realisation of transport system was found to be more suitable for people with highly automated driving. reduced mobility, young passengers and tourists. • AdaptIVe (2014-2017) is developing novel integrated 4.7.2.4 Challenge 4: Automated goods transport automated functions to improve traffic safety by minimising solutions the effects of human errors through a shared control concept, ensuring appropriate collaboration between driver and Two projects have addressed this challenge: automation system. COMPANION (2013-2016) developed cooperative mobility • MA-AFAS developed an operational concept to fit into the technologies for monitored vehicle platoons (road trains) future ATM concept and a corresponding avionics package with the aim of improving fuel efficiency and safety for goods that would allow for more autonomous aircraft operation transport. The proposed real-time coordination system defined in European airspace. This includes enhanced surveillance optimised vehicle flows to create, maintain and dissolve and separation assurance, four-dimensional flight path platoons dynamically. This was based on an online decision- generation, negotiation and guidance, taxiway management, making tool, taking into account historical and real-time data airline operation centre fleet management and data link about infrastructure conditions. communications. FURBOT (2011-2014) proposed innovative concept architectures of light-duty FEVs for efficient urban freight 4.7.2.2 Challenge 2: Field testing transport. The prototype vehicle that was developed The challenge concerns introducing highly and fully automated demonstrated the anticipated performance, including energy vehicles to real driving conditions. The SARTRE (2009-2012) efficiency, sustainability, modularity, intelligent automated project is such an example. The project developed environmental driving and cargo handling robotisation. road trains (platoons) and systems to facilitate their safe adoption on unmodified public highways with full interaction 4.7.3 Research outcomes with other traffic. It also demonstrated fuel savings, reduced 4.7.3.1 Achievements of the research under this CO emissions and commercial viability of the road trains. The 2 sub-theme Compass4D (2013-2015) project tested and assessed three cooperative intelligent transport system (C-ITS) solutions There are very few projects in this sub-theme to allow for (road hazard warning system, red light violation warning and a significant contribution to achievements with considerable energy efficiency intersection service) in seven EU cities. The impact. Nevertheless, the challenges facing the deployment aims of the project were to increase road safety and comfort and market introduction of highly and fully automated vehicles by reducing the number and severity of accidents and traffic are gradually being addressed. congestion and, in doing so, contribute to local environmental benefits, such as reduced CO2 emissions and fuel consumption. 4.7.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use The national DaBrEM (2013-2015) project assessed the use of EVs in the areas of data logging and analysis, and the The results of the projects in this sub-theme lay the foundations development and use of new concept vehicles. It compared for the required technology and its future deployment. Given behaviours in field tests in protected and unprotected conditions. the novelty of the topic, the project outcomes are not yet highly transferable into practice in terms of large-scale 4.7.2.3 Challenge 3: Building public confidence implementations of automated systems. The CITYMOBIL (2006-2011) project developed a bidimensional matrix, the ‘Passenger Application Matrix’, to present the results of the evaluation of the various activities carried out by the Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 64

4.7.3.3 Indications for future research 4.7.3.4 Implications for future policy development Increasing the level of automation inevitably brings about The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging the connected and automated vehicles in road transport urgently driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and the requires EU action. While the technology advances, society smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, needs to focus more on the challenges and impacts (positive the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport and negative) the market introduction of automated vehicles systems must be explored. Within the clean transport context, will have on the transport sector, other related technology further research is required to determine the contribution of frameworks and society as a whole. Respective policy and legal automation, as an alternative to the use of private vehicles, frameworks need to be further developed (e.g. ownership of to low-emissions mobility, and the conditions under which legal responsibility in the event of an accident). automated driving will contribute to cleaner transportation. The European Commission communication on C-ITS (European Furthermore, future endeavours should move away from purely Commission (2016)) addresses these concerns. technological research and focus on recommended strategies for overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the 4.7.4 List of projects operation of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) Table 4-8 lists the projects that were reviewed during the and other regulatory issues. assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-8 Projects reviewed in the automation sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

AdaptIVe Automated Driving Applications and Technologies for 2014-2017 EU (FP7-ICT) Intelligent Vehicles https://goo.gl/OhvDFg

CATS City Alternative Transport System 2012-2013 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/shXTl4

CITYMOBIL Towards Advanced Road Transport for the Urban 2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Environment https://goo.gl/Q4xS0S

COMPANION Cooperative dynamic formation of platoons for safe and 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) energy-optimized goods transportation https://goo.gl/id1BaX

Compass4D Cooperative Mobility Pilot on Safety and Sustainability 2013-2015 EU (CIP) Services for Deployment https://goo.gl/nkgC7R

DaBrEM Dalian - Bremen Electric Mobility 2013-2015 Germany https://goo.gl/p35oDG

FURBOT Freight Urban RoBOTic vehicle 2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/5qYaRp

HAVEit Highly Automated Vehicles for Intelligent Transport 2008-2011 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/sSFKRk

MA-AFAS The more autonomous - aircraft in the future Air Traffic 2000-2003 EU (FP5-GROWTH) Management system https://goo.gl/W6RUhT

SARTRE Safe road trains for the environment; Developing strategies 2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) and technologies to allow vehicle platoons to operate on normal public highways with significant environmental, safety and comfort benefits https://goo.gl/g7n1aK Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 65

4.8.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research The European-funded research on modern infrastructure mainly focuses on the supply of alternative energy sources for new power technology vehicles. Early research work on EVs and fuel cell/hydrogen EVs focused mainly on the optimisation of power production and engine performance. The need for harmonisation between energy demand and supply has recently become the subject of several projects on passenger and freight transport. Smart grid and reliable innovative charging infrastructures that enable increased vehicle autonomy are the latest trends in road transport. Improved energy efficiency and reduced environmental impacts of rail transport systems have been scrutinised in various research actions over the last 10 years. A lesser emphasis is placed on the port and maritime sector. Optimising transport system efficiency corresponds to key projects in, predominately, the rail, maritime and aviation sectors. Projects address issues on innovative vehicle, engine and infrastructure solutions that endorse the adoption of more sustainable urban mobility options, and direct planning and policy to encourage the move away from conventional fossil-fuel transport modes and towards, energy efficient technologies that have a reduced environmental impact. Sustainable urban mobility planning is a dominant topic in recent research, including actions under the CIVITAS initiative across several European cities. Innovative planning and 4.8 Modern infrastructure management of urban systems has been the focus of these projects, along with extensive awareness raising and promotion 4.8.1 Introduction to the sub-theme activities in favour of cleaner transport modes (walking, cycling and public transport). More recent work focused on specific Cleaner transport, as a paramount goal of recent EU policies, innovations towards greener transport solutions. These have can only be attained through the adoption of innovative included alternative fuel/energy technologies, ITS and smart solutions that combine vehicle technologies with supportive traffic management, and an increased use and testing of modern infrastructure, higher level system management, electric and/or energy efficient vehicles for public transport. planning and policy making. The majority of research projects reported in this sub-theme 4.8.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded focus on the development and exploitation of smart transport projects infrastructures in support of the new vehicle and engine The nationally funded projects under this sub-theme have been technologies. Raising awareness and appropriate decision or conducted in Germany, France and Finland. They generally planning frameworks for the development, maintenance and complied with European guidelines towards zero-emissions exploitation of the infrastructure are highlighted as having vehicles and the roll-out of infrastructure for alternative significant contributions. The common ground is the promotion fuels. Activities such as the introduction and testing of EVs of the significant economic and environmental impacts derived for city logistics and bus systems, the promotion of e-bikes from cleaner transport solutions at local, regional and national/ for commuters and the development of smart charging EU level. technologies for EVs demonstrate the practical character of The analysis of this sub-theme identified a total of 54 research most national research projects. These usually aim to promote projects, of which 47 were funded by EU research programmes applicable solutions to reduce energy consumption, and air and 7 by national programmes. Table 4-9 lists the projects that and noise pollution in urban areas; and to validate innovative were reviewed during this sub-theme analysis, their duration technologies in real conditions. and source of funding. This sub-theme should also be viewed in combination with the Research Theme Analysis report on Transport Infrastructure (TRIP, 2017) and, specifically, section 4.4.2.4 of that report. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 66

4.8.2 Research activities • komDRIVE (2013-2016) examined the essential conditions to attain technical, environmental and economic benefits The sub-theme of modern infrastructure covers all transport through the use of EVs in commercial transport, and the modes. The key emphasis is on the adaptation of the possible synergies with the electricity industry; infrastructure to support advances in cleaner technologies for vehicles. In addition, the vehicle/infrastructure system is • FABRIC (2014-2017) entails a feasibility and market recognised as requiring optimisation in its overall management, analysis of on-road charging technologies for long-term EV operation and planning. The promotion of SUMPs and other range extension taking into account key wireless charging eco-mobility initiatives also influence infrastructure planning technologies, trends and R&D activities, and the needs of EV and management. manufacturers and users; • NeMo (2016-2019) deals with electromobility restraints (e.g. 4.8.2.1 Coordination of energy supply limited charging options, lack of interoperability and energy 4.8.2.1.1 Road infrastructure grid overload) via an hyper-network to enable smooth and interoperable use of electromobility services across multiple The energy supply infrastructure is the topic of several charging networks in Europe; projects performed since 2010, including the need for better connection between vehicles and infrastructure, and traffic and • ELECTRIFIC (2016-2019) delivers innovative techniques and energy management centres. The key issues covered in the ICT tools that can coordinate all actors in the electromobility following projects include smart grid and road infrastructure ecosystem (grid, EV users and EV fleet). in conjunction with new ICT services and sufficient autonomy solutions for EVs: The supply of energy is also addressed in projects concerning hydrogen FCEVs: • ELVIRE (2010-2013) developed an interactive electric energy ICT service interface to assist drivers of EVs to manage the • HyWays (2004-2007) developed a European hydrogen charge of their vehicle to achieve efficient use of sustainable energy roadmap comparing the regional hydrogen supply energy, minimise the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers and promote options and (renewable) energy scenarios for transport fully electric road transport; fuelling infrastructures. It also considered the supply of • GREEN EMOTION (2011-2015) analysed and defined EU hydrogen for stationary and portable electricity generation. standards for developing a framework of interoperable, • HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS (2006-2011) deployed small FCEV scalable technical solutions in a sustainable business model fleets in EU regions demonstrating attractive end-use for public charging stations, taking into account smart grid technologies that meet the market demands and setting up improvements, renewable energy sources, innovative ICT the related hydrogen infrastructure; applications, different EV types and urban mobility ideas; • ZERO REGIO (2004-2010) demonstrated the mature • FOTsis (2011-2014) tested road infrastructure management technologies, but also the regulatory issues related to systems required for the operation of mature cooperative hydrogen fuel cell cars and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure vehicle to infrastructure (V2I), infrastructure to vehicle (I2V) in two EU regions (Frankfurt in Germany and Lombardia in and infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I) technologies to Italy); evaluate their effectiveness and potential for an Europe- wide deployment; • H2REF (2015-2018) is addressing the compression and buffering function for a hydrogen refuelling system for • E-DASH (2011-2014) aimed to manage and harmonise high passenger vehicles (operating at a pressure of 70 MPa), and electricity demand for the sustainable integration of EVs by optimising the design of the refuelling stations; exchanging charge-related data between vehicles and the grid in near real time; • H2ME (2015-2020) is attempting to expand the network of hydrogen refuelling stations and fleets of FCEVs operating • IOE (2011-2014) developed hardware and software to in EU countries, with an ultimate vision of developing a pan- provide harmonised, secure connectivity and interoperability European refuelling network. by connecting the internet with the energy grids in real time. The Internet of Energy (IoE) application will form the LNG transport and infrastructure technology is addressed electromobility infrastructure; within the LNG Blue Corridors (2013-2017) project, which • SGI (2013-2015) developed methods to coordinate electric aims to promote LNG as a fuel by defining European LNG Blue charging operations and tackle the challenge of concurrent Corridors with strategic refuelling points to guarantee LNG charging of a large number of EVs, which may lead to grid availability for road transport in a cost-effective and obstacle- bottlenecks; free way. The project encourages cooperation between heavy duty vehicle manufacturers, fuel suppliers, distributors and • EDAS (2013-2016) among others, this project aimed to fleet operators. address wireless kerb charging with thermal pre-conditioning (e.g. while parking) based on existing infrastructure in cities; Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 67

4.8.2.1.2 Urban infrastructure 4.8.2.2 Infrastructure – vehicle as a system Concentrating more on public transport EVs, FCEVs and related There is recognition of the need to optimise the system, rather infrastructures, the ELIPTIC (2015-2018) project is developing than each component independently. Projects addressing new use concepts and business cases that optimise existing overall energy consumption and improving efficiency are electrical infrastructure and rolling stock for road and rail described below for the rail, maritime and aviation sectors. public transport, saving money and energy, reducing fossil-fuel consumption and improving air quality. The EBSF (2008-2012) 4.8.2.2.1 Rail and EBSF_2 (2015-2018) projects focus on increasing the Research activities in this area refer to improvements in rail attractiveness and efficiency of bus systems by developing new infrastructure and rolling stock, with the primary goal of technologies on vehicles and infrastructure, in combination with improving energy efficiency in the sector and to promote the operational best practice (e.g. developing innovative energy attractiveness of rail systems against the less efficient road strategies and auxiliaries, providing green driver assistance transport networks. systems, introducing IT standards into existing fleets, improving vehicle design, and ensuring an effective interface between The BRAVO (2004-2007) project developed a variety of bus and urban infrastructures). The EBSF handbook reported advanced management and information systems that enable key characteristics of the future bus system and strategic open access to, and cross-border coordination of, combined performance indicators for its quality assessment. Two national transport services along an intermodal rail corridor to increase projects, E-BUS Berlin (2013-2016) and HyLine-S (2013-2015), its capacity and interoperability levels. The RAILENERGY (2006- tested innovative technologies (an inductive charging system 2010) project developed a holistic framework approach, new for electric and hybrid buses) in everyday public transport concepts, standards and operational measures, and integrated services to gain practical experience in this area and validate technological solutions to cut energy consumption and improve the relevant ecological and economic benefits. The V-Charge energy efficiency. This showed that significant reductions in

(2011-2015) project aimed to develop and demonstrate a CO2 emissions and life-cycle costs of railway operations are smart car system, enabling autonomous driving (driverless feasible. Based on the same goals, the ECORAILS (2009- vehicles) in designated areas. This would also offer advanced 2011) project showed that it is possible to increase the driver support, valet parking and battery charging within urban quality of procurement for rail infrastructure and rolling stock areas. The MIL project created an electric vehicle (with or by introducing environmental criteria. This leads to enhanced without driver) with the aim of assessing and developing the awareness of ‘green’ technologies and strategies in the regional efficiency of a car-sharing service including the optimisation rail transport. The project also helped to create an EU expert of parking space and automated convoy. community on the subject, providing an enhanced transfer of knowledge. Focusing on the rail freight system, the SUSTRAIL The introduction of hydrogen fuel cell technologies in urban (2011-2015) project proposed combined design improvements transport systems has been a continuing subject of EU projects, and innovations in rail freight vehicles and tracks with the such as CUTE (2001-2006), HyFLEET:CUTE (2006-2009) and aim of achieving higher reliability, improved performance and CHIC (2010-2016). CUTE and HyFLEET:CUTE developed and increased profitability of the rail freight sector. demonstrated zero-emissions and low-noise transport systems, including conducting research on and piloting the application Improved energy efficiency is also the common objective of of hydrogen powered bus technologies; efficient and reliable other projects such as OSIRIS (2012-2014), MERLIN (2012- hydrogen production methods with a reduced environmental 2015) and ROLL2RAIL (2015-2017). OSIRIS assessed the impact; and refuelling infrastructures. They also performed requirements and risks of different innovations in vehicles, promotion activities related to the potential advantages of a infrastructures and operation that reduce the overall energy hydrogen-based transport system. The CHIC project went a step consumption in Europe’s urban rail systems (e.g. on-board further and promoted the full commercialisation of hydrogen- energy saving/storage technologies, regenerative braking powered fuel cell buses and investigated approaches to reduce and energy-efficient traction drives, and geothermal solutions the ‘time to market’ for this technology. in metro stations and tunnel auxiliaries). MERLIN dealt with European electric mainline railway systems and the viability 4.8.2.1.3 Maritime infrastructure of an integrated management system to achieve optimised energy consumption. It adopted a comprehensive approach The H2OCEAN (2012-2014) project developed innovative that included several technological elements, dynamic supply design specifications for an economic and low environmental and demand forecasting and business model aspects. These impact open-sea platform to convert wind and wave power were tested in five case studies across the EU. ROLL2RAIL also into energy (which is used on-site for various applications) aims to develop essential technologies and remove bottlenecks and hydrogen, which could be stored and shipped to shore as for revolutionary innovations in rolling stock. It is expected that a ‘green’ energy carrier. this will lead to increased capacity, improved energy efficiency and flexibility, reduced life-cycle costs of vehicles and tracks, improved passenger comfort and overall attractiveness of rail transport. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 68

4.8.2.2.2 Ports 4.8.2.3 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans The PERSEUS (2012-2015) project developed a decision- The key issues addressed are related to the promotion of support tool that assesses the impacts of identified natural and SUMPs and other eco-mobility initiatives; the introduction of human-derived pressures on the Southern European marine cleaner public transport vehicles and systems; and, ultimately, ecosystems and coastal infrastructures. An innovative research the development of modern infrastructures and the shift to governance framework has been developed in line with the greener transport modes (see also Section 4.2). Several projects Marine Strategy Framework Directive. were realised via the CIVITAS initiative which proposed various innovative and sustainable urban, passenger and freight transport strategies and actions in European cities. The PROMOTION (2007-2010) project raised awareness and tested measures to reduce the attractiveness of the private car as a means of transport in favour of more sustainable mobility. It focused on changing users’ decision-making and proposing infrastructural planning or organisational measures. The promotion of existing or planned investments and infrastructure for alternative, energy-saving transport modes was the outcome of the ADDED VALUE (2007-2010) project. This was achieved through the application of marketing methods and campaigns to make better use of the infrastructure. The ECOMOBILITY SHIFT (2010-2013) project established a quality management system to improve the assessment of the energy efficiency of urban transport. This was done by developing SUMPs for the participants and creating a 4.8.2.2.3 Aviation highly valued EcoMobility label for urban areas, setting EU- wide standards for non-motorised and public transport. The The ERAT (2007-2010) project aimed to reduce the development of a SUMP methodology to overcome barriers environmental impact per flight to allow for sustainable growth was the topic of the POLY-SUMP (2012-2014) project, which while maintaining safety levels and airport/airspace capacity. focused on polycentric regions including numerous stakeholders This has been demonstrated through the development of a and town centres, where services, goods and transport needs concept of operations for the expanded terminal airspace are scattered in different municipalities. The SUPERHUB of a medium and a high-density traffic airport. The 2050AP (2011-2014) project developed a framework for the real-time (2011-2014) project investigated revolutionary solutions to coordination and negotiation between providers and consumers prepare airport infrastructures for 2050 and beyond by creating of mobility resources. The aim was to improve the use of urban a concept development methodology to eventually minimise mobility resources to improve energy efficiency, reduce CO intra-European door-to-door journeys, reduce air and noise 2 emissions and promote growth of urban economies and mobility pollution, and promote cost effectiveness through low operating systems. To achieve the same objectives in the participating costs and optimal revenue. European cities, the 2MOVE2 (2012-2016) project focused on proposals for e-mobility, freight and ITS/ICT solutions for 4.8.2.2.4 Road traffic management, matching the proposed measures with the At a higher strategic level, the VRA (2013-2016) project was existing SUMPs and other urban development plans. a coordination and support initiative for networking and EU/ The CIVITAS projects in this sub-theme (TRENDSETTER (2000- international cooperation of vehicle and road automation 2005), CARAVEL (2005-2009), MOBILIS (2005-2009) and actors, addressing common issues and deployment MIRACLES (2002-2006)) mainly considered actions to improve requirements (e.g. implementation scenarios, legal/regulatory the quality of life in the participating urban areas by reducing needs, standardisation and certification requirements). transport-related environmental impacts; and promoting The Finnish E8 – Aurora (2016-2017) project focuses on four alternative fuel production and use, and new technologies key topics: in transport. This was achieved through various sustainable urban mobility measures and policies including public-private • arctic testing for intelligent transport automation; partnerships, stakeholder consultations, and dissemination • digital transport infrastructure and connected cars; and monitoring activities. Another CIVITAS project, PORTIS (2016-2020), examines major port cities to demonstrate that • intelligent infrastructure asset management; sustainable mobility is particularly favourable in developing • Mobility as a Service. multimodal hubs for urban, regional, national and international transport of passengers and freight. The Aurora test ecosystem is being designed for validating new ITS solutions and innovations in real, extreme climate conditions. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 69

The following projects focus on the advantages of cycling in environmental and economic benefits for modern cities, and the urban transport systems: high readiness level for wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations. Other key achievements, particularly from • SPICYCLES (2006-2008) provided an integrated set of long- CIVITAS projects, involve the adoption of holistic approaches term measures to endorse local cycling policies, including for developing sustainable urban mobility policies and plans, a plan for infrastructural improvements and effective and integrated planning of new, and management of existing, promotion campaigns to achieve increased modal share infrastructures in support of ‘green’ transport modes and ITS of cycling in European cities (e.g. via the developed public solutions. bicycle systems); The research outcomes about improved energy efficiency of rail • Netz-E-2-R (2012-2014) was a national project that infrastructure and rolling stock provide realistic and tangible endorsed the use of low-powered e-bikes (pedelecs) by solutions to reduce energy consumption and life-cycle costs commuters in the Stuttgart region by creating smart parks of vehicles and tracks, increase capacity and flexibility of rail for rental pedelecs and parking spaces for private pedelecs at networks, and improve the overall attractiveness and share railway stations, thus offering greener park-and-ride options; of the mode. • PTP-Cycle (2013-2016) has delivered a pan-EU personalised travel plan (PTP) programme to increase PTP capacity and 4.8.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use skills in cities across Europe to achieve behavioural and The transferability from research to practical use is an integral policy shift from private car towards cycling and other part of most research activities in this sub-theme because the sustainable modes. technologies, pilot applications and optimisation methods that have been developed can be adopted for everyday operations, series production or retrofitted to existing transport systems and infrastructure. The holistic framework approaches and the interaction of a large number of relevant stakeholders are also indicative of the high practical level and usability of the planning, management and decision-making tools developed mostly within the context of SUMPs or intermodal/ interoperable systems. In addition, the continuation of research work in several consecutive projects increases the reliability and maturity of the proposed technologies and, hence, their deployment.

4.8.3.3 Indications for future research The integrated development and coordination of secure 4.8.3 Research outcomes electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and extension of EV/FCEV use. The combined development with 4.8.3.1 Achievements of the research under this hydrogen-based vehicles/infrastructures and other clean vehicle sub-theme technologies may provide for faster and more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future. The common ground for the majority of research work under this sub-theme is the improved energy efficiency and reduced The requirements for the development and testing of V2I and environmental impact of transport systems. I2V functionality need further investigation in support of the deployment of autonomous vehicles and the issues of safety, For road transport, the research has mainly achieved tangible related to real driving conditions. outcomes with regard to the advancement of EV/FCEV technologies and the promotion of their full market deployment Extended synergies between different transport modes in the near future. The development of innovative infrastructure can also lead to broader positive effects. As shown in the that supports electromobility operations and the introduction research projects described here (e.g. e-bikes at rail stations, or upgrade of advanced I2V communication systems increase urban mobility hubs and cross-border intermodal corridors), vehicle autonomy and improve the optimisation of the charging co-modality and innovative technologies can achieve or refuelling process. This will reduce ‘range anxiety’ for drivers, substantial results in terms of integrated management and which has been identified as a factor hindering the mass coordination of operators, and user acceptance and modal market roll-out of electromobility. shift to cleaner transport options. The rapidly growing sector of autonomous driving should also be taken into account The study of V2I functionality has also been introduced in in future research on novel infrastructure and V2I/I2V support of the future deployment of autonomous vehicles. communication technologies. For urban/public transport systems in particular, the field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies (e.g. e-buses, e-bikes and e-trucks) have demonstrated the potential Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 70

4.8.3.4 Implications for future policy development technologies; the full digitisation and high sophistication of vehicle to vehicle (V2V), V2I and I2V communication channels; The achievement of ambitious EU targets for reducing GHG and and the high-level coordination of infrastructure investors and other emissions is closely connected with greener, more efficient operators. The need for enhanced cooperation among a variety transport systems and sustainable urban mobility planning. of stakeholders and for real-time supply/demand management The overall direction from low-emissions to zero-emissions will drive the necessary legislative and regulatory steps. transport modes is endorsed by the most recent research activities to provide integrated solutions for electric and 4.8.4 List of projects hydrogen-based mobility, for non-motorised modes (walking and cycling) and for minimising rail energy consumption. Table 4-9 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme. Future policies should further support and stimulate the optimisation, convergence and standardisation of such

Table 4-9 Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

2050AP The 2050+ Airport 2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/1TKysh

2MOVE2 New forms of sustainable urban transport and mobility 2012-2016 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/NvTsCJ

ADDED VALUE Information and awareness campaigns to enhance the 2007-2010 EU (IEE) effectiveness of investments and infrastructure measures for energy-efficient urban transport https://goo.gl/1hOCdf

BRAVO Brenner Rail Freight Action Strategy Aimed at Achieving a 2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Sustainable Increase of Intermodal Transport Volume by Enhancing Quality, Efficiency, and System Technologies https://goo.gl/CIEjP2

CARAVEL Travelling Towards a New Mobility 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/O4pCpX

CHIC Clean Hydrogen in European Cities 2010-2016 EU (FP7-JTI) https://goo.gl/8jp4Lr

CUTE Clean Urban Transport for Europe 2001-2006 EU (FP5-EESD) https://goo.gl/3L4LzF

E8-Aurora E8 - Aurora 2016-2017 Finland https://goo.gl/IBMVjQ

EBSF European Bus System of the Future 2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/K2izM5

EBSF_2 European Bus Systems of the Future 2 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/ORkGWr

E-BUS Berlin Fully electric bus operations including recharging 2013-2016 Germany infrastructure https://goo.gl/ZQovvv

ECOMOBILITY SHIFT EcoMobility Scheme for Energy-Efficient Transport 2010-2013 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/9j1arG

ECORAILS Energy efficiency and environmental criteria in the awarding 2009-2011 EU (IEE) of regional rail transport vehicles and services https://goo.gl/gUeS4w Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 71

Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

EDAS Holistic Energy Management for third and fourth generation 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) of EVs https://goo.gl/Zo73xT

E-DASH Electricity Demand and Supply Harmonizing for EVs. 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/C4RBtw

ELECTRIFIC Enabling seamless electromobility through smart vehicle- 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) grid integration https://goo.gl/ZHsFtb

ELIPTIC Electrification of Public Transport in Cities 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/TzReoV

ELVIRE ELectric Vehicle communication to Infrastructure, Road 2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT) services and Electricity supply https://goo.gl/z0j1bt

ERAT Environmentally Responsible Air Transport 2007-2010 EU (FP6-Aerospace) https://goo.gl/oSEiby

FABRIC FeAsiBility analysis and development of on-Road charging 2014-2017 EU (FP7-SST) solutions for future electric vehiCles https://goo.gl/gXd1B2

FOTSIS European Field Operational Test on Safe, Intelligent and 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) Sustainable Road Operation https://goo.gl/SoaM4u

GREEN EMOTION Green eMotion 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) https://goo.gl/n7uxFU

H2ME Hydrogen Mobility Europe 2015-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/9M9OeD

H2OCEAN Development of a wind-wave power open-sea platform 2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) equipped for hydrogen generation with support for multiple users of energy https://goo.gl/9cAObY

H2REF Development of a Cost Effective and Reliable Hydrogen Fuel 2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020) Cell Vehicle Refuelling System https://goo.gl/L3pprU

HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS Deployment of Innovative Low Power Fuel Cell Vehicle Fleets 2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) To Initiate an Early Market for Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel in Europe https://goo.gl/KQNhWP

HyFLEET: CUTE Hydrogen for Clean Urban Transport in Europe 2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/zL1A6P

HyLine-S Operation of a Hybrid Bus Route in Stuttgart 2013-2015 Germany https://goo.gl/EXtJSK

HyWays Development of a harmonised “European Hydrogen Energy 2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Roadmap” by a balanced group of partners from industry, European regions and technical and socio-economic scenario and modelling experts https://goo.gl/bh1mwM

IOE Internet of Energy for Electric Mobility 2011-2014 EU (FP7-JTI) https://goo.gl/bJ6jEH Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 72

Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

komDRIVE Electric potential of commercial vehicle fleets as 2013-2016 Germany decentralised energy source for urban distribution grids https://goo.gl/0tsei3

LNG Blue Corridors LNG Blue Corridors 2013-2017 EU (FP7-SST) https://goo.gl/DCfdef

MERLIN Sustainable and intelligent management of energy 2012-2030 EU (FP7-SST) for smarter railway systems in Europe: an integrated optimisation approach https://goo.gl/fXgwn5

MIL Muses-Induct-Livic: Full Automated Parking Valet 2013 France https://goo.gl/jrTTUV

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, 2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH) Liveable Environments https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability 2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

NeMo NeMo: Hyper-Network for electroMobility 2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/gzIO9Q

Netz-E-2-R Integrated Electric 2-Wheeler Mobility in the Stuttgart 2012-2014 Germany Region https://goo.gl/8NlqTL

OSIRIS Optimal Strategy to Innovate and Reduce energy 2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport) consumption In urban rail Systems https://goo.gl/PLzJEs

PERSEUS Policy-oriented marine Environmental Research in the 2012-2015 EU (FP7-Environment) Southern EUropean Seas https://goo.gl/XZBr9z

POLY-SUMP Polycentric Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans 2012-2014 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/jdClF5

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability 2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020) https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

PROMOTION Creating Liveable Neighbourhoods while Lowering Transport 2007-2010 EU (IEE) Energy Consumption https://goo.gl/ZFwxah

PTP-Cycle Personalised Travel Planning for Cycling 2013-2016 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/rCuvmd

RAILENERGY Innovative Integrated Energy Efficiency Solutions for Railway 2006-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Rolling Stock, Rail Infrastructure and Train Operation https://goo.gl/HP1hud

ROLL2RAIL New Dependable Rolling Stock for a More Sustainable, 2015-2017 EU (Horizon 2020) Intelligent and Comfortable Rail Transport in Europe https://goo.gl/Z3C5FT

SGI Smart Grid Integration 2013-2015 Germany https://goo.gl/naXlFV

SPICYCLES Sustainable Planning & Innovation for biCYCLES 2006-2008 EU (IEE) https://goo.gl/V9O78C Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 73

Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SUPERHUB SUstainable and PERsuasive Human Users moBility in future 2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT) cities https://goo.gl/xDjQLt

SUSTRAIL The sustainable freight railway: Designing the freight 2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport) vehicle track system for higher delivered tonnage with improved availability at reduced cost https://goo.gl/HP2kEm

TRENDSETTER Setting Trends for a Sustainable Urban Mobility 2000-2005 EU (FP5-EESD) https://goo.gl/cpO9Pa

V-Charge Automated Valet Parking and Charging for e-Mobility 2011-2015 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/0LgPAF

VRA Support action for Vehicle and Road Automation network 2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT) https://goo.gl/pfomF9

ZERO REGIO Lombardia & Rhein-Main towards Zero Emission: 2004-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV) Development and Demonstration of Infrastructure Systems for Hydrogen as an Alternative Motor Fuel https://goo.gl/1NT5r7 Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 74

5 Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Research environment and development developing the technology required to implement the Single European Sky (SES). This aims to improve the safety and The significant rise in demand for transport (passengers and efficiency of the European air traffic management (ATM) system, freight) over time has led to increased negative impacts on while enabling increased capacity to allow for future growth in the environment, particularly through emissions of greenhouse demand through cooperation and interconnectivity between the gases (principally carbon dioxide (CO )) and pollutants that affect 2 different national ATM systems employed. local air quality (LAQ). It has long been recognised that it is important to develop improved technologies and practices to The Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative (JTI), together with reduce these adverse impacts and that research is important to the follow-on programme, Clean Sky 2, is developing and enable these developments. demonstrating technologies for reducing noise and emissions of CO and other pollutants from future aircraft. The technology This review has concentrated on larger research projects (in 2 development includes novel aircraft configurations, advances in terms of budget and number of partners) as indicative of their wing design and aerodynamics, and breakthroughs in propulsion likely impact on real emissions from transport. Such projects technologies. These are applicable to a range of aircraft types, first became evident in the European Union’s (EU) th5 Framework including large passenger aircraft, ‘green regional aircraft’ and Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP5), advanced rotorcraft. with a primary emphasis on sustainable mobility in urban areas. There was also a growing element of technology development While major programmes such as SESAR and Clean Sky for aviation, particularly for unconventional or very large aircraft. perform their own research, development and technological demonstration activities, they also draw heavily on the results Under the FP6 programme, there was a growing prioritisation from the research performed under the FPs and, hence, provide of the cleaner transport topic and an increase in funding for a route for the exploitation of those results. major research and demonstration projects. Key areas were the development of advanced technologies to reduce fuel 5.2 Research activities and outcomes consumption and emissions from road transport. There was also a growing number of projects investigating alternative fuels, The research projects within the alternative fuels sub-theme aim such as hydrogen. to develop cleaner transport systems via the use of alternative fuels that result in lower emissions of CO and/or of local air In the aviation area, there was a strong emphasis on developing 2 pollutants. technologies for reduced emissions from engines, particularly emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). A variety of alternatively fuels are already being tested in buses In comparison, there was relatively little research performed into in public transport systems across Europe. For example, City reducing emissions from maritime transport. VITAlity and Sustainability (CIVITAS) initiative projects such as MOBILIS and TELLUS have tested compressed natural gas (CNG) Under FP7, there was a large growth in research on cleaner and biofuels for buses, while a number of cities have trialled transport. The focus in road transport was on increasing the hydrogen fuel cell electric buses during projects such as CHIC and efficiency of conventionally fuelled vehicles. There was also an HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS. Many of the vehicles tested during these emphasis on the development of technology for electric vehicles projects continue to operate under real market conditions after (EVs), including the necessary infrastructure for their widespread the projects have finished, so delivering continued emissions use. In aviation, there was a continued emphasis on technologies benefits. Similar projects involving alternatively fuelled cars have to reduce NOx and PM emissions from aircraft engines. There also been carried out. was also significant research on the development of advanced technologies to improve the fuel efficiency of aircraft, including Research is also underway to test the use of alternative fuels technologies such as hybrid laminar flow for drag reduction. in heavy duty vehicles used for freight transport. Projects such as ENCLOSE and BEAUTY have demonstrated the potential of Under Horizon 2020, many of the key elements of cleaner biofuels to help achieve future emissions limits. These projects transport remain priorities, with a particular emphasis on have also helped to overcome technical challenges such as improvements in fuel efficiency and reductions in emissions fuel conversion efficiency and cold startability. Another project, of CO . For road vehicles, there is a continued emphasis on 2 FELICITAS, investigated fuel cell powertrains and the performance the development of EV technologies, while the emphasis for of hydrogen powered vehicles, while HDGAS investigated the aviation remains to advance technologies to reduce CO and 2 applicability of liquefied natural gas (LNG). PM emissions. In aircraft, biofuels and synthetic fuels have been investigated. In addition to the research performed under the FPs, significant The research projects identified were generally smaller scale technology development has also been performed under other projects at an earlier stage of research that developed innovative major EU programmes, particularly in the aviation field. The fuels (such as FIRST). As the technologies are not yet optimised, Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) project has been quantitative information on the potential environmental impacts Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 75

is usually not available. However, the next stage will be to The coverage of modal shift in other sectors and, more conduct larger scale trials. Another project, ECATS, developed specifically, long-distance freight transport, is minimal in the a network to further develop and share scientific expertise in projects identified. However, they include one of the most aviation, atmospheric science and industry. prominent projects to date regarding an increase of the inland water transport modal share. In the shipping sector, a number of research projects are being conducted to develop ships capable of using alternative fuels. The analysis has shown that battery management systems are Most notably, HERCULES-2 is developing fuel-flexible engines essential to encourage electromobility. An actively managed that will allow for high-performance and low-emissions battery has the advantage of keeping the battery in a beneficial transport, while MC-WAP developed fuel cell systems suitable operational state, so improving its safety and lifetime, which for large ships. leads to lower costs. In terms of battery cell development, progress has been made regarding materials research for The focus on modal shift in urban transport remains unchanged anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, which contributes to a better throughout the years, with the outcomes from the majority recyclability, longer lifetimes and an improved performance. of projects comprising soft measures aimed at fostering a transition process to less energy intense transport modes Improved energy efficiency and safety of EVs requires not only and reducing the demand for private vehicles. These include improved battery technology, but other vehicle components a range of measures to encourage the use of walking, cycling also need to be considered. These include the vehicle’s climate and public transport; mobility sharing schemes; clean, energy- control, its braking system and, increasingly, the collection and efficient vehicles, and measures to reduce emissions from urban processing of data with suitable software. freight logistics operations. Inevitably, more recent research is The implementation of electromobility into the power grid is coordinated with technological advancements. Therefore, an another major issue. Coordinating the charging processes of increasing introduction of modern technology and innovation is multiple EVs can lead to improvements in terms of a balanced noticeable in these measures. In addition, recent research has grid and to cost reduction for the end user. been directed towards encouraging a modal shift in the tourism sector, as well as the development of intermodal systems. There An increasing number of cities are establishing some form of is a continuous flow of marketing and information campaigns to sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale sustainable trigger behavioural change – the key driver to mobility choices. urban mobility and logistics plans or in more sectoral DSPs. The respective concepts and policy strategies proposed by earlier Several projects on modal shift achieved tangible results in terms research activities are being exploited through the latest research. of reductions of traffic-related 2CO emissions and demand for private car trips, and dissemination and training actions. Most As a result of new mobile communication technologies, importantly, in several cases, further development continued after cooperative capacity and freight platforms are now operational the end of a project, resulting in an increased impact. Another and may lead to a large boost in freight transport efficiency. key achievement of CIVITAS projects was that demonstration However, these platforms need to respect the reluctance of measures did not constitute isolated attempts, but were, in most shippers and their customers to share sensitive data with their cases, integrated into the cities’ urban transport policies and plans. competitors. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 76

Research and demonstration projects indicate that, in freight alternative materials to obtain reduced fuel consumption transport, clean vehicle technologies can be implemented quicker through reduced weight. than in passenger transport due to the shorter life cycles of The majority of projects have developed or investigated improved vehicles and, in many cases, more regular driving cycles. design methods or improved minor components. The VITAL However, economic viability must be guaranteed. project brought several of these elements together to design and Considerable research has been performed on reducing the test major components, such as fan and compressor assemblies, environmental impact of vehicles in all modes (air, sea, road and including novel configurations such as counter-rotating fans. The rail) through the development of new and improved technology. project produced results from these major assembly tests, which are normally only performed by engine manufacturers, that will In the area of aircraft aerodynamics and, particularly, active contribute to the development of advanced engine technologies. flow control, progress has been made in the development of the flow control technologies, including the manufacture of the Addressing the topic of environmental impact analysis, the required microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices. These TEAM_PLAY project successfully developed a capability for technologies are now being demonstrated in flight tests. The modelling the environmental and economic impacts of a wide results from the studies have contributed to the understanding range of policy options, including interdependencies, through the of how flow control devices can be manufactured and integrated construction of a dedicated data warehouse and the linking of with the airframe. If flight tests are able to demonstrate the several European models to it. The capability that was developed expected reduction in aircraft drag, the technology will be able to was demonstrated on a policy test case and has been presented contribute to significant improvements in the fuel consumption to European policy makers for potential application to future of future aircraft designs. policy development. Other projects that have targeted reductions in airframe A major part of European research on ship technology for reduced drag have also progressed the knowledge of the technology, emissions has taken part under HERCULES and its follow-on particularly the necessary mechanical aspects to implement projects. The projects have developed and tested diesel engine it in airframes. These have included the understanding of the designs with significantly reduced NOx and PM emissions through mechanical design aspects of morphing wings and coatings to multistage turbocharging and exhaust aftertreatments. Tests enable higher levels of laminar flow on wings for reduced drag. performed under the HERCULES-C project demonstrated NOx emissions 80 % below the International Maritime Organisation Another technology that has the potential to reduce aircraft fuel (IMO) Tier 1 levels. Continuing efforts are expected to result in consumption is the ‘more-electric aircraft’, in which many of the further improvements, giving near-zero emissions from future functions conventionally performed by hydraulic or pneumatic engine designs. systems are performed by electrical systems. This technology is already incorporated in the Boeing 787 aircraft and is expected Another project targeting reduced emissions from ships to be more widely used in the future. European projects have developed retrofittable technologies for dual-fuel operation, contributed to the development of this technology by improving allowing a ship diesel engine to operate on diesel or natural gas the relevant electrically powered devices and understanding the (CNG or LNG) fuels. The results showed higher efficiencies and requirements for the on-board electrical management systems. lower emissions when the engine was run on natural gas fuels. Research projects have contributed significantly to the The E-ferry project is targeting the development of a ship development of aircraft engine technology for reduced emissions. with near-zero or zero emissions. In this case, the approach A key future engine concept is the lean-burn combustor, which is a 100 % electric ship design. When it is put into service, the is expected to offer significantly reduced NOx emissions. Several electric ferry (e-ferry) that is being developed is expected to

projects have contributed to the development of the design save 2 000 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year compared with a capability to enable these combustors to be incorporated in conventionally fuelled ship. future engine designs. This early capability development is Technical developments in the field of road passenger vehicles important given the protracted development cycles for new concentrate mainly on the improvement of engines and aircraft and engines. Other projects have investigated specific powertrains. This includes conventional vehicles and alternative technologies, such as fuel injectors, for lean-burn combustors. concepts such as hybrid, electric or fuel cell drives. In recent In addition to technologies for reduced NOx emissions, projects years, several projects have focused on eco-efficient driving have investigated the design of combustors (including fuel-spray behaviour and routing that can be achieved by suitable human- pattern requirements) for reduced soot emissions from engines. machine interfaces, and a data exchange between vehicle and traffic management. Other projects have also developed design technology for

reducing fuel consumption (and, hence, CO2 emissions) by For road freight vehicles, considerable research has been improving the efficiency of other engine components, particularly performed into conventional powertrains with an emphasis

compressors and turbines. The improvements will be exploited on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions reduction. Additional by engine manufacturers when designing future engines fuel savings can be achieved by extending the focus to the (and, potentially, improved compressors and turbines as part overall energy management of a vehicle (e.g. by recovering of upgrades for existing engine designs). As well as improved brake and thermal energy, which can then be used for auxiliary aerodynamic designs, research has been performed on using components). Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 77

In addition to low fuel consumption during driving, energy Furthermore, life-cycle assessments for a variety of alternative efficient auxiliary power units (APUs) are of great importance fuels, transport modes and European countries should be in the parking mode. For this purpose, innovative fuel cell performed. approaches for power generation have been examined. They The links between transport fuels and other sectors should are characterised by producing hydrogen from diesel fuel and continue to be explored. This could include links between turning it into electrical energy. This comes with a significant hydrogen and energy systems and integrated biorefineries, reduction of fuel consumption, emissions and costs. in which biofuel, bio-based chemicals and power can all be Developments for rail vehicles have concentrated on the produced. improvement of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems to Given the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions to reduce CO and NOx emissions. 2 zero-emissions mobility, research efforts on modal shift should The common ground for the majority of research work under the increasingly be directed towards supporting this transition through modern infrastructure sub-theme is the improved energy efficiency the development of related knowledge, technology and skills. and reduced environmental impact of transport systems. As the total demand for freight transport in Europe has increased For road transport, the research has produced significant significantly in recent years, additional sectors should also be outcomes with regard to the advancement of EV/fuel cell electric addressed, such as the modal shift from road freight transport vehicle (FCEV) technologies, which will help to realise their full to rail, and short-sea and inland waterways shipping. market deployment in the near future. The development of an Software development is a key issue for EVs. As battery innovative infrastructure that supports electromobility operations development is largely confined to Asia, vehicle software can and the introduction or upgrade of advanced infrastructure-to- be a competitive advantage for European industry. This includes vehicle (I2V) communication systems increase vehicle autonomy battery management systems and embedded systems in other and the optimisation of the charging or refuelling process. As vehicle components. The monitoring and coordinating of the a result, the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers may be reduced. This systems on board and their communication with related road addresses a number of factors that hinder the mass market or energy infrastructure can be seen as promising areas for roll-out of electromobility. future research due to their potential to save energy, improve The field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies safety and reduce costs. for urban transport systems (e.g. e-buses, e-bikes and e-trucks) The TRAILBLAZER project has identified a number of issues for have demonstrated the potential environmental and economic future research directions in the field of cleaner freight transport benefits for modern cities and the high readiness level for a such as: wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations. Other key achievements, particularly from CIVITAS projects, • continuing to promote the use of Delivery and Servicing involve the adoption of holistic approaches for developing Plans (DSPs) to reduce the amount of fuel used in freight sustainable urban mobility policies and plans, and integrated delivery and servicing activities with the specific goal of planning of new, and management of existing, infrastructures reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and primary in support of ‘green’ transport modes and intelligent transport energy consumption; systems (ITS) solutions. • giving consideration to future projects that investigate the The results of research related to improvements in the energy wider savings that can be achieved through the use of goods efficiency of rail infrastructure and rolling stock provide consolidation centres; realistic and tangible solutions to reduce energy consumption • giving consideration to future projects that investigate and life-cycle costs of vehicles and tracks, increase capacity the wider savings that can be achieved through the and flexibility of rail networks, and improve the overall implementation of area-wide DSPs and their transferability attractiveness and share of the mode. across the EU; 5.3 Indications for future research • consideration should be given to an in-depth study of the Swedish municipality consolidation experience to understand Much of the research carried out to date on alternative fuels the wider effects of the increasing take-up of the concept has focused on road transport, with a small number of projects and its transferability across the EU. relevant to aviation. Further research should be performed into the potential of alternative fuels suitable for shipping such as Given the large contribution of long-distance road transport to LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These fuels are attractive as part GHG and air pollutant emissions, and against a background of of a long-term strategy as, in the future, each could be replaced large financial and acceptability problems of rail freight services, by a renewable alternative. future research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research Further research is also required on the quantification of the costs on institutional aspects for more efficient and cooperative and benefits of switching to alternative fuels. The publication of solutions, and for increasing innovation in the sector appears detailed results concerning the emissions benefits from European to be of greatest importance for curbing the environmental funded pilot projects would support such efforts by encouraging impacts of freight transport, while maintaining its economic other regions to test alternative fuels. competitiveness. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 78

A clear trend through much of the research on aircraft and the driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and aircraft engine technology is the development of design tools the smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, to enable the incorporation of advanced concepts in future the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport products, together with the development of small components. systems must be explored. Within the clean transport context, The full development of major aircraft or engine components further research is required to determine the contribution to low- for demonstrating new technologies is usually performed by emissions mobility of automation as an alternative to the use the manufacturers under their own funding (and hence is not of private vehicles and the conditions under which automated reported). However, there are benefits (as exemplified by the driving will contribute to cleaner transportation. VITAL project) from large-scale technology demonstration Moreover, future efforts should also move away from purely projects with results being available to several manufacturers. technological research and focus on recommended strategies for Research has been performed into reducing emissions from overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the operation aircraft engines of NOx (particularly using lean-burn technology) of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) and other and soot (or non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM)). It is regulatory issues. important that future research on reduced emissions from The integrated development and coordination of secure engines addresses all pollutants (or, at least, NOx and soot electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and together) so that any interdependencies can be considered. extension of EV/FCEVs use. The combined development of the Most of the projects on road and rail vehicle technologies focus necessary infrastructure with that for hydrogen-based vehicles on incremental improvements of technical vehicle components. and other clean vehicle technologies may facilitate faster and Breakthrough innovations of new vehicle concepts are not yet more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future. evident. However, fuel cell APUs may provide such a breakthrough. Extended synergies between the infrastructures for different Moving research efforts from single vehicle components and transport modes can also lead to broader positive effects. As towards a holistic view of the transport system may provide demonstrated by some research projects (e.g. e-bikes at rail significant benefits. This includes the behaviour of drivers, stations, urban mobility hubs and cross-border intermodal and their interaction with the vehicle via the human-machine corridors), co-modality and innovative technologies can achieve interface and with the infrastructure. A crucial factor needed substantial results in terms of integrated management and for this is the provision and exchange of data on all levels. With coordination of operators, user acceptance and modal shift adjusted driving strategies and improved route choices, further to cleaner transport options. The rapidly growing sector of fuel savings may be achievable. autonomous driving (driverless vehicles) should also be taken into account in future research on novel infrastructure and Increasing the level of automation in the transport system brings vehicle to infrastructure (V2I)/I2V communication technologies. about additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 79

5.4 Implications for future policy development • All available means of enforcement and incentive should be used to transform clean modes of transport (particularly Existing European policy provides a platform for bringing railways) into vital market players. This also implies a alternative fuels to the market, while research programmes strategic assignment of investment and maintenance funds are supporting the development of innovative new for transport infrastructure. Agreements on European and technologies. In the future, a greater focus may be needed national strategies would help in that respect. on supporting the infrastructure requirements of alternative fuels and ensuring that Member States develop clear A common feature of aviation and maritime vehicles (aircraft strategies to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In particular, and ships) is that they are used predominately on international regular assessments should be carried out to ensure that operations and their regulations, particularly regarding progress is being made throughout the EU, and to justify emissions, are set by international bodies. EU regulations further policies and research funding in the area of alternative recognise this and EU bodies are involved in the development transport fuels. Analysis of, and collaboration with, non-EU of new regulations through the International Civil Aviation countries could also be carried out to ensure that the EU Organization (ICAO) and IMO. These efforts should continue and remains competitive globally. future policy development (e.g. in relation to a future tightening of the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, NOx standard for aircraft engines) should take account of the economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low-carbon/ emission reduction being achieved by the different technologies zero-emissions mobility is considered one of the pillars of the arising from the research projects. EU’s future policy development for achieving reductions of CO and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, the growing 2 In addition, the development of future EU policies related global competitiveness and emerging business models in an to emissions from aviation and maritime sources (e.g. air increasingly digitalised economy, together with continuous quality regulations) should take account of the low-emissions technological advancements, call for a more integrated technologies being developed and the improvements in approach that creates synergies between the transport sector emissions that may be expected when these technologies are and those related to energy, technology, automation, etc. ultimately incorporated in in-service aircraft and ships.

Current research in the field of policy design, regulations and The achievement of ambitious EU targets for the reduction of incentives related to electromobility is targeted at different GHG and other emissions is closely connected with greener, parts of the transport market. Mainly focused on urban areas more efficient transport systems that rely on a modern transport – which is the area where EVs, with their specific driving infrastructure and sustainable urban mobility planning. characteristics and range limitations, can operate best – options The overall direction from low-emissions to zero-emissions can be identified for creating acceptance for electric passenger transport modes is endorsed by the most recent research cars, delivery vehicles and infrastructure. The key results from activities to provide integrated solutions for electric and the research are that campaigns and opportunities for testing hydrogen-based mobility, for non-motorised modes (walking EVs, including addressing local conditions, are needed to and cycling) and for minimising rail energy consumption. create acceptance, and that viable business models for EVs and, in particular, for infrastructures are still problematic. Here Future policies should further support and stimulate the innovative solutions (e.g. combining different sectors and use optimisation, convergence and standardisation of such case) are needed. technologies, the full digitisation and high sophistication of vehicle to vehicle (V2V), V2I and I2V communication channels, The policy recommendations that have been identified in and the high-level coordination of infrastructure investors and relation to low-emissions logistics include: operators. The need for enhanced cooperation among a variety of stakeholders and for real-time supply/demand management • EU and national bodies should continue to encourage all will drive the necessary legislative and regulatory steps. types of cities to establish Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) with special consideration given to logistics aspects. The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, Which types of incentives work best for this purpose and how connected and automated vehicles in road transport urgently the (extended) SUMPs may look like will vary from region requires EU action. While the technology continues to advance, to region. society needs to focus more on the challenges and impacts • The cooperation of companies and institutions for more (positive and adverse) that the introduction of automated efficient freight delivery requires more than providing good vehicles will have on the transport sector, other related platforms and encouragement. The establishment of urban technology frameworks and society as a whole. Respective goods consolidation centres needs investment, respective policy frameworks need to be further developed. priorities on local land use planning, access regulations, financial incentives for cooperation and other tools. Again, The European Commission communication on C-ITS addresses the mix of tools is subject to the local context. several of these concerns. Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 80

6 References/bibliography

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European Biofuels Technology Platform (2011). Biofuel fact sheet - Liquid, synthetic hydrocarbons. http://www.etipbioenergy.eu/images/synthetic-hydrocarbons- fact-sheet.pdf

European Commission. (2011). WHITE PAPER Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area. Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient Transport System, COM(2011) 144 final. Brussels: European Commission.

European Commission. (2011b). JRC Scientific and Technical Report – Well to wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context v3c. JRC 65998. European Commission, 2011. http://iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu/about-jec/sites/iet.jrc.ec.europa. eu.about-jec/files/documents/wtw3_wtw_report_eurformat.pdf

European Commission. (2016a). A European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility, COM(2016) 501 final. Brussels: European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/themes/ strategies/news/doc/2016-07-20-decarbonisation/com% 282016%29501_en.pdf

European Commission. (2016b). A European strategy on Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems, a milestone towards cooperative, connected and automated mobility. (COM(2016)766 Final).

International Maritime Organization (2007). International maritime transport and greenhouse gas emissions – climate change: a challenge for IMO too! http://www.imo.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/ShipsAndShipping FactsAndFigures/TheRoleandImportanceofInternational Shipping/IMO_Brochures/Documents/InternationalMaritime TransportandGreenhouseGasEmissions[1].pdf

TRIP (2017). Research Theme Analysis Report – Transport Infrastructure. http://www.transport-research.info/sites/default/files/TRIP_ Transport_infrastructures_0.pdf Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 81

7 Glossary

The following abbreviations have been used in this review. AC Alternating current ADAS Advanced driver assistance systems APU Auxiliary power unit ATM Air traffic management BMS Battery management system BEV Battery electric vehicle CAEP Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection CFD Computational fluid dynamics C-ITS Cooperative intelligent transport system CIVITAS City VITAlity and Sustainability CNG Compressed natural gas CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide DC Direct current DG-MOVE Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport DSP Delivery and Servicing Plan EBTP European Biofuels Technology Platform ELA Electric L-category vehicles ERA European Research Area EU European Union EV Electric vehicle FCEV Fuel cell electric vehicle FCH JU Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking FEV Fully electric vehicle FP Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development GHG Greenhouse gas HC Hydrocarbons I2V Infrastructure to vehicle I2I Infrastructure to infrastructure ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ICT Information and communications technology IEE Intelligent Energy Europe IMO International Maritime Organization IT Information technology ITS Intelligent transport systems JTI Joint Technology Initiative Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 82

LAQ Local air quality LES Large eddy simulation Li Lithium LNG Liquefied natural gas LPG Liquefied petroleum gas MEMS Microelectromechanical systems NOx Nitrogen oxides OEM Original equipment manufacturer nvPM Non-volatile particulate matter PM Particulate matter R&D Research and development SES Single European Sky SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research SOx Sulphur oxides SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell SULP Sustainable Urban Logistics Plan SUMP Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan

tCO2e Tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent TRIP Transport Research & Innovation Portal V2I Vehicle to infrastructure V2V Vehicle to vehicle Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport 83

www.transport-research.info

Publication: Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Union

ISBN: 978-92-79-71871-7 DOI: 10.2832/44900 Catalogue: MI-02-17-952-EN-N