Use of Theses

THESES SIS/LIBRARY TELEPHONE: +61 2 6125 4631 R.G. MENZIES LIBRARY BUILDING NO:2 FACSIMILE: +61 2 6125 4063 THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY EMAIL: [email protected] CANBERRA ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA

USE OF THESES

This copy is supplied for purposes of private study and research only. Passages from the thesis may not be copied or closely paraphrased without the written consent of the author. WRITING WORDS-RIGHT WAY! Literacy and social practice in the Ngaanyatjarra world

Inge Birgita Kral

March2007

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor·of Philosophy (Anthropology)

of the

Australian National University

DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP

I, Inge I

Signature: ......

Date: ... ..J.~.6..

Table of contents

Tables and Figures ...... i Acknowledgements ...... iii Abstract ...... iv Abbreviations ...... v Chronology ...... vi Chapter 1 Literacy in the Ngaanyatjarra world-setting the context ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Background...... 2 Literacy and illiteracy ...... 6 Ethnographies of literacy ...... 13 An ethnography of literacy in the Ngaanyatjarra context ...... 19 Thesis outline ...... 24 Chapter 2 'Mission time' ...... 31 Introduction ...... 31 The 'protectionist' era ...... 31 Mt Margaret Mission ...... 33

The Ngaanya~arra world ...... 38 Warburton Ranges Mission ...... 42 The mission generation ...... 43 Literacy, Christianity and schooling-the English experience ...... 49 Habitualisation into new practices ...... 54 Literacy, Christianity and adults-the vernacular experience ...... 57 Conflicting values and practices ...... 59 The westerly drift ...... 61 Conclusion ...... 63 Chapter 3 'Native Welfare time' ...... 65 Introduction ...... 65 'Assimilation'-a new policy era ...... 65 Tutored assimilation ...... 66 The 'Native Welfare generation' ...... 69 Education for unemployment...... 81 The move 'from rations to cash' ...... •...... 91 Literacy and schooling ...... 96 Literacy and adult practices ...... 98 Priface

Conclusion ...... 104 Chapter 4 'Government time' ...... 107 Introduction ...... 107 'When the new things came in'-self-determination and change ...... 107 'Homeland time'-'-()Utstations and the return to country ...... 111 literacy and 'self-determination' ...... 114 literacy as social practice ...... 119 The orality of written texts ...... 128 literacy as a political strategy ...... 136 The formation of a community of interest ...... 139 Conclusion ...... 146 ChapterS Literacy and the 'practice of everyday life' ...... 149 Introduction ...... 149 Transformed practices ...... 150 literacy in the domestic space ...... 153 literacy in the public space ...... 161 literacy domains ...... 167 · Administrative literacies ...... 173 literacy as cultural practice ...... 179 Conclusion ...... 190 Chapter6 Transmitting orality and literacy as cultural practice ...... 193 Introduction ...... 193

Socialisation into the Ngaanya~arra world ...... 193 Language socialisation ...... 194 Language shift ...... 200 Home, school and learning ...... 203 Family literacy ...... 206 Children reading and writing-a special situation ...... 212 The birthday party- socialisation into a Western literate ethos ...... 222 Conclusion ...... 226 Chapter 7 Young adults-change, learning and engagement ...... 227 Introduction ...... 227 Altered maturational cycles ...... 227 'Working for your own living' ...... 235 New influences ...... 240 Warburton youth arts ...... 245 Alternative ways of learning and engaging ...... 252 Conclusion ...... 259 Chapter 8 Conclusion...... 261 Literacy assumptions and their consequences ...... 263 Place, identity, young people and education ...... 268 Diversity and the dignity of difference ...... 270 Where do we go from here? ...... 271 Appendix A Methodology ...... 275 AppendixB Family Narratives A-K ...... 281 Appendix C Language description ...... 3 7 5

AppendixD Ngaanya~arra glossary ...... 377 Appendix E Population estimates ...... 3 79 Appendix F Post-primary schooling estimates ...... 382 Appendix G Census household data (2001) ...... 383 Appendix H NRS Literacy assessments (writing) ...... 384 Appendix I Training estimates ...... 390 Appendix] Snapshot distribution of CDEP, Warburton February 2004 ...... 393 References ...... 394 Additional resources ...... 418

Tables and Figures Tables Page: Table 3.1 Adult Native Education enrolment 1965-72 66 Table 3.2 Estimated adult Aboriginal population and employment figures Laverton and Warburton 1965-1972 84 Table 4.1 Estimated population Ngaanyatjarra Lands 1972-1983 109 Table 4.2 Letters-Corpus A 118 Table 4.3 Letters-Corpus B 129 Table 5.1 2004 CDEP Skills Audit-Literacy self-assessment 158 Table 5.2 2004 CDEP Skills Audit-Overall NRS (Ngaanyatjarra Lands) 159 Table 5.3 2004 CDEP Skills Audit- NRS Reading (Ngaanyatjarra Lands) 159 Table 5.4 2004 CDEP Skills Audit-Overall NRS young adults (Warburton) 160 Table 5.5 Estimated Ngaanyatjarra and English adult literacy competence 161

Tables in Appendices TableAB.1 Overview Family Narratives A-K 275 Table AC.1 Language spoken at Warburton 2001 Census data 372 Table AE.1 Estimated population at Warburton Ranges 375 and Cosmo Newbery 1936-1973 TableAE.2 Estimated Aboriginal population Warburton 376 and Eastern Goldfields towns 1935-1983 (incl. children) TableAG.1 Indigenous households in Warburton 2001 Census data 379 TableAG.2 Number of persons usually resident in separate households 379 TableAG.3 Selected averages for age, income and rent 379 Table AI.1 Training noted in CDEP Skills Audit 2004 (Warburton only) 386 Table AI.2 Accredited training Ngaanyatjarra Community College 2000-2003 387

Figures Facing page: Fig. 1.1 Map of the Western Desert region 2 Fig. 1.2 Rockholes along Warburton-Laverton road 4 Fig. 1.3 Aerial photo of Warburton 2004 4 Fig. 1.4 Map of the Department of Native Welfare (Western Australia) - Divisions, Offices, Hostels and Churches 6 Fig. 2.1 Education publications by M.M. Bennett (1935) and R.S. Schenk (1936) 36 Fig. 2.2 Ngaanyatjarra relationship terms 40 Fig. 2.3 The Ngaanyatjarra section system 40 Fig. 2.4 First group of school children, Warburton Ranges Mission 1936 44 Fig. 2.5 Early mud brick construction, Old Well Warburton Ranges Mission 44 Fig. 2.6 Men employed in building projects, Warburton Ranges Mission 1949 44 Fig. 2.7 Christian meeting, Warburton Ranges Mission 1939 44 Fig. 2.8 Wooden school building, Warburton Ranges Mission-before 1952 52 Fig. 2.9 Stone school building, Warburton Ranges Mission-after 1952 52 Fig. 2.10 School girls and boys, Warburton Ranges Mission-after 19 52 52 Fig. 2.11 Girls from the Baker Home Dormitory, Warburton Ranges Mission 1950s 52 Fig. 2.12 Dormitory girls doing chores, Warburton Ranges Mission 1950s 52 Fig. 2.13 Young men doing pastoral work, Warburton Ranges Mission 1950s 56 Fig. 2.14 Older girls from the Baker Home, Warburton Ranges Mission 1952 56 Fig. 2.15 Gathering outside Warburton Ranges Mission compound fence 56 Fig. 2.16 Open air church service, Warburton Ranges Mission 56 Fig. 3.1 Christian meeting, Warburton Ranges Mission 1960s 100 Fig. 3.2 Article from Today: Famify Magaifne by Warburton pastor, 2004 100 Fig. 4.1 Warburtonngamarta!Ji 7]ukunpa- Warburton News 118 Fig. 4.2 Dorothy Hackett and Amee Glass doing Bible translation work with Ngaanyatjarra literates, 1982 118 Fig. 4.3 Letters from Warburton adolescents, Kalgoorlie 1970 120 Fig. 4.4 Petition from Warburton Community to Director of Primary Education, Perth 197 5 126 Fig. 4.5 Letter to Senator Cavanagh, Minister for Aboriginal Affairs concerning Blackstone outstation, 1973 132 Fig. 4.6 Hortatory text 1990s 132 Fig. 4.7 Notice to all staff 2002 132 Fig. 4.8 Petition concerning formation of the Shire ofNgaanyatjarraku 144 Fig. 4.9 Letter concerning Ngaanyatjarra Council By-Laws 1987 144 Fig. 5.1 Writing turlku 160 Fig. 5.2 Literacy resources available at Warburton local store 2004 160 Fig. 5.3 Work literacies 170 Fig. 5.4 Administrative literacies: official motor vehicle correspondence 174 Fig. 5.5 Information notices 180 Fig. 5.6 Event notices 180 Fig. 5.7 Purnu and literacy 180 Fig. 5.8 Church literacies 180 Fig. 5.9 Sports literacies 188 Fig. 5.10 Speeches 188 Fig. 6.1 Story wire for telling sand stories 200 Fig. 6.2 Ngaanyatjarra children's books and colouring-in packs 208 Fig. 6.3 Children with laptop computers 208 Fig. 6.4-6.5 Rosina writing (age 4.5-4.6) 214 Fig. 6.6-6.7 Nina writing (age 5.6-5.11) 214 Fig. 6.8 Bamboozled 216 Fig. 6.9 Nina writing (age 7.5) 222 Fig. 6.10-6.11 Rosina writing (age 6.8-6.10) 222 Fig. 6.12 'Happy Birthday' glass plate 224 Fig. 7.1 Warburton graffiti 2003-2006 242 Fig. 7.2 Diary writing 246 Fig. 7.3 Multimedia workshop poster 246 Fig. 7.4 Wilurarra Youth Arts Festival, Warburton, April2005 246 Fig. 7.5 Nintirringkula Newsletter 246 Fig. 7.6 Cartoon stories 246 Fig. 7.7 Songs and scripts 246 Fig. 7.8 Scribbling and doodling 246

ii Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge, first and foremost, all the extraordinary Ngaanyatjarra people who have been part of the making of this thesis. Your stories have inspired me for the past decade and I feel privileged to have been able to document your history. There are too many people to mention everyone by name, but I especially thank lizzie Ellis, Lynley Green, Daisy Ward, Robin Smythe, Harvey Murray, Dorothy Ward, Andrew Watson, Rhoda Watson, J ayden Smith, Gerald Porter, Cyril Simms, livingston West, June Richards, Beryl Jennings, Terry Robinson, Dulcie Watson, Maimie Butler, Roxanne Laidlaw, Danny Harris, Andrew Jones, Neil Carnegie, Debra West, Alisha West and all the West family including Lowanna Smythe and Phillipa Butler. A special thank you also to Kresna Cameron, Dorothy Smith, Jasmine Lawson, Delvina Lawson, Noelene Landers, Lana Porter, Rosequeen Ward, Elfreda Ward, Clarabelle Ward, Shirley Frazer, Cherelle Robertson, Maria Duncan, Gino Ward, Cliff Davies, Casey Jones, Carl Smith, Nathan Smith and all the young people in the youth arts project. I wish to thank everyone in Warburton, Ngaanyatjarra Council and Ngaanyatjarra Media for their support over the years, in particular David Brooks, Damian McLean, Pam Collier, Fay Paget, Peter Allsop, Albie Viegas, Elves Brites, Daniel Featherstone, Pete Graham and Dianna Newham. A special thank you goes to Amee Glass, Dorothy Hackett and Sam Mollenhauer for their advice and comments on language and history.

I wish to express appreciative thanks to all the many, many Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal colleagues over the past twenty years who have taught me so much about Aboriginal languages, learning and literacy.

A heartfelt thank you goes to my colleagues at the Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research at the Australian National University for seeing the value in this work and for supporting me throughout the process. In particular, I am indebted to my supervisor Jerry Schwab who has guided my thinking in so many ways. Also a big thank you to Tim Rowse and Frances Morphy for their insights and invaluable feedback in the final stages. Thanks also to John Hughes, Clive Hilliker and Brenda Thornley for assistance with the graphics.

I wish also to thank my mother Shirley Kral for being there throughout this process in so many big and little ways. Lastly, I thank all of my wonderful friends who are too numerous to mention, but they know who they are. Thank you all for your love, support and enthusiasm for the work.

ill Prifaa:

Abstract

This thesis is an ethnography of literacy. It is also a study of the social process of learning. It focuses on a remote Aboriginal group in the Western Desert of Australia. Although the last out of the desert (the first wave came out in the 1930s and the last in the 1960s), the Ngaanyatjarra encountered an unusual sequence of relatively benign post-contact experiences and were never removed from their traditional country.

A literacy perspective is used to trace the history of the Ngaanyatjarra encounter with the United Aborigines Mission and with the state. This historical perspective underpins the contemporary ethnography. A generational approach is taken to analyse the impact on literacy of differing developmental trajectories-the post-1930s mission-educated older generation, the assimilation-influenced generation who were educated by the state in the Eastern Goldfields during the 1960s and the current generation of young adults who are influenced by myriad intercultural connections.

It is proposed that literacy processes cannot be understood simply in terms of schooling or technical skills competence. literacy is also a cultural process and cannot be analysed in isolation from circumstances and conditions that precipitate the development of literacy as social practice. literacy also cannot be removed from the cultural conceptions and social meanings that are associated with reading and writing in historical and contemporary contexts. In this newly literate group we see how oral narrative schemas and speech styles seeped into the incipient literacy practices of the older generation and how young adults are now incorporating intertextual practices drawn from eclectic influences.

The generational approach exemplifies how in just three generations a literate orientation has evolved. Some Ngaanyatjarra have incorporated literacy into social practice and literacy is being transmitted as a cultural process to the next generation. Yet not all Ngaanyatjarra are literate and many literacies do not measure up to mainstream standards of competence and this has consequences. The central argument of the thesis is that if literacy is to be maintained, elaborated and transmitted in this newly literate context it must be meaningfully integrated into everyday social practice in a manner that extends beyond pedagogical settings.

iv Abbreviations

AAEM Australian Aborigines Evangelical Mission AAPA Aboriginal Affairs Planning Authority (Western Australia) AEW Aboriginal Education Worker AIEO Aboriginal and Islander Education Officer AnTEP Anangu Teacher Education Program ATSI Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander BIITE Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education CAPS Christian Aboriginal Parent-directed Schools CDEP Community Development Employment Project CNA Commissioner of Native Affairs (Western Australia) CNW Commissioner of Native Welfare (Western Australia) DAA Department of Aboriginal Affairs (Commonwealth) DCW Department of Community Welfare (Western Australia) DNA Department of Native Affairs (Western Australia) DNW Department of Native Welfare (Western Australia) DSS Department of Social Services (Commonwealth) EGHS Eastern Goldfields High School (Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Western Australia) EGRP Eastern Goldfields Regional Prison (Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Western Australia) GBTI Gnowangerup Bible Translation Institute LLN Language, Literacy and Numeracy LOTE Languages Other Than English MNA Minster of Native Affairs MNW Minister of Native Welfare NLS New Literacy Studies NPYWC Ngaanya*rra Pitjan~a~ara Yankunytjatjara Women's Council NRS National Reporting System 1 NT Northern Territory NTU Ngaanya~arra Council Native Title Unit SA South Australia SAE Standard Australian English SIL Summer Institute of Linguistics UAM United Aborigines Mission UB Unemployment Benefits VET Vocational Education and Training WA Western Australia WADET Western Australian Department of Education and Training

t (Coates et al. 199 5) v Prefate

Chronology

Protectionist policy (Western Australia) 1915-1936 A.O. Neville serves as Chief Protector in the Department of Aborigines 1905-1936 Aborigines Act 1905 CWA). 1921-1953 Rodolphe Schenk is Superintendent of the United Aborigines Mission (UAM) at Mt Margaret. 1934 Moseley Royal Commission. 1934 Warburton Ranges Mission is established by UAM missionaries Will and Iris Wade, and others. 1936 Introduction of the Native Administration Act CWA). 1936-1940 A.O. Neville is Commissioner of the Department of Native Affairs (DNA). 1940-47 F.I. Bray replaces Neville as Commissioner. 1944-1971 Native (Citizenship Rights) Act (Amended 1950 and 1951). 1948-1962 S.G. Middleton is Commissioner of Native Affairs (CNA). 1953 Cosmo Newbery Settlement handed over to the UAM.

Assimilationist policy (Western Australia) 1954 Commisioner Middleton introduces Native We!fare Act CWA) and the Department of Native Affairs (DNA) is renamed the Department of Native Welfare (DNW). 1959 Amendments made to the Commonwealth Soda/ Services Act-child endowment made available to mothers and the pension made available for aged, widowed and invalid people under the care of missions, settlements and cattle stations. 1961 F.E. Gare succeeds Middleton as Commissioner of Native Welfare. 1963 Amendments made to the Native We!fare Act. 1967 Commonwealth constitutional referendum on Aboriginal citizenship question. 1968 Federal Pastoral Industry Award amended and equal wages for Aboriginal pastoral workers sanctioned (government settlements established in the Northern Territory as a consequence).

Self-determination 1971 Tonkin Labor government elected in Western Australia and the functions of the Department of Native Welfare now absorbed by the Department of Community Welfare (DCW). Native (Citizenship Rights) Act repealed. 1972 Aboriginal Affairs Planning Authority Act CWA) introduced. Remaining functions of DCW absorbed by Aboriginal Affairs Planning Authority (AAPA). 1972 Federal Labor party elected under Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. Policy of self­ determination introduced under new commonwealth Department of Aboriginal Affairs (DAA). National Aboriginal Consultative Committee elected by Aborigines Australia-wide. 1973 UAM relinquishes Warburton Ranges Mission to the government. 1974 Commonwealth DAA takes responsibility for most aspects of Aboriginal affairs in Western Australia and becomes the main service provider to remote communities. F.E Gare formerly CNW now Director of DAA in WA (and remaining functions of AAPA at state level). 1975 Federal Liberal party government takes over under Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser 1989 Functions of DAA taken over by the Commonwealth Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSiq. 2004 ATSIC abolished by Liberal Federal government under Prime Minister John Howard.

vi