Introduction: the Sense of Unending. Closing Charlotte Brontë's 'Emma'

Notes

Introduction: The Sense of Unending. Closing Charlotte Brontë’s ‘Emma’

1. Charlotte Brontë, The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, with a Selection of Letters by Family and Friends, ed. Margaret Smith, 3 vols (Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press, 1995–2004), I, p. 319, my italics. From now on indicated as Letters. 2. Philip Rhodes, ‘A Medical Appraisal of the Brontës’, Brontë Society Transactions, 16.82 (1972), p. 107. Winifred Gérin writes that Charlotte’s ‘death certificate made no mention of her pregnancy; it gave “Phthisis” as the sole cause of death, uniting her thus, as if proof of any closer ties were needed, with the sisters and brother who had gone before [...]. Little Dr. Dugdale, barely beginning his long career [...], carried into old age the regret and humiliation of losing his first – and most illustrious – patient. Of all the babies he lost, he used to say, the one that grieved him most was Charlotte Brontë’s’. Charlotte Brontë: The Evolution of Genius (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 566. 3. Lucasta Miller, The Brontë Myth (London: Vintage, 2001), p. 2. 4. See Robert Keffe, Charlotte Brontë’s World of Death (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1979), and John Maynard, Charlotte Brontë and Sexuality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 5. Alfred Tennyson, Tennyson’s Poetry, ed. Robert W. Hill (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999), p. 128. 6. As for Emily Brontë, critics agree that she had probably begun to write a follow-up to Wuthering Heights. This opinion is supported by the presence of a letter (now at the Brontë Parsonage Museum) written by editor T. C. Newby, concerning his ‘great pleasure in making arrangement for [her] next novel’. Then Newby asks Emily ‘not to let it go before the world, until well satisfied with it’. Qtd. in Edward Chitham, The Birth of ‘Wuthering Heights’: Emily Brontë at Work (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), p. 194. Given Charlotte Brontë’s doubts on the moral stance of Emily’s successful first novel and her profound dislike for Newby, many scholars speculate that Charlotte probably destroyed her sister’s manuscript. In this respect, see also Juliet Barker’s The Brontës (London: Abacus, 2010), p. 631. 7. The Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, eds. J. A. V. Chapple and Arthur Pollard (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1966), p. 496. 8. With reference to ‘Emma’, F. B. Pinion writes that ‘[one wonders] how much more Charlotte would have matured as a writer had she lived, and had her unimaginative husband encouraged her to write’. A Brontë Companion (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975), p. 156. In an unpublished letter to Mrs Humphry Ward (dated 28 November 1899), Arthur Bell Nicholls made his position clear as far as his attitudes to Charlotte as a writer were concerned, saying that he ‘never interfered in the slightest degree with her liberty of action’. Qtd. in Winifred Gérin, Charlotte Brontë, p. 554.

148 Notes 149

9. Qtd. in ‘Appendix VI. “Emma”’, in Charlotte Brontë, The Professor, eds. Margaret Smith and Herbert Rosengarten (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), pp. 303–4. The Clarendon edition includes all textual variants and correc- tions to the manuscript of ‘Emma’. A letter written by Charlotte has been the object of much dispute. It describes her ambivalent feelings as a newly- wed: ‘Since I came home I have not had an unemployed moment; my life is changed indeed – to be wanted continually – to be constantly called for and occupied seems so strange; yet it is a marvellously good thing. As yet I don’t quite understand how some wives grow so selfish – As far as my experience of matrimony goes – I think it tends to draw you away from yourself’. Letter to Ellen Nussey, 9 August 1854, in Letters, III, p. 283. 10. As Thackeray wrote in a letter to William Smith Williams dated 23 October 1847, ‘I wish you had not sent me “Jane Eyre”. It interested me so much that I have lost (or won if you like) a whole day in reading it’. Thackeray did also succeed in inferring the sex of Currer Bell, admitting ‘[it] is a woman’s writing, but whose?’. The Letters and Private Papers of W. M. Thackeray, ed. Gordon N. Ray, 4 vols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1943), II, pp. 318–19. 11. ‘The Last Sketch. Emma’, by W. M. Thackeray, in Charlotte Brontë, Unfinished Novels (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1993), p. 97. All further quotations from ‘Emma’ will be referred to this edition. 12. The fragment entitled ‘The Story of Willie Ellin’, divided into five parts and narrated by different narrators, centres on William Ellin, an orphan abused by his violent stepbrother Edward, who lives in Golpit and who has taken possession of the family property (come to him in his mother’s right). Little William Ellin, aged ten, seeks refuge at Ellin Balcony after having run away from Golpin, and asks old Mrs Hill, the solitary housekeeper, to help him. After ‘Willie’ is rescued by his brutal stepbrother, he is first defended by a merchant named Mr Bosas (who sometimes resides at Golpin), and then comforted by a girl aged 17 after he is again beaten by Edward. 13. Sally Shuttleworth, Charlotte Brontë and Victorian Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 70. According to Lyndall Gordon, who reflects on the character of Matilda, ‘we are, again, at the frontier of a new religion. Its indigenous nature is no longer an unprotected and physically maltreated boy but an unprotected and mentally tormented girl [...]. “What” is the crucial word in the whole piece [...]. This is the real question. The true mystery, which of course cannot be answered in a girl’s school concerned only with the question, “Who are you?”, which required a social answer’. Charlotte Brontë: A Passionate Life (London: Vintage, 1995), pp. 289–90. 14. To date, there are countless spurious completions of Dickens’s The Mystery of Edwin Drood, and half a dozen contemporary novels directly or indirectly inspired by it (on this particular aspect, see the beginning of Chapter 1). As for Stevenson, St. Ives was completed by Arthur Quiller Couch and, more recently, by Jenni Calder (see Chapter 3). The BBC1 costume drama Wives and Daughters, broadcast in 1999 (adapted by Andrew Davies, directed by Nick Renton and produced by Sue Birtwistle), is the most famous completion of Gaskell’s last novel. Andrew Davies’s screen version and in particular his conclusion, which features Molly Gibson accepting Roger Hamley’s proposal and joining him in his African expeditions, has been widely acclaimed by literary critics and Gaskellian scholars. In particular, it has been praised as 150 Notes

a respectful rendering of Gaskell’s unfinished work into another semiotic system. See Patsy Stoneman, ‘Wives and Daughters on Television’, The Gaskell Society Journal, 14 (2000), pp. 85–100. 15. Armelle Parey, in her analysis of Boylan’s Emma Brown, defines and classi- fies the novel’s genre as follows: ‘Boylan’s proleptic continuation of Brontë’s unfinished manuscript is a neo-Victorian pastiche. Boylan slips into Brontë’s style and discourse, borrowing from her letters and her published novels, and takes a step aside with them. Relying on other Victorian novels and genres, Boylan goes down paths unvisited by the Victorian novelist in order to shed light on unclear aspects of the area and to revise female portraits while maintaining a tight anchoring in the historical context’ (translated by the author). Armelle Parey, ‘“Will not the leaf be turned some day, and the story be told?”: Emma Brown (2003) de Clare Boylan et Charlotte Brontë, un pastiche néo-victorien’, Conference ‘L’inachevé/The Unfinished’, University of Caen, 9–10 December 2011. 16. Clare Boylan and Charlotte Brontë, Emma Brown (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2005), p. 171. 17. D. A. Miller, Narrative and Its Discontents: Problems of Closure in the Traditional Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. xi, xiv. According to Miller, ‘closure, though it implies resolution, never really resolves the dilemmas raised by the narratable. In essence, closure is an act of “make- believe”, a postulate that closure is possible’, p. 287. 18. Georg Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, transl. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977), pp. 88, 72–3. 19. Peter Brooks, Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative (London and Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 6. 20. Frank Kermode, The Sense of An Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction, with a New Epilogue (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 7, p. 54. In Walter Benjamin’s view, what readers look for in narrative fiction is that very knowledge of death that is denied to them. For Benjamin, ‘[death] is the sanction of everything that the storyteller can tell’. ‘The Storyteller: Reflections on the Works of Likolai Leskov’ (1936), in Illuminations, transl. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), p. 94. Marianna Torgovnick writes that ‘in completing the “circle” of a novel, endings create the illusion of life halted and poised for analysis. Like completed segments of human lives and representations of them, completed stories illuminate and invite examination of human experiences’. Closure in the Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 5. 21. Edward W. Said, Beginnings: Intention and Method, with an Introduction by Michael Wood (London: Granta Books, 1985), p. 84. 22. Henry James, ‘The Art of Fiction’ (1884), in The Art of Criticism: Henry James and the Theory and Practice of Fiction, eds William Veeder and Susan Griffin (Chicago: University Press of Chicago, 1986), p. 168. In his essay entitled ‘Anthony Trollope’ (1883), James criticised Trollope’s use of the intrusive and omniscient narrator. According to James, Trollope ‘took a suicidal satisfaction in reminding the reader that the story he was telling was only, after all, make believe’. Partial Portraits (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1970), pp. 116–17. On the complex relationship between James and Trollope, see Elsie B. Michie, ‘The Odd Couple: Anthony Trollope and Henry James’, The Henry James Review, 2.1 Notes 151

(Winter 2006), pp. 10–23. The other quotations are from Thomas Hardy, The Return of the Native, ed. George Woodcock (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 464; George Eliot, The George Eliot Letters, 5 vols, ed. Gordon S. Haight (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1954–5), II, p. 324; George Eliot, Middlemarch, ed. W. J. Harvey (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 890; and Anthony Trollope, Barchester Towers, ed. John Sutherland (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 266. 23. In an article included in a special issue of Nineteenth-Century Fiction dedicated to narrative endings, J. Hillis Miller reflects on the notion of ending as both ‘tying’ (closing) and ‘untying’ (unravelling) a story, adding that ‘no novel can be unequivocally finished, or for that matter unequivocally unfinished’. ‘The Problematic of Ending in Narrative’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 33.1 (June 1978), p. 7. 24. In D. A. Miller’s view, open-endedness is ‘a blissful moment of release from the tyranny of narrative control’. Narrative and Its Discontents, p. xv. 25. See Sally Bushell, Text as Process: Creative Composition in Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Dickinson (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2009). Reflecting on the implications of the reading process in the case of Romantic fragment poems, Marjorie Levinson concludes that ‘[the] work’s irresolution is experienced as against this ideal integrity and extensive- ness that it presumably could, would, or should have realized. The poem’s irresolution is thus discovered by the reader as a determinate or shaped absence.’ The Romantic Fragment Poem: A Critique of Form (Chapel Hill, NC and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1986), p. 25. 26. Michael Lund provocatively asserts that ‘[studying] the unfinished novels of Thackeray, Dickens, and Trollope suggests that Victorian audiences found their identity (a profound faith in the future) in the process of reading, not in its aftermath. The texts of Victorian novels, with their insistence on ever-expanding horizons, counted on and furthered their readers’ belief in progress’. ‘Literary Pieces and Whole Audiences. Denis Duval, Edwin Drood and The Landleaguers’, Criticism, 28.1 (Winter 1986), p. 43. 27. This study will focus only on those literary works which were left unfinished because of their writers’s death, and not to those fragmented texts and projected stories which were abandoned and never completed when their authors were still alive, such as for instance in Graham Greene’s deliberately unfinished novel Across the Border (published in 1947, but written in 1936), or in the early detective story The Empty Chair, composed in 1926 (when Greene was 22). The same may be also said, for instance, with reference to Charlotte Brontë’s piece entitled Ashworth (written between 1840 and 1841), or to Robert Louis Stevenson’s The Young Chevalier. I am grateful to François Gallix for having introduced me to Greene’s ‘case’. 28. Roland Barthes, ‘The Death of the Author’, in Image, Music, Text, transl. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana Press, 1977), p. 148. 29. Pierre Macherey, A Theory of Literary Production, transl. Geoffrey Wall (London, Henley and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 6. 30. Wolfgang Iser’s reflections on finished textual units may be of use also in the case of unfinished novels, because for Iser the literary works are ‘more than the text, for the text only takes on life when it is realized, and furthermore the realization is by no means independent of the individual disposition of 152 Notes

the reader’. Then, Iser adds that the ‘convergence of text and reader brings the literary work into existence’. Wolfgang Iser, The Implied Reader: Patterns in Communication in Prose Fiction from Bunyan to Beckett (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), p. 274. Norman N. Holland states that ‘all of us, as we read, use the literary work to symbolize and finally to replicate ourselves. We work out through the text our own characteristic patterns of desire and adaptation. We interact with the work, making part of our own psychic economy and making ourselves part of the literary work – as we interpret it’. ‘Unity Identity Text Self’, in Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism, ed. Jane P. Tompkins (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), p. 124. 31. This study is obviously far from exhaustive. We have deliberately decided to include only the most renowned writers whose works were left incomplete during the Victorian age. Being a transitional artist, Henry James represents a literary and cultural trait d’union between Victorianism and Modernism: The Sense of The Past was originally begun in 1900 and left unfinished when the First World War had just started. To give an example, we have excluded great, albeit incomplete, novels such as George Meredith’s Celt and Saxon, published in 1913. 32. Martha C. Nussbaum, Poetic Justice: The Literary Imagination and Public Life (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004), p. 5.

1 Becoming Ladies and Gentlemen in W. M. Thackeray’s Denis Duval and Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters

1. Unsigned review of Wives and Daughters, The Saturday Review (24 March 1866), pp. 360–1. 2. ‘In arguing for the education and independence of middle-class men and women, the Cornhill professed the tenets of a progressive kind of domesticity. For the Cornhill, men and women needed to be strong, intelligent, and rational in order to be fully capable of grappling with the changes of the mid- nineteenth century’. Lindsay Lawrence, ‘Gender Play “At Our Social Table”: The New Domesticity in the Cornhill and Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters’, The Gaskell Society Journal, 20 (2008), p. 27. See also Andrew Sanders, ‘Serializing Gaskell: from Household Words to The Cornhill’, The Gaskell Society Journal, 14 (2000), pp. 45–58. For a detailed analysis on the role of the Cornhill in the Victorian editorial market, see Richard D. Altick, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), in particular, pp. 356–9. 3. In a letter to Greenwood dated 5 May 1855, Gaskell writes that she is ‘surprised at Mr. Thackeray never writing to Mr. Brontë. I wrote myself to tell him of her death; I have never heard from him in the acknowledgement, and I thought that he might not have received my note. But he must have learnt of her death through the public papers’. The Letters of Mrs Gaskell, eds. J. A. V. Chapple and Arthur Pollard (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1966), p. 239. In truth, there are documents attesting the existence of a letter written by Thackeray to Patrick Brontë. On the relationship between Gaskell and Thackeray, see Winifred Gérin, Elizabeth Gaskell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), pp. 248–50, Notes 153

and Jenny Uglow, Elizabeth Gaskell: A Habit of Stories (London and New York: Faber and Faber, 1999), p. 305, p. 460. 4. Gordon N. Ray, Thackeray: The Age of Wisdom 1847–1863 (New York: McGraw- Hill, 1958), p. 291. As for Thackeray’s relationship with the nineteenth- century publishing market, see Peter L. Shillingsburg, Pegasus in Harness: Victorian Publishing and W. M. Thackeray (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 1992). Richard Pearson writes that ‘Thackeray’s redefining of a new authorial identity for himself in the Cornhill Magazine was a complex one. It involved a sense of the cultural psychology of authorship: the contemporary meaning of what it was to be a writer. But it also involved a re-examination of the author’s own past, his life and career, and the continu- ing authorial persona built up across the decades in the magazines and serial novels’. W. M. Thackeray and the Mediated Text: Writing for the Periodicals in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), p. 210. 5. For Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, the English middle class ‘was being forged at a time of exceptional turmoil and threatening economic and political disorder’. Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1780–1850, revised edition (London and New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 30. 6. William Makepeace Thackeray, The History of Henry Esmond, ed. by John Sutherland and Michael Greenfield, with an Introduction and Notes by John Sutherland (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 45–6. 7. John Sutherland, ‘The Genesis of Thackeray’s Denis Duval’, The Review of English Studies, 37.146 (May 1986), p. 232. Here is Thackeray’s description of the British Library in ‘Nil Nisi Bonum’: ‘What peace, what love, what truth, what beauty, what happiness for all; what generous kindness for you and for me are here spread out! It seems to me one cannot sit down in that place without a heart of grateful reverence. I own to have said my grace at the table, and to have thanked Heaven for this my English birthright, freely to partake of these bountiful books, and to speak of the truth I find there’. ‘Nil Nisi Bonum’, in The Wolves and the Lamb. Lovel the Widower, Denis Duval. Roundabout Papers, ed. with an Introduction by George Saintsbury, with 60 Illustrations (London: Oxford University Press, [n.d.]), p. 431. Further references to Denis Duval and The Roundabout Papers will be from this edition. 8. Robin Gilmour, The Idea of the Gentleman in the Victorian Novel (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981), p. 39. In The English Gentleman: The Rise and Fall of an Ideal (London: Pimlico, 1993), Philip Mason underlines the importance of the ‘knightly code’ in creating the background for the Victorian ideal of the literary gentleman (exemplified in the works of Trollope and Thackeray) as a moral, social and political ruler. 9. ‘Riches and rank have no necessary connection with genuine gentlemanly qualities. The poor man may be a gentleman – in spirit and in daily life. He may be honest, truthful, upright, polite, temperate, courageous, self-respect- ing – that is, to be a true gentleman’. Samuel Smiles, ‘The True Gentleman’, in Self-Help, with Illustrations of Conduct and Perseverance (London: John Murray, 1887), pp. 399–400. Raffaella Antinucci argues that ‘[with] the overturning of the old conventions of respectability based on social stand- ing, [the gentleman] made up for social ambiguity by setting himself up as a model of impeccable moral conduct and providing a reassuring anchor in the murky waters of aristocratic and bourgeois indefiniteness’. Sulle orme 154 Notes

del gentiluomo: percorsi letterari ed ‘episteme’ vittoriana (Rome: Aracne, 2009), p. 55; translated by the author. 10. William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero, ed. John Sutherland (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 792. 11. It is Denis’s strong and assertive mother Ursule who in fact spurs him to become a gentleman and to rise in the social ladder: ‘My mother was averse, too, my becoming a seaman (a smuggler) by profession. Her aim was to make a gentleman of me, she said, and I am almost unfeignedly thankful to her for keeping me out of mischief’s way […]. My mother said I should go like a gentleman, and turned me out in a red waistcoat with plate buttons, a cock to my hat, and ruffles to my shirt’ (270). 12. Robert A. Colby, Thackeray’s Canvass of Humanity: An Author and His Public (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1979), p. 427. 13. ‘De la Motte is a Byronic figure, grand but flawed, capable of great generos- ity but also of great error. Finding him both appealing and repellent, Duval partially excuses de la Motte as a doomed man’. John R. Reed, Dickens and Thackeray: Punishment and Forgiveness (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1995), p. 466. 14. John A. Lester retraces the similarities and differences between Thackeray and Dumas: ‘Thackeray’s avoidance of violent, dramatic action is seen even more strikingly in his treatment of duels. With a novelist like Dumas, whom Thackeray so much admired, the duel is a climax of the story. With Thackeray more than a dozen duels are fought or threatened in his novels. They are almost never presented scenically’. ‘Thackeray’s Narrative Technique’, PMLA, 63.3 (June 1954), p. 403. Duels are included in Barry Lyndon (Chapter II; although this is a ‘fake’ duel), Vanity Fair (Chapter LV), The History of Henry Esmond (Book 1, Chapter XIV; Book 2, Chapter XV; Book 3, Chapter VI) and The Virginians (Chapter IX). 15. In Charlotte Brontë’s first novel The Professor – rejected by Smith, Co. & Elder and published posthumously in 1857 – unhappy marriages are similarly compared to a form of slavery. Frances tells Crimsworth that ‘if a wife’s nature loathes that of the man she is wedded to, marriage must be slavery’. Charlotte Brontë, The Professor: A Tale (Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz, 1857), p. 343. 16. ‘Isabella’s spectre – whether deliberately introduced or only tacitly admitted – hangs over the rest of Thackeray’s life and work. The madwoman in Denis Duval who throws her baby into the sea has an obvious connection to the pale-faced girl dragging her little daughter along the sands of Margate in 1840’. D. J. Taylor, Thackeray (London: Pimlico, 2000), p. 233. See also Catherine Peters, Thackeray: A Writer’s Life (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1999), p. 90. 17. The Letters and Private Papers of William Makepeace Thackeray, ed. Gordon N. Ray, 4 volumes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1946), IV, pp. 292–4. These letters were included by editor Frederick Greenwood in his ‘Notes on Denis Duval’, The Cornhill Magazine, 9 (1864), p. 657. 18. ‘I think of the immense happiness which was in store for me, and of the depth and intensity of that love which, for so many years, hath blessed me, I own to a transport of wonder and gratitude for such a boon – nay, am thankful to have been endowed with a heart capable of feeling and knowing the immense beauty and value of the gift which God hath bestowed upon me. Sure, love vincit omnia; is immeasurably above all ambition, more Notes 155

precious than wealth, more noble than name’. Thackeray, The History of Henry Esmond, p. 512. 19. John A. Lester, ‘Thackeray’s Narrative Technique’, pp. 393–400. 20. Thackeray, Vanity Fair, pp. 300–1, my italics. 21. Notice here the use of the nostalgic expression ‘before railways were made’, which will be also included in Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters. 22. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘A Gossip on Romance’, Longman’s Magazine, 1.1 (November 1882), p. 69. After having praised Walter Scott’s fiction in ‘De Juventute’, Thackeray describes his novel Denis Duval in the following terms: ‘If the gods would give me the desire of my heart, I should be able to write a story which boys would relish for the next few dozen of centuries […]. I meet people now who don’t care for Walter Scott, or the Arabian Nights; I am sorry for them, unless they in their time have found their romancer – their charming Scheherazade’. ‘De Juventute’, p. 431. In another Roundabout Paper, he juxta- poses Alexander Dumas’s creativity with his proverbial idleness: ‘Alexander Dumas describes himself, when inventing the plot of a work, as lying silent on his back for two whole days on the deck of a yacht in a Mediterranean port […]. In those two days he had built his plot. He had moulded a mighty clay, to be cast presently in perennial brass […]. My Pegasus won’t fly, so as to let me survey the field below me. He has no wings, he is blind on one eye certainly, he is restive, stubborn, slow’. ‘De Finibus’, p. 596. 23. Michael Lund, Reading Thackeray (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988), p. 15. Lund asserts that Victorian readers experienced the unfinished novels left by Thackeray, Dickens and Trollope as ‘complete pieces’, since they were used to reading them not as complete works but serialised in pieces and bits: ‘Because they were accustomed to fragments (individual monthly or weekly instalments) within the major publication format of their times, Victorians found the parts of Duval, Drood, and The Landleaguers significant literary works even though their full stories would never appear. For Victorians, to read Thackeray’s Denis Duval, then, meant to engage each of its parts in Cornhill Magazine within a context which assumed that fragments were naturally elements of an entire design, a design so accepted it need not actually be seen’. Lund, Reading Thackeray, pp. 15–16. 24. William Makepeace Thackeray, The Adventures of Philip (Oxford: Humphrey Mitford, 1908), p. 648. 25. Frederick Greenwood, ‘Notes on Denis Duval’, in Thackeray, The Wolves and the Lamb: Lovel the Widower, Denis Duval. Roundabout Papers, p. 332. 26. Frederick Greenwood, in Elizabeth Gaskell, Wives and Daughters, ed. with an Introduction by Angus Easson (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 682, 688. All further quotations will be from this edition, with pages parenthetically given. Linda K. Hughes and Michael Lund reflect on Greenwood’s different approach in writing his final notes on Denis Duval and Wives and Daughters, arguing that ‘[ironically], the same voice sustain- ing Thackeray’s creative energy took over Elizabeth Gaskell’s novel at its conclusion, and for the same reason – the author’s untimely death […]. Greenwood’s conclusion to an author’s text begins [in Gaskell] much less confidently than it had with Thackeray’s work, which may indicate the role of gender, since in Greenwood’s remarks on Gaskell the continuum between the bodily Thackeray and the body of his works shifts to a careful separation 156 Notes

of authorial production from the female body’. Victorian Publishing and Mrs. Gaskell’s Work (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 1999), pp. 13–14. 27. Lord David Cecil, Early Victorian Novelists: Essays in Revaluation (London: Constable, 1934), pp. 197–8. Henry James writes that ‘Mrs. Gaskell’s genius was so very composite as a quality, it was so obviously the offspring of her affectations, her feelings, her associations and (considering that, after all, it was genius) was so little of an intellectual matter’. Unsigned review of Wives and Daughters, The Nation (22 February 1866), p. 246. 28. The Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, p. 108. 29. ‘Just as many fairy tales suggest rites of passage or initiation tests by which girls and boys become men and women, so Wives and Daughters begins with motherless Molly Gibson at the age of 12 (the conventional age for puberty)’. Patsy Stoneman, Elizabeth Gaskell (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1987), p. 172. 30. The famous opening paragraph of Cranford is an example of Gaskell’s association of the far and exotic with the homely: ‘In the first place, Cranford is in possession of the Amazons; all the holders of houses above a certain rent are women’. Elizabeth Gaskell, Cranford, ed. Elizabeth Porges Watson, with a new Introduction and Notes by Charlotte Mitchell (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 1. 31. Dr Gibson’s sense of protection leads him to face Mr Coxe’s infatuation with harshness and to consider young men as ‘wolves in chase of his one ewe- lamb’. (55) Gibson goes as far as to keep Molly partially ignorant in order to make a ‘good wife’ of her in the future, as this dialogue with Molly’s first governess Miss Eyre indicates: ‘Don’t teach Molly too much: she must sew, and read, and write, and do her sums; but I want to keep her a child, and if I find more learning desirable for her, I’ll see about giving it to her myself. After all, I am not sure that reading or writing is necessary. Many a good woman gets married with only a cross instead of her name; it’s rather a dilut- ing of mother-wit, to my fancy; but, however we must yield to the prejudices of society, Miss Eyre, and so you may teach the child to read’ (32). 32. As Carrie Wasinger puts it ‘[although] the novel treats the fairytale as a narrative structure that drives towards conjugal conclusion, Wives and Daughters, like “Curious, if True”, still leaves room for resistance’, and ‘Molly’s reluctance to embed herself in fairytale conventions resists the novel’s seemingly predetermined matrimonial […] conclusion’. ‘That “Old Rigmarole of Childhood”: Fairy Tales and Socialization in Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters’, Studies in The Novel, 3 (Fall 2008), p. 270. The short story ‘Curious, if True’ (the first literary piece to be published by Gaskell in the Cornhill in 1862) represents her more extended and provocative use of the fairy-tale tradition. Told in the first person, it is the story of archivist Richard Whittingham, who visits Tours in search of a proof of his descent from Calvin’s sister. After he gets lost, he finds himself in a strange party surrounded by caricatures of fairy-tale creatures (from Puss-in-Boots to Cinderella and the Sleeping Beauty), and is mistaken for someone else by them. Like Molly, Richard finds himself ‘out of place’ with these creatures. See Elizabeth Gaskell, ‘Curious, if True’, in Curious, If True: Strange Tales by Mrs. Gaskell, ed. Jenny Uglow (London: Virago, 1995). Notes 157

33. Francesco Marroni, La fabbrica nella valle. Saggio sulla narrativa di Elizabeth Gaskell (Bari: Adriatica, 1987), p. 206; translated by the author. 34. Wives and Daughters draws inspiration from Gaskell’s life, in particular from her childhood. The relationship between Gaskell and her stepmother Catherine Thompson, for instance, was a very difficult one, as this letter to Mary Howitt testifies: ‘Long ago I lived in Chelsea occasionally with my father and stepmother, and very, very unhappy I used to be […], and if it had not been for the beautiful, grand river, which was an inexplicable comfort to me, and a family of the name of Kennet, I think my child’s heart would have broken’. The Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, pp. 797–8. Another biographical episode is probably included in the reference to the scarlet fever of little Roger Hamley (the son of Osborne and Aimée), since Gaskell’s only male child William died of it in 1845. In talking to Molly, Dr Gibson says that ‘[if] there is one illness I dread, it is this’ (674). 35. According to Jacqueline Berke and Laure Berke, Wives and Daughters ‘gives us […] a myriad of mothers: old and young, rich and poor, aristocratic and humble, natural and adoptive, strong and weak, English and French, caring and uncaring’. ‘Mothers and Daughters in Wives and Daughters. A Study of Elizabeth Gaskell’s Last Novel’, in The Lost Tradition: Mothers and Daughters in Literature, eds. Cathy N. Davidson and E. M. Broner (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1980), p. 101. On the figure of the mother in Gaskell’s novel, see also Laurie Buchnan, ‘Mothers and Daughters in Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters: In a Woman’s World’, The Midwest Quarterly, 31.4 (Summer 1990), pp. 499–513. 36. Jenny Uglow, Elizabeth Gaskell: A Habit of Stories, p. 25. According to Hilary Schor, Wives and Daughters was ‘her most self-conscious revision of a marriage plot’. Sheherezade in the Marketplace: Elizabeth Gaskell and the Victorian Novel (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 6. 37. Qtd. in Elizabeth Gaskell: The Critical Heritage, ed. Angus Easson (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), pp. 468, 471. Despite these critical views, Wives and Daughters includes terms and expressions usually employed in sensational narrations: there are 56 occurrences of the word ‘secret’ (either as a noun or as an adjective), and 34 occurrences of ‘mystery’ in its various declinations. 38. ‘Wives and Daughters does, to some extent, portrait a world where the strongest prosper and the weakest perish, with no evidence of a caring “providence” […]. Yet the novel remains a Bildungsroman. Never a dogmatist, Elizabeth Gaskell counterbalances the impression of amoral determinism through Molly’s development, the central focus of the narrative. Molly’s progress, both intellectual and moral, strengthens her, making her increasingly well adapted to survive’. Mary Debrabant, ‘Birds, Bees and Darwinian Survival Strategies in Wives and Daughters’, The Gaskell Society Journal, 16 (2002), p. 27. 39. ‘The novel makes clear that Cynthia’s impeccable taste in dress forms the foundation of her “charm”, which promises to secure for her an eligible husband […]. And Roger falls in love first not with the “real” angel, Molly, but with the apparent one, Cynthia, she of exquisite taste. Indeed, Roger never loves Molly until she has acquired her stepsister’s charms. Together, Cynthia and Mrs. Gibson give Molly social currency’. Elizabeth Langland, Nobody’s 158 Notes

Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 139. 40. Joellen Masters underlines Aimée’s importance in the novel, because ‘[in] forcefully writing her way into the story as she does, Aimée, Osborne Hamley’s wife, makes a two-fold impact that trumps the power of those wives before her. Aimée suggests an edgier and confident authorial energy that seeks a departure from the nineteenth-century novel’s focus on a familial harmony dependent on the construct of the middle-class domestic angel’. ‘“Nothing More” and “Nothing Definite”: First Wives in Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters (1866)’, Journal of Narrative Theory, 34.1 (Winter 2004), p. 3. 41. Despite Molly’s deep rooting in the village, ‘her customary condition throughout the novel is being out of place, as when she first visits the Towers as a child; when her father’s remarriage destroys their intimate relationship and leaves her no clear-cut role in the household […]; and when she meets Preston in order to help extricate Cynthia from an unfortunate engage- ment and ends up being ostracized by acquaintances as a scandalous flirt’. Linda K. Hughes, ‘Cousin Phillis, Wives and Daughters, and Modernity’, in The Cambridge Companion to Elizabeth Gaskell, ed. Jill L. Matus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 103. 42. Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, ed. Sally Shuttleworth (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 157, 164. 43. The Letters of Mrs. Gaskell, p. 645, my italics. Elizabeth Langland writes that ‘[in] the nineteenth century, middle-class women were writing both within the domestic sphere and about it, shaping through their representations the context that was simultaneously enabling and disabling their own literary effort’. Elizabeth Langland, ‘Women’s Writing and the Domestic Sphere’, in Women and Literature in Britain 1800–1900, ed. Joanne Shattock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 119. 44. Franco Moretti, The Way of the World: The ‘Bildungsroman’ in European Culture (London and New York: Verso, 2000), p. 15. 45. For Linda Hughes and Michael Lund, the incompleteness of Wives and Daughters ‘is in some way fitting. Molly is left forever virginal, her fate unconsummated and open to multiple possibilities’. Hughes and Lund, Victorian Publishing and Mrs. Gaskell’s Work, p. 34. According to Carrie Wasinger, who also reflects on the novel’s incompleteness, ‘this “nonending” offers a better conclusion to Molly’s story than the ideal union that readers and the Cornhill editor fantasized about. Molly unmarried remains Molly not-yet-fully-socialized, still on the threshold of adult sexuality, still unmarked by her husband’s name, still autonomous’. ‘That “Old Rigmarole of Childhood”: Fairy Tales and Socialization in Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives and Daughters’, pp. 281–2. 46. Qtd. from D. J. Taylor, Thackeray, p. 444. Anne Thackeray/Lady Richie describes Elizabeth Gaskell as a person whose ‘delicate enunciation’ was ‘singularly clear and cultivated, a harmonious note moved by a laugh now and then, and restrained by a certain shyness, that shyness which belongs to sensitive people who feel what other are feeling almost too quickly, and are at times suddenly hindered by the vibration’. Anne Thackeray Richie, ‘Mrs. Gaskell’, in Blackstick Papers (London and New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), pp. 214–15. Notes 159

2 The Mystery of Edwin Drood and the Decomposition of Forms

1. The Mystery of Edwin Drood was published in six monthly parts by Chapman and Hall in London in 1870. Of the planned instalments originally contracted, only half made it into print: the first three when Dickens was still alive (from April to June 1870), the others posthumously (from July to September 1870). All further references and quotations will be from the following edition: Charles Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, ed. with an Introduction and Notes by David Paroissien (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2002). 2. For a detailed account of late-Victorian continuations and solutions to Dickens’s novel, see J. Cuming Walters, The Complete Mystery of Edwin Drood (London: Chapman and Hall, 1912), in particular, pp. 213–28. 3. Produced by famous musical impresario Joseph Papp, Drood mixes Dickens’s novel (from which it derives the main plot) and late-nineteenth-century pantomimes. The piece also introduces typical music hall characters such as ‘The Chairman’, who is a sort of instigator to the characters’ actions on stage. In effect, Drood is a metadramatic play-within-the play, because it deals with a group of music hall performers playing Dickens’s characters, and because it gives the audience the opportunity to choose each time a different ending (and therefore to solve the mystery in a different way). During a break in the show the audience has to choose and vote on the presumed killer of Edwin Drood, on the real identity of Datchery and on the couple who will be involved in the romantic happy ending. Apart from Jasper as the obvious candidate, the musical proposes other suspects and clues to the solution, to the point that among the eventual murderers Drood includes Princess Puffer, Neville Landless and his sister, Revered Crisparkle, Durdles and even Rosa Bud, who confesses to having killed Edwin by accident because he was wear- ing Jasper’s coat. More recently, BBC Two has broadcast a two-part TV drama based on The Mystery of Edwin Drood in 2012, written by Gwyneth Hughes, and starring Tamzin Merchant as Rosa, Freddie Fox as Edwin, and Matthew Rhys as Jasper. 4. D. A. Miller, Narrative and Its Discontents: Problems of Closure in the Traditional Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 281. 5. According to Jane R. Cohen, ‘[the] tantalizing questions provoked by the incomplete narrative [...] could never be resolved by the text. Frustrated readers, then as now, turned particularly to Collins’s wrapper design and his initial sketch for its clues, giving it unexpected fame [...]. Despite their elaborate efforts, however, the unfinished Mystery remains a mystery’. Charles Dickens and His Illustrators (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1980), p. 212. As David Paroissien argues, ‘[for] each of his novels published in monthly instalments cover designs were executed by artists acting on instructions from Dickens [...]. Their mission, they were told, was to shadow forth the trajectory of the story by hinting at the book’s themes and con- tents. Working from information supplied by Dickens, sometimes by letter but often orally, the artists were challenged to find ways to render in visual terms a book’s substance without revealing too many details of its plot’. ‘Appendix 3: The Illustrations’, in Charles Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, p. 294. 160 Notes

6. W. Robertson Nicoll, The Problem of ‘Edwin Drood’. A Study in the Methods of Dickens (New York and London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1912), p. 3. 7. In Arthur J. Cox’s opinion, ‘[notes] are not mere adjuncts, clinging para- sitically to the body of the novel, but are collateral extensions of the same overall purpose’. These notes ‘do not preserve the author’s secrets by passive concealment but actively aid and abet’, and are ‘mysterious in and of themselves’. ‘The Drood Remains Revisited: the Monthly Plans (Part Two)’, Dickens Quarterly, 27.3 (September 2010), p. 217. 8. John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens, with Illustrations (London: Chapman and Hall, n.d.), p. 563 (first edn 1872). Forster’s chapter entitled ‘Dickens as a Novelist’ (which includes this undated letter by Dickens) focuses on M. Henri Taine’s ‘inability to appreciate [Dickens’s] humour’ and to his comparison of Dickens’s imagination with that of a ‘monomaniac’. Forster also blames G. H. Lewes’s definitions of Dickens as a ‘stagy sentimentalist’ and ‘clever caricaturist’ included in Lewes’s essay ‘Dickens in Relation to Criticism’, published in the Fortnightly Review on February 1872 (pp. 553–4). 9. In her memoirs, Kate Perugini writes that ‘it was [not] upon the Mystery alone that [my father] relied for the interest and originality of the idea’, and that its originality ‘was to be shown [...] in what we may call the psycho- logical description the murderer gives of his temptations, temperament, and character, as if told by another’. She adds that Dickens was ‘deeply fascinated by and absorbed in the study of the criminal Jasper, as in the dark and sin- ister crime that has given the book its title’. ‘Edwin Drood, and the Last Days of Charles Dickens’, Pall Mall Magazine (June 1906), pp. 643–54. 10. Steven Connor, ‘Dead? Or Alive? Edwin Drood and the Work of Mourning’, The Dickensian, 430, 89.2 (Summer 1993), pp. 85–6. In Toni Cerutti’s opinion, ‘[the] ending of most Dickensian novels is more apparent than real, or rather it relates to a closure rather than a formal end [...]. It is no wonder that so many unfinished compositions enjoyed a success comparable to that of finished stories: The Mystery of Edwin Drood, like Wives and Daughters, are by their very nature unfinished as most Victorian novels are not. Yet, because of their loose structure they could go on much longer than they do or stop much earlier without losing much of their intrinsic aesthetic value’. ‘Authorship and Editorship in Dickens’s Art and Craft’, in Dickens: The Craft of Fiction and the Challenges of Reading, eds. Rossana Bonadei, Clotilde De Stasio, Carlo Pagetti, and Alessandro Vescovi (Milano: Unicopli, 2000), p. 61. 11. George Eliot, Adam Bede, ed. with an Introduction by Stephen Gill (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 223, my italics. 12. Marianna Torgovnick, Closure in the Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 4. 13. Gerhard Joseph, ‘Who Cares Who Killed Edwin Drood? Or, on the Whole, I’d Rather Be in Philadelphia’, Nineteenth-Century Literature, 51.2 (September 1996), p. 170. According to Dickens’s original numbering, the last chapter is the 22nd. The chapter numbers rose to 23 after Dickens’s death, because of John Forster’s inclusion of a further chapter entitled ‘A Recognition’ (hence Gerhard Joseph’s reference to the last chapter as number 22). 14. For a definition of the term ‘chronotope’, see Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, transl. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981). Notes 161

15. For Nancy Aycock Metz, ‘although in some very specific ways the urban landscape appears to show signs of new life and health in this last novel [...], there is a sense throughout that the city as an organism is rapidly disin- tegrating [...]. Yet for all the despair such a vision of society would seem to imply, Our Mutual Friend is a remarkably quiet, self-reflexive, even peaceful book’. ‘The Artistic Reclamation of Waste in Our Mutual Friend’, Nineteenth- Century Fiction, 34.1 (June 1979), pp. 59–60. 16. ‘Wilkie Collins’s detective stories fit the pattern [of the classic detective novel], while The Mystery of Edwin Drood, even in its fragmentary form, promises to be much more unsettling, questioning, as it was, the Victorian ideals of perfectibility, of the goodness of human nature, of the power of reason, and of the adequacy of literary forms to contain experience’. Donatella Abbate Badin, ‘Dickens’s The Mystery of Edwin Drood and Fruttero & Lucentini’s Attempt to Complete It’, in Dickens: The Craft of Fiction and the Challenges of Reading, p. 324. 17. ‘Jasper starts out knowing his dark plot but becomes dissociated from knowledge of it; he will thus never come to the same startling conclusion as Franklin Blake [...]. The point is that Jasper develops a divided consciousness as a result of the crime, not that he commits the crime in or because of a state of dual consciousness’. Jill M. Matus, Shock, Memory and the Unconscious in Victorian Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 118–19. 18. ‘Edwin Drood contains a number of recognisably Collinsian elements [...]. Like The Moonstone, it is a mystery with an Eastern motif, a missing jewel, and a plot that turns on opium addiction [...]. Both focus on a character who enters a hidden state of consciousness, though John Jasper’s trances are self- induced whereas Franklin Blake’s are the result of a doctor’s experiment’. Sue Lonoff, ‘Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 35.2 (September 1980), pp. 163–4. In Hidden Rivalries in Victorian Fiction: Dickens, Realism and Revaluation (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1987), Jerome Meckier underlines that in The Mystery of Edwin Drood Dickens ‘reexamines The Moonstone’s ray of hope: he disagrees that sexual frustra- tion in modern society, and the hypocrisy it leads to, can be separated from other causes of duplicity and overcome simply through greater frankness’ (pp. 159–60). For another analysis of Collins’s influence, see William M. Burgan, ‘Masonic Symbolism in The Moonstone and The Mystery of Edwin Drood’, in Wilkie Collins to the Forefront: Some Reassessments, eds. Nelson Smith and R. C. Terry (New York: AMS Press, 1995), pp. 101–48. 19. In his personal comments on John Forster’s Life of Dickens (in the section in which Forster compared The Mystery of Edwin Drood with Oliver Twist), Wilkie Collins expressed his negative opinion on the last unfinished work written by his former mentor and friend: ‘[It] was cruel to compare Dickens in the radiant prime of his genius with Dickens’s last laboured effort, the melancholy work of a worn-out brain’. Qtd. in Catherine Peters, The King of Inventors: A Life of Wilkie Collins (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 352. In turn, Dickens was not generous in his opinions on Collins’s The Moonstone, and in a letter dated 27 July 1868 he wrote that ‘its construction is wearisome beyond endurance, and there is a vein of obstinate conceit in it that makes enemies of readers’. The Letters of Charles Dickens, vol. XII, 162 Notes

1868–1870, ed. Graham Storey, associate ed. Margaret Brown, consultant ed. Kathleen Tillotson (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 159. 20. ‘[In] being, and deeply, self-consciously divided between fiction and narrative, [Dickens’s] novels are of formative importance in the expression of what is essentially a “modern”, post-Biblical, and potentially post-Darwinian position’. Graham Daldry, Charles Dickens and the Form of the Novel (Totowa: Barnes & Noble, 1987), p. 6. 21. Many critics have applied the category of ‘interior monologue’ to Dickens’s style in the opening section. See, in this respect, Kathleen Wales, ‘Dickens and Interior Monologue: The Opening of Edwin Drood Reconsidered’, Language and Style, 7.3 (Summer 1984), pp. 234–50. In Andrew Sanders’s opinion, in The Mystery of Edwin Drood ‘we seem at lost. We are entering a consciousness, but unlike David Copperfield’s or Pip’s, it is a confused, irrational, dreaming consciousness which is hovering around seemingly dissociated fragments of time and place’. Charles Dickens Resurrectionist (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 207–8. 22. ‘Dickens understood the necessary contradiction in the idea of human omniscience but he also saw that they could be used as a tool, a means of exploring the interaction between the apparently limitless metropolis and the limited human mind. Omniscience became for him not only an assured narrative convention but a perilous adventure’. Richard Maxwell, ‘Dickens’s Omniscience’, ELH, 46.2 (1979), p. 290. 23. In David Faulkner’s view, Crisparkle and Jasper are examples of ‘doubling’, since ‘the two characters correspond at nearly every point. The name “Crisparkle” suggests only a less opaque form of crystal evoked by “Jasper” […]. Crisparkle is “boy-like”, whereas Jaspers “looks older than he is” […]. Yet even within this apparently polarized distribution, they converge on certain points. Like the choirmaster, Crisparkle is also “musical”’. ‘The Confidence Man: Empire and the Deconstruction of Muscular Christianity in The Mystery of Edwin Drood’, in Muscular Christianity: Embodying the Victorian Age, ed. Donald E. Hall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 175, p. 182. 24. In his introduction of Dick Datchery, Dickens suggests that the identity of this character is not what it appears to be: ‘This gentleman’s white head was unusually large, and his shock of white hair was unusually thick and ample. “I suppose, waiter,” he said, shaking his shock of hair, as a Newfoundland dog might shake his before sitting down to dinner, “that a fair lodging for a single buffer might be found in these parts, eh?” The waiter had no doubt of it. “Something old,” said the gentleman. “Take my hat down for a moment from that peg, will you? No, I don’t want it; look into it. What do you see written there?”’ (202). 25. Charles Dickens, Great Expectations (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1994), p. 5. 26. No Thoroughfare (1867), the short story and drama Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins wrote together, includes a similar reference to a ‘film’ that alters the characters’ perception of the world. The novel’s villain Obenreizer, ‘a black-haired young man of a dark complexion, through whose swarthy skin no red glow ever shone’, shares many traits with John Jasper, and represents a preamble to the latter’s characterisation. Like Jasper’s, Obenreizer’s Notes 163

eyes perceive the world through ‘a certain nameless film’. Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins, No Thoroughfare (Charlestone: Bibliobazaar, 2007), p. 38. The stage play entitled No Thoroughfare: A Drama: In Five Acts opened at the Adelphi Theatre on 26 December 1867, and was based upon the story published in the Extra Christmas number of All the Year Round on 12 December 1867. Collins collaborated in particular in writing ‘Act 1’ and ‘Act 4’ (chapters were named after drama acts), and Dickens assisted Collins in preparing the stage version. For an analysis of the connections between The Mystery of Edwin Drood, No Thoroughfare and The Moonstone, see Michael Hollington, ‘“To the Droodstone”: Or, from The Moonstone to Edwin Drood via No Thoroughfare’, Q/W/E/R/T/Y, 5 (1995), pp. 141–9. 27. In telling Elena Landless her story, Rosa confirms the impression that Jasper exerts a form of mesmeric power on her: ‘He terrifies me. He haunts my thoughts, like a dreadful ghost. I feel that I am never safe from him. I feel as if he could pass in through the wall when he is spoken of […]. He has made a slave of me with his looks. He has forced me to understand him, without his saying a word; and he has forced me to keep silence, without his uttering a threat’ (70–1). 28. Cloisterham is identified with Rochester, in which Dickens spent his childhood (his father stationed in Chatham from 1817 to 1823) and in which he desired to be buried. According to his original will, Dickens wanted to lie in a small graveyard under Rochester Castle walls. After some discussions, the Dean of the ‘old Cathedral town’ had to reconcile Dickens’s personal wishes with his public role as the most famous Victorian novelist, and therefore conceded that his body would be buried in Westminster Abbey. Wendy S. Jacobson’s The Companion to The Mystery of Edwin Drood (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986) offers a detailed analysis of the novel’s setting. 29. Some pages later, Jasper will show Mr Crisparkle his diary in another useless attempt to accomplish his plot: ‘A day or two afterwards, while unrobing, he took his Diary from a pocket of his coat, turned the leaves, and with an impressive look, and without one spoken word, handed this entry to Mr. Crisparkle to read: “My dear boy is murdered. The discovery of the watch and shirt-pin convinces me that he was murdered that night, and that his jewellery was taken from him to prevent identification by its means. All the delusive hopes I had founded on his separation from his betrothed wife, I give to the winds. They perish before this fatal discovery. I now swear, and record the oath on this page, That I nevermore will discuss this mystery with any human creature until I hold the clue to it in my hand”’ (186). 30. As Robert Tracy argues, ‘John Jasper’s art is music, but he is also inventing a plot and writing a book about a murder that has not yet taken place. As a character in The Mystery of Edwin Drood, he is writing a variorum version of the novel in which he appears, attempting to control its plot and define some of its characters’. ‘Jasper’s Plot: Inventing The Mystery of Edwin Drood’, Dickens Quarterly, 23.1 (March 2006), p. 29. 31. Charles Dickens, Hard Times, ed. with an Introduction and Notes by Kate Flint (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995), p. 74, my italics. 32. Susan K. Gillman and Robert L. Pattern, ‘Dickens: Doubles: Twain: Twins’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 39.4 (March 1985), p. 448. According to Edmund Wilson, in The Mystery of Edwin Drood Dickens explores ‘the deep 164 Notes

entanglement and conflict of the bad and the good in one man. The subject of Edwin Drood is the subject of Poe’s William Wilson, the subject of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, the subject of Dorian Gray’. The Wound and the Bow (London: Methuen, 1961), pp. 88–9. Juliet John asserts that Jasper ‘personifies the duality and corruption inherent in Victorian ideas of both respectability and Englishness. Dickens is commonly associated with the idea of “Englishness” which the claustrophobically cloistered town of Cloisterham appears to uphold’. Dickens’s Villains: Melodrama, Character, Popular Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 237. 33. In his notes to the number plans, Dickens alludes to her duplicity in the following note: ‘Miss Twinkleton and her double existence’. See ‘Appendix 2’, in Charles Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, p. 282. 34. All quotations are from the following edition: William Shakespeare, Macbeth: The New Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. A. R. Braunmuller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 35. Here are some lines from Macbeth which probably inspired Dickens: ‘LENNOX: The night has been unruly: where we lay / Our chimneys were blown down; and, as they say, / Lamenting heard i’ the air; strange screams of death, / And prophesying with accents terrible / Of dire combustion and confus’d events / New hatch’d to the woeful time. The obscure bird / Clamour’d the livelong night: some say earth / Was feverous and did shake. / MACBETH: ‘Twas a rough night. / LENNOX: My young remembrance cannot parallel / A fellow to it’. II, iii, ll. 55–64. 36. See Macbeth: ‘What beast was’t, then, / That made you break this enterprise to me? / When you durst do it, then you were a man; / And, to be more than what you were, you would / Be so much more the man. Nor time nor place / Did then adhere, and yet you would make both’. I, vii, ll. 48–52, my italics. Compare the words ‘In a word, a city of another and a bygone time is Cloisterham, with its hoarse Cathedral-bell, its hoarse rooks hovering about the Cathedral tower, its hoarser and less distinct rooks in the stalls far beneath’ (13), with Macbeth: ‘Light thickens; and the crow / Makes wing to the rooky wood’ (III, ii, ll. 50–1). For an analysis of the relationships between The Mystery of Edwin Drood and Macbeth, see Howard Duffield, ‘The Macbeth Motif in Edwin Drood’, The Dickensian, 30 (1934), pp. 263–71, and Philip Collins, Dickens and Crime (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1965), in particular p. 299. 37. Letter to his Swiss friend de Cerjat dated 1864, qtd. in John Thacker, Edwin Drood: Antichrist in the Cathedral (London: Vision Press, 1980), p. 119. See also his ironic reference to religion in ‘The Shipwreck’, originally published in All the Year Round (28 January 1860), and then included in the new Uncommercial Traveller series: ‘As I rode along, I thought of the many people, inhabitants of this mother country, who would make pilgrimages to the little churchyard in the years to come; […] I thought of the writers of all the wreck of letters I had left upon the table; and I resolved to place this little record where it stands. Convocations, Conferences, Diocesan Epistles, and the like, will do a great deal for Religion, I dare say, and Heaven send they may! but I doubt if they will ever do their Master’s service half so well, in all the time they last, as the Heavens have seen it done in this bleak spot upon the rugged coast of Wales’. The Uncommercial Traveller (London: Chapman and Hall, 1861), p. 21. Notes 165

38. Janet L. Larson, Dickens and the Broken Scripture (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), p. 3 (first edn 1998). Dickens does not describe Cloisterham Cathedral as ‘an enclave to the eternal, but a grave full of decay [...]. It is a parody of heaven, containing false, time-withered shadows of elements of St. John’s Vision’. Judith Prescott Flynn, ‘“Fugitive and Cloistered Virtue”: Innocence and Evil in Edwin Drood’, English Studies in Canada, 9.1 (March 1983), p. 319. For an analysis of the clerical figures in The Mystery of Edwin Drood (and in other Victorian novels, including George Eliot’s and Elizabeth Gaskell’s), see Alan Dilnot, ‘Clergymen in the mid-Victorian Novel’, The Dickens Magazine, 4.2 (2004), pp. 11–13. 39. In a comic description of Mr Crisparkle musing in front of ‘a nauseous medicinal herb-closet’, the narrator/Jasper suggests that Mrs Crisparkle forced her son to use these products ‘like the highly-popular lamb who has so long and unresistingly been led to slaughter’ (101). This is an ironic biblical allusion to Revelations, 7: 10 (‘And cried with aloud voice, saying, Salvation to our God which sitteth upon the throne, and unto the lamb’). The Bible: Authorized King James Version. With Apocrypha, ed. with an Introduction and Notes by Robert Carroll and Stephen Prikett (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 305. All further quotations from the Bible will be from this edition. 40. The original lines from the Bible are the following: ‘Again, when the wicked man turneth away from his wickedness that he hath committed, and doeth which is lawful and right, he shall have his soul alive’. Ezekiel, 18: 27, p. 924. 41. ‘Jasper’s hatred of the Cathedral and of everything connected with it shall tempt him to revenge of offering to the Christian Church of England the greatest possible insult and desecration he can conceive, in committing one of the oldest and foulest crimes, murder of a kinsman by his host, in one of that Church’s major shrines in the early hours of its major festival of joy and on its weekly sabbath’. John Thacker, Antichrist in the Cathedral, p. 91. 42. Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities, ed. by Andrew Sanders (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 298, my italics. 43. John Beer, ‘Edwin Drood and the Mystery of Apartness’, Dickens Studies Annual, 13 (1984), p. 181. In an article studying the last five years of Dickens’s life from a medical standpoint, C. McManus writes that Dickens ‘had a range of symptoms, mostly affecting the left side, including hemispatial neglect for words [i.e. his inability to read words and inscriptions written on the left-hand side], paroxysmal pains, hyperpathia or allodynia and hypoalgesia in the left foot, and a feeling of the world falling to the left. He also seemed to be unaware of the seriousness of his symptoms, which suggests some form of anosogno- sia.’ Then he concludes that he ‘was known to have had a definite attack of right-sided cerebral insufficiency’ soon before his death. ‘Charles Dickens: A Neglected Diagnosis’, The Lancet, 358 (22–9 December), 2001, p. 2160. 44. In praising Thackeray’s unfinished novel Denis Duval, Dickens shows the differences separating his methods of writing from Thackeray’s, concluding that ‘by reason of the singular construction of the story, more than one incident usually belonging to the end of such a fiction is anticipated at the beginning, and thus there is an approach to completeness in the fragment’. Charles Dickens, ‘In Memoriam’, Cornhill Magazine, 9 (February 1864), pp. 129–32. 166 Notes

45. As Peter Ackroyd underlines, ‘[this] connection between death and infancy is one that had haunted him [...]. Here, in Gad’s Hill, close to the town in which he had lived as a small child, here in the house which his father had once shown him; here the circle was complete’. Dickens (London: Vintage, 1999), p. xii. 46. In John Forster’s words, ‘[the] story, I learnt immediately afterward, was to be that of the murder of a nephew by his uncle; the originality of which was to consist in a review of the murderer’s career by himself at the close [...]. The last chapters were to be written in the condemned cell, to which his wickedness, all elaborately elicited from him as if told by another, had brought him’. The Life of Charles Dickens, p. 629. For Philip Collins, ‘Dickens’s last and uncompleted novel [...] was also to have ended in a condemned cell. Dickens was planning to take his illustrator, Luke Fildes, to see one at Mainstone Gaol, the handiest prison from Gad’s Hill’. Dickens and Crime, p. 28. 47. Charles Dickens, The Pickwick Papers, ed. with an Introduction by James Kinsley, with Revised Notes by Kathleen Tillotson (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 6. For Masao Miyoshi ‘[there] is overpower- ingly about [The Mystery of Edwin Drood] an air of death. Almost as though reflecting Dickens’s own exhaustion, the Cathedral town of Cloisterham sinks into gloom [...]. The cheerful sunlit scene of The Pickwick Papers is gone, its place overgrown with ruin and decay. And the Gothic imagination is much more total here than in Our Mutual Friend, moving Dickens much closer to symbolism’. The Divided Self. A Perspective on the Literature of the Victorians (New York and London: New York University Press, 1969), p. 277.

3 The Strange Case of Weir of Hermiston and St. Ives: R. L. Stevenson’s Last Adventures in Narration

1. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘The Persons of the Tale’, in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde with Other Fables, ed. Sidney Colvin (New York and Bombay: Longmans Green and Co., 1901). Quotations will be from this edition, with pages parenthetically indicated. 2. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘A Note on Realism’, in R. L. Stevenson on Fiction. An Anthology of Literary and Critical Essays, ed. Glenda Norquay (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p. 66. For Penny Fielding, ‘Stevenson’s own fiction and autobiographical travelogues are no less speculative about the act of writing itself than are his essays about fiction and the role of the author’. ‘Introduction’, in The Edinburgh Companion to Robert Louis Stevenson, ed. Penny Fielding (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), p. 4. 3. Cairn Craig, Out of History: Narrative Paradigms in Scottish and English Literature (Edinburgh: Polygon, 1996), p. 81. 4. As Barry Menikoff argues, ‘[the] genesis and composition of Kidnapped and David Balfour reveal not only Stevenson’s deep immersion in Scottish history and culture, but the creative process by which he reconstructed that culture in his fiction’. Narrating Scotland: The Imagination of Robert Louis Stevenson (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), p. 3. Menikoff asserts that Kidnapped and David Balfour are ‘impelled by a studied reading of the past and an inventive manipulation of narrative art’ (p. 28). Notes 167

5. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘The Scot Abroad’ (from The Silverado Squatters), in From Scotland to Silverado, ed. James D. Hart (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), p. 210. 6. Henry James, ‘Robert Louis Stevenson’, Century Magazine, April 1888, qtd. in Robert Louis Stevenson: The Critical Heritage, ed. Paul Maixner (London, Boston and Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), p. 300. 7. Arthur Quiller-Couch (also known as ‘Q’) published in 1887 Dead Man’s Rock, a novel inspired by Treasure Island. 8. Joseph Jacobs, from an unsigned review, Athenaeum, 16 October 1897, p. 3651, qtd. in Robert Louis Stevenson: The Critical Heritage, p. 485. Arthur Quiller-Couch (who will be asked to complete St. Ives) expressed some reser- vations on Weir of Hermiston in a review published in The Speaker on 6 June 1896: ‘I confess that [Weir of Hermiston] seems to contain elements of weakness – of weakness over which it is quite possible that Stevenson would have triumphed, but I hardly think we do wisely in assuming that he would have triumphed as a matter of course’. Qtd. in Robert Louis Stevenson: The Critical Heritage, p. 469. 9. In Francesco Marroni’s opinion, ‘Weir of Hermiston is characterized throughout by a semantic isotopy centred on conflict, to the extent that the tensions within the narrative levels (father against son, the present against the past, the English language against the Scottish dialect, Edinburgh against Hermiston, law against anarchy, memory against oblivion) are never ulti- mately resolved’. ‘Memory and Mortality in Robert Louis Stevenson’s Weir of Hermiston’, Rivista di Studi Vittoriani, 20 (Luglio 2005), p. 154. Edwin Eigner writes that ‘Weir of Hermiston is a story of Lowlanders who keep fierce Highland passions under strenuous control. This conflict exists in all the characters, except the uncomplicated Innes, and it creates the tensions of the romance’. Robert Louis Stevenson and Romantic Tradition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 218. 10. ‘Like Attwater, Hermiston is a brutal lawgiver and unforgiving father, his justice founded in Old Testament notions of retribution. The link between Attwater and Hermiston is reinforced by Stevenson’s references to Tembinoka, the king of Apemana in the Gilbert Islands. Attwater takes Tembinoka as a model for his own summary justice, and in In the South Seas Stevenson compares the “tyrant” Tembinoka to the “conscientious Braxfield”, the Scottish judge who was the original for Hermiston’. Julia Reid, Robert Louis Stevenson, Science, and the ‘Fin de Siècle’ (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2006), p. 51. Stevenson compares Tembinoka to Lord Braxfield in Part IV (‘The Gilberts-Apenama’), Chapter 5 (‘Kings and Commons’) of In The South Seas, which recounts his personal meeting with the tyrant during the years 1888–9. See Robert Louis Stevenson, In the South Seas, ed. Neil Ronnie (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1998). 11. According to Mikhail Bakhtin, the ‘chronotope’ enacts ‘the intrinsic connect- edness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature’, and represents ‘a formally constitutive category of literature’. Mikhail M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 84. 12. Robert Louis Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Weir of Hermiston, ed. Emma Letley (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 83. 168 Notes

All further references to Weir of Hermiston will be from this edition, with pages parenthetically indicated. The novel was serialised in Cosmopolis from January to April 1896, and published in book edition by Chatto & Windus in the same year. Hermiston is a mixture of (prevalently) southern Scottish landscapes, including the Lammermuirs, Stow, the Pentlands and the district of Upper Tweeddale. The home of the Elliott family is probably in the heart of the Border, between Teviotdale and Ettrick. 13. Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1980), p. 197. It is to be noticed that the two drafts of the Introductory and of Chapter 1 of Weir of Hermiston (at Pierpont Morgan Library, New York) and the three drafts of Chapter 1 (at Morris L. Parrish Collection, Princeton University) differ significantly from the published version. In the first two drafts, for instance, the narration is given in the first person. Stevenson probably chose to change it into a third-person narration to distance himself from the speaker. In this respect, see ‘Appendix C. Drafts of Introductory and Chapter 1’ in the Centenary Edition of Weir of Hermiston, ed. Catherine Kerringan (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995), pp. 146–52. 14. John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, persecuted Covenanters in the south-west of Scotland in 1678; his contradictory nature is evoked in Scottish historical memory through the use of epithets such as ‘Bloody Clavers’ and ‘Bonnie Dundee’. As for Robert Patterson, he was the stoneman whose house was ransacked by retreating Highlanders during the Jacobite rebellion in 1745, and whom Walter Scott dedicated Old Mortality. The docu- ment known as the ‘National Covenant’ (or the ‘Nobleman’s Covenant’) was compiled by Alexander Henderson, Minister of Leuchars in Fife, and by the young lawyer Archibald Johnson of Warriston, whose name and surname recall those of Archie Weir of Hermiston. 15. Robert Louis Stevenson, Heathercat, in The Ebb-Tide, Weir of Hermiston, Heathercat, The Young Chevalier (London: Heinemann, 1922), p. 439. In a letter to Bob Stevenson written in Vailima and dated 17 June 1894, Stevenson refers to Weir of Hermiston and Heathercat as two Scotch stories ‘which will either be something different or I shall have failed. The first is generally designed, and is a private story of two or three characters in a very grim vein. The second, alas the thought! is an attempt at a real historical novel to present a whole field of time [...]. I was going to call it The Killing Time, but this man Crockett has forestalled me in that.’ The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, eds. Bradford A. Booth and Ernest Mehew, 8 vols (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995), IV, January 1893–December 1894, p. 306. Samuel Rutherford Crockett (1859–1914) was a Scottish novelist and a corresponded of Stevenson. The novel to which Stevenson is alluding, also set during the ‘killing time’, was later to be entitled The Men of the Moss Hags (1895). 16. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘Thrawn Janet’, in The Merry Men and Other Tales and Fables (London: Chatto & Windus, 1905), pp. 128–42. 17. In Alan Sandison’s analysis, ‘[while] the brilliant “Introductory” is, without doubt, the most succintly powerful of all Stevenson’s openings, its sombre message forecasts silence, disappearance and death. Initially it might seem as though the author was simply giving his own tale a firm place in Scottish Notes 169

cultural history, but almost the contrary is true for, underneath, there is no solid ground. Instead, there is a haunting sense of instability and evanes- cence in all things (even the art of narrative) which dissolves into an end- less receding echo’. Robert Louis Stevenson and the Appearance of Modernism: A Future Feeling (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 369–70. 18. Weir of Hermiston shares with The Master of Ballantrae an ‘epic-envy’, defined by Robert Kiely as the ‘myth of a lost giant in an uncongenial world’. In both books ‘we find traces of the romantic nostalgia of Scott and hints of the mythic reformulation and mock-heroics of Joyce’. Robert Louis Stevenson and the Fiction of Adventure (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 198–9. 19. ‘Stevenson accepts emotionally what he rejects rationally. The ballad world is admired on the ground of its aesthetic attraction while at the same time it is condescendingly smiled at as outdated. In order to translate this dual attitude into the total statement of the novel, Stevenson superimposes two planes of vision, the traditional and the progressive, the first being mainly represented by the characters in Weir […], the second mainly by the narrator’. Peter Zenzinger, ‘The Ballad Spirit and the Modern Mind: Narrative Perspective in Stevenson’s Weir of Hermiston’, in Studies in Scottish Fiction: Nineteenth Century, eds. Horst W. Drescher and Joachim Schwend (Frankfurt/ Main: Peter Lang, 1985), p. 240. 20. ‘Scott’s presence crucially frames the Four Black Brothers [...]. These figures themselves, of course, embody multiple aspects of the Scottish fiction of the nineteenth century’s early decades. In Hob Elliott, we see the revenger of blood turned into a personification of Scott’s enterprise of transfigur- ing magic. Clem, the Glasgow merchant, condenses a number of features from John Galt’s authorial profile. Dand, a manifest combination of Burns and Hogg, brawls with the Ettrick Shepherd’. Anthony Hasler, ‘Frontier Creatures: The Imaginary Characters of Weir of Hermiston’, International Journal of Scottish Literature, 2 (Spring–Summer 2007) www.ijsl.stir.ac.uk/issue 2/hasler.htm; date accessed 10 July 2010. 21. Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 34. 22. K. G. Simpson, ‘Author and Narrator in Weir of Hermiston’, in Robert Louis Stevenson, ed. Andrew Noble (London and Totowa: Vision and Barnes & Noble, 1983), p. 211. Jenni Calder writes that, ‘[when] it comes to the telling of the past the omniscient author is no more reliable than the interpolated narrator. The very act of narrating the past [...] only uncovers the potential for misinterpretation and concealment; and as the past is told and retold it is subject to the motives of the teller and the lives and the times of the listeners’. ‘Secrets and Lies: Stevenson’s Telling of the Past’, Rivista di Studi Vittoriani, 20 (Luglio 2005), pp. 29–30. 23. Ian Duncan, ‘Stevenson and Fiction’, in The Edinburgh Companion to Robert Louis Stevenson, p. 21. 24. Sidney Colvin’s note to the Vailima edition, based upon his interview with Belle Strong (Stevenson’s stepdaughter and amanuensis), reports that Archie, after having acknowledged Frank Innes’s devilish seduction of Kirstie, murders him at the Weaver’s Stone and is sentenced to death by his father. Then, with the help of the Four Black Brothers (informed by Old Kirstie on 170 Notes

the events) he is rescued from prison and escapes to America with Young Kirstie. Judge Weir dies because of the remorse of having condemned his son to death. See Stevenson, The Ebb-Tide, Weir of Hermiston, Heathercat, The Young Chevalier, pp. 393–403. Another slightly different (and more melodra- matic) version is suggested by Reverend S. R. Lysaght, who met Stevenson in Vailima on Easter Sunday 1894. According to him, the strongest scene in the book would be that of Young Kirstie coming to her imprisoned lover and confessing him that she was waiting for a baby by Frank Innes, whom Archie had killed. 25. Stevenson, ‘The House of Eld’, in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Other Fubles, p. 183; pp. 187–8. Jean-Pierre Naugrette states that ‘With Weir of Hermiston Stevenson decomposes what he had condensed in “The House of Eld”, not allowing fantasies to be realized: the narrative no longer appears as a daydream, but as a variation on the family romance, where the relations between the child and his environment seem to obey more complex mechanisms. As in the first fable, Stevenson tells the story of the Weir family over a mythological background, by emphasizing even more clearly the father image’ (translated by Armelle Parey). Robert Louis Stevenson: L’aventure et son double (Paris: Presses de l’École Supérieure, 1987), p. 23. 26. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘Some Portraits by Raeburn’, in Virginibus Puerisque and Other Papers (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1901), pp. 212–14. Clotilde De Stasio argues that in this novel Stevenson ‘probably felt that there was more truth in painted portraits than in biographical accounts’. ‘Robert Louis Stevenson and the “Optic Nerve”: Portraiture in Weir of Hermiston’, Cahiers Victoriens et Edouardiens, 64 (October 2006), p. 133. 27. ‘In the confrontation between Archie and his father in Weir of Hermiston, the father’s mocking Scots and the son’s clipped and defensive English illuminate splendidly the situation that is being presented’. David Daiches, ‘Stevenson and Scotland’, in Stevenson and Victorian Scotland, ed. Jenni Calder (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), p. 28. For Emma Letley, the use of English ‘is associated with a carefully-contrived safety, a fear of and retreat from deep emotion, an emphasis on the aesthetic and a veneer of conventional politeness’. ‘Introduction’, in Stevenson, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Weir of Hermiston, p. xxi. 28. For Mikhail Bakhtin the ‘ideologeme’ represents ‘the image assumed by a set of social beliefs […] that has fused with its own discourse, with its own language’. The Dialogic Imagination, p. 357. 29. ‘Bought up on the Old Testament, on tales of the Covenanting martyrs, and on ingredients of a profound folk tradition, Stevenson could scarcely have avoided being intensely aware of the force of language over human behav- iour and belief’. Jenni Calder, ‘Introduction: Stevenson in Perspective’, in Stevenson and Victorian Scotland, p. 9. 30. Robert Louis Stevenson, ‘Olalla’, in The Merry Men and Other Tales and Fables, pp. 173–4, my italics. For Hilary J. Beattie, this short story ‘offers a starting point for exploration of the hidden, conflictual subtext of sexuality, doubling and gender ambiguity discernible in Stevenson’s fiction. These were being worked through right up to the end of his life, particularly in Weir of Hermiston’. ‘Dreaming, Doubling and Gender in the Work of Robert Louis Stevenson: the Strange Case of “Olalla”’, Journal of Stevenson Studies, 2 (2005), Notes 171

p. 11. Beattie suggests a biographical association between Young Kirstie/Belle Strong and Old Kirstie/Fanny Osbourne, because in the last years of his life Stevenson, by working closely with his young stepdaughter, aroused Fanny’s jealousy. 31. The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, pp. 309–10. In a letter to J. M. Barrie, Stevenson admits that St. Ives is a mere story ‘to tickle gudgeons and make money for a harmless fambly’ (Vailima, March 1894, p. 259). 32. The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, pp. 279–80. 33. Glenda Norquay, Robert Louis Stevenson and the Theories of Reading: The Reader as Vagabond (Manchester and New York; Manchester University Press, 2007), pp. 74–5. Stevenson remarks the association between the serious and the playful qualities of romances in his essay ‘Child’s Play’, in which he writes ‘I am reminded, as I write, that the child is very inquiring as to the precise truth of stories. But indeed this is a very different matter, and one bound up with the subject of play, and the precise amount of playfulness, or playabil- ity, to be looked for in the world’. ‘Child’s Play’, in Virginibus Puerisque and Other Papers, p. 242. 34. ‘When I suffer in mind, stories are my refuge; I take them like opium; and I consider one who writes them as a doctor of the mind [...]. It is stories we want, and not the high poetic function which represents the world [...]. We want incident, interest, action: to the devil with your philosophy. When we are well again, and have an easy mind, we shall peruse your important work; but what we want now is a drug’. Letter to J. Meiklejohn, 1 February 1880, in The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, pp. 61–2. 35. Stevenson’s interest in figures of recluse goes back to his first literary pieces, devoted to French writers Jean-Pierre de Béranger (his article ‘Pierre Jean de Béranger. Songwriter’ was included in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica) and François Villon (‘François Villon: Student, Poet, and Housebreaker’ was published in Familiar Studies of Men and Books). For William Gray, ‘Stevenson’s fascination with writers who had been imprisoned is not without biographical significance; he often used the metaphor of imprisonment in relation to his own experience, whether of illness or of parental oppression’. Robert Louis Stevenson: A Literary Life (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2004), pp. 37–8. 36. As John G. Cawelti writes, in the so-called ‘popular’ art forms the ‘identical’ tale that delights children, older children and adults (featuring recurrent plot patterns with highly predictable structures) is counterbalanced by elements that are necessarily culture-bound, associated to specific characters. For Cawelty, ‘[certain] story archetypes particularly fulfil man’s needs for enjoyment and escape [...]. But in order for these patterns to work, they must be embodied in figures, settings, and situations that have appropriate meanings for the culture which produces them [...]. A formula is a combination or synthesis of a number of specific cultural conventions with a more universal story or archetype’. Adventure, Mystery and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 6. 37. Robert Louis Stevenson, St. Ives, Being the Adventures of a French Prisoner in England (London: Heinemann, 1924), pp. 1, 11. All further references will be from this edition. The novel was first serialised in America in McClure’s 172 Notes

Magazine (March–November 1897) and then, with Arthur Quiller-Couch’s conclusion, in Pall Mall Magazine (November 1896–November 1897). Finally, St. Ives was published in book form by Scribner’s in 1897. 38. Selected Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, ed. Ernest Mehew (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 264. In a letter written in Vailima on August 24 1893, Stevenson confesses to Sidney Colvin that ‘St. Ives will (to my mind) not be wholly bad. It is written in rather a funny style; a little stilted and left-handed; the style of St. Ives; also, to some extent, the style of R. L. S. dictating’. The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, p. 157. For a study on the influence of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe and Walter Scott’s Rob Roy on Stevenson’s use of the first person, see John Robert Moore, ‘Defoe, Stevenson, and the Pirates’, English Literary History, 10.1 (March 1943), pp. 35–60. 39. Lloyd Osbourne, ‘Introduction’, in Robert Louis Stevenson, The New Arabian Nights (London, Heinemann, 1924, p. xx). In ‘Books Which Have Influenced Me’ (1887), Stevenson confesses that ‘[perhaps] my dearest and best friend outside of Shakespeare is d’Artagnan – the elderly d’Artagnan of the Vicomte de Bragelonne’. In ‘A Gossip on a Novel of Dumas’s’ (1887), he adds that, along with Scott, Shakespeare, Molière, Montaigne and Meredith’s The Egoist, the Vicomte de Bragelonne is part of ‘the inner circle of my intimates’. R. L. Stevenson on Fiction. An Anthology of Literary and Critical Essays, p. 118. 40. Glenda Norquay, ‘Robert Louis Stevenson and Stanley J. Weyman: Reviving Romancers or Aging Adventurers?’, ELH, 55.2 (2012), p. 13. According to Glenda Norquay, the hero in St. Ives ‘is positioned between the boy […], who serves to represent the absorbing possibilities of the romance genre, and the blood relation [his cousin Anne St. Ives] […], who reveals the romance mode as outmoded, inauthentic, faintly ridiculous’ (p. 12). 41. The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, p. 49. 42. The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, p. 285. 43. Jenni Calder writes that St. Ives ‘begins and ends in Scotland, and in it Stevenson lovingly recreates the scenes of his youth. The Castle itself, the streets of Edinburgh he knew so well, Swanston and the Pentland Hills – these are at the heart of the novel’. ‘Preface’, in Robert Louis Stevenson, St. Ives, ed. Jenni Calder, with Research and Foreword by R. J. Storey (Glasgow: Richard Drew Publishing, 1990), p. viii. 44. Barbara Fuchs, Romance (New York and London: Routledge, 2004), p. 42. 45. In his understanding of romance [...] Stevenson [...] acknowledged that ful- filment of the desiring self was contextualised by the transience of reading: the experience can be intense in its immediacy, but it is also always moving towards the loss of that intensity when we emerge out of the book at the point of closure [...]. Reading romance thus epitomises the dynamics of reading pleasure which are both intense and reassuring but also inevitably transient’. Norquay, Robert Louis Stevenson and the Theories of Reading, p. 164. 46. For Edwin Eigner, Alain represents ‘a clear type of the Stevenson villain’, and his characterisation is ‘influenced somewhat by the author’s reading of Jules Barbey d’Aurévilly and his philosophy of dandyism, although it is possible that Stevenson simply recalled Richardson’s Lovelace’. Robert Louis Stevenson and Romantic Tradition, p. 167. 47. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism. Four Essays (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), p. 187. For Frye, the romance ‘avoids the ambiguities of ordinary life, Notes 173

where everything is a mixture of good and evil, and where it is difficult to take sides or believe that people are consistent patterns of virtue or vice. The popularity of romance [...] has much to do with its simplifying of moral facts’. The Secular Scripture: A Study of the Structure of Romance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), p. 50. 48. ‘Chapter X, “The Drovers”, not only echoes the title of a Scott story “The Two Drovers”, published in Chronicles of the Canongate (1827) but is imbued with its language and imagery [...]. Stevenson’s Scots also draw on the vocab- ulary of Scott and Hogg: when the drover describes an opponent felled as looking “dooms gash” uses terms found in Rob Roy and Heart of Midlothian’. Glenda Norquay, ‘Robert Louis Stevenson and Stanley J. Weyman’, p. 14. 49. In a letter dated 1 December 1893 Sidney Colvin asked Stevenson: ‘Couldn’t you let Scott walk across the stage in one or other of your 1812 novels?’ On 1 January 1894 Stevenson replied: ‘Your note arrived; little profit, I must say. Scott has already put his nose in, in St. Ives, sir; but his appearance is not just complete; nothing is in that romance, except the story’. Selected Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, p. 574. 50. Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, transl. Burton Raffel (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), part 2, p. 1. 51. Clara Reeve, The Progress of Romance (New York: Facsimile Text Society, 1930), p. 11. 52. St. Ives was interrupted at Chapter XXX. Although Quiller-Couch corresponded with Sidney Colvin and was advised by Belle Strong to introduce the reference to the American privateer ‘The True Blooded Yankee’ (on which Stevenson made many researches and to which he wanted to dedicate a whole chapter), he preferred to introduce new characters such as Captain Colenso, and to allude only briefly to privateers. In her edition, Jenni Calder (helped by R. J. Storey’s researches) gives more prominence to ‘The True Blooded Yankee’. Quiller-Couch and Calder include an adventurous balloon ascension involving Anne, which was part of Stevenson’s original plan for his novel. 53. Pierre Macherey, A Theory of Literary Production, transl. Geoffrey Wall (London, Henley and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 5. As for Sally Bushell’s concept of the ‘processual’ nature of texts, see Introduction. 54. Weir of Hermiston, ed. Catherine Kerringan, p. 117. 55. See Selected Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, pp. 609–10; The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, VIII, p. 404n.

4 Time Changes: Anthony Trollope’s The Landleaguers and Wilkie Collins’s Blind Love

1. Rudyard Kipling, ‘Recessional’, in Empire Writing: An Anthology of Colonial Literature 1870–1918, ed. Elleke Boehmer (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 272. For Stephen Arata, the Diamond Jubilee ‘served inadvertently to underscore the frailty of the 78-year-old monarch, whose increasing debility could be taken to stand for that of the empire as a whole’. The ‘austerely elegiac tone’ in ‘Recessional’ captured Kipling’s ‘firm commitment to the ideology of the empire, but also his deep sense 174 Notes

of historical belatedness’. ‘1897’, in A Companion to Victorian Literature & Culture, ed. Herbert F. Tucker (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), p. 53. 2. The most relevant (and disquieting) novelty in late-century attempts was represented by the use of dynamite by Fenians, Anarchists and Nihilists. Introduced by Alfred Bernhard Nobel in 1863 as a sort nightmarish payback to modernity, dynamite had been first adopted by civil engineers to flatten the ground and to dig holes for the construction of railway lines, one of the undisputed symbols of change, innovation and capitalistic commerce. In the late-Victorian age dynamite thus became the catalyst of the fears of rebellion, ‘degeneration’ and disruption of order. 3. Deaglán O’Donghaile relates Fenian bombing not only to political violence, but also to the editorial ‘explosion’ of sensational journalism, and to the birth of a specific literary genre (defined ‘dynamite fiction’) inspired by these shocking events, which includes first- and second-rate authors ranging from Richard Henry Savage (The Anarchist) to Arthur Conan Doyle (‘That Little Square Box’), from Henry James (The Princess Casamassima) to Robert Louis Stevenson (The Dynamiter) and Joseph Conrad (The Secret Agent). See Deaglán O’Donghaile, Blasted Literature: Victorian Political Fiction and the Shock of Modernism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011). 4. As Nicholas Visser puts it, ‘[the] 1880s resemble the 1840s in constitut- ing one of the highwater marks of both collective politics and fictional representations of social conflict’. ‘Roaring Beasts and Raging Floods: The Representation of Political Crowds in the Nineteenth-Century British Novel’, Modern Language Review, 89.2 (April 1994), p. 310. On the fictional description of political crowds see also Kathleen Tillotson, Novels of the Eighteen- Forties (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954), Raymond Williams, Culture and Society (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), Valentine Cunningham, Everywhere Spoken Against: Dissent in the Victorian Novel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975) and Catherine Gallagher, The Industrial Reformation of the English Fiction: Social Discourse and Narrative Form, 1832–1867 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985). More recently, John Plotz has argued that the ‘directed’ and ‘chaotic’ crowd (that is, the multitude of people enjoying the newly paved streets of London, and the rioting agglomeration of suffering individuals) ‘arrived in Britain as nowhere else in the first half of the nineteenth century, and both are chronicled in the era’s literary texts in ways completely and sur- prisingly unlike the records left in other media’. The Crowd: British Literature and Public Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), p. 2. 5. Sir Robert Ensor, England 1870–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 304. As far as foreign politics is concerned, the 1880s were an unsettling period, begun with the 1879 victory of the Zulu and the massacre of the British mission in Kabul, followed by the defeat of the British forces at Majuba Hill in 1881 by the Transvaal Boers (who regained their independence) and the killing of General Gordon in Khartoum in January 1885. 6. ‘The basic conservatism of Gladstone’s Home Rule policy was not appreciated at the time; he was […] a social conservative but a liberal imperialist. From the first, Gladstone defended Home Rule on imperial grounds and insisted that there was no incompatibility between Imperial unity and a Dublin Parliament’. Deirdre McMahon, ‘Ireland, Empire, and the Commonwealth’, Notes 175

in Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Kevin Kenny (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 186. 7. According to Michael J. Winstanley, the League’s tactics ‘changed and varied between regions. Some of the many strategies adopted resembled those of pre-Famine Whiteboysm – assault, intimidation, collective resistance and reprisals for evictions. The incidence of such outrages seems to have been higher in the less developed west of Ireland and to have risen during times when nationally co-ordinated activity was flagging. The dominant strategy of the League from the summer of 1880, however, was designed to be non- violent’. Ireland and the Land Question 1800–1922 (London and New York: Methuen, 1994), p. 30. 8. Maeve Tynan writes that ‘the ineffectual, amusing, and somewhat sentimen- tal stage-Irishman of the previous century [changed] into a violent Celtic Caliban or simianised agitator’. Maeve Tynan, ‘Fin-de-siècle Gaelic Gothic: Reflections of the Irish Question’, Otherness: Essays and Studies, 1.1, October 2010; www.otherness.dk/journal/vol1/; date accessed 15 March 2011. 9. Patrick O’ Farrell, Ireland’s English Question: Anglo-Irish Relations 1534–1970 (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. 1971), p. 14. 10. Anthony Trollope, An Autobiography, eds. Michael Sadleir and Frederick Page, Introduction and Notes by P. D. Edwards (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 62, 65. Further quotations will be from this edition. For Owen Dudley Edwards, ‘Anthony Trollope’s connection with Ireland is unique among the British major creative writers of the nineteenth century. For all of the many differences of their responses to Ireland, Trollope has one quality lacking in the rest of them. Britain made them. Everyone of them saw Ireland as outsiders. Trollope did not. His view of Ireland from first to last was that of a participant: Ireland made him’. Owen Dudley Edwards, ‘Anthony Trollope, the Irish Writer’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 38.1 ( June 1983), p. 1. 11. See Karen Faulkner, ‘Anthony Trollope’s Apprenticeship’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 38.2 (Sept. 1893), pp. 161–88. 12. The Letters of Anthony Trollope, ed. Bradford Allen Booth (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 478. Trollope first approached Bentley for publication in Temple Bar for £400, but no agreement came out of it. Then The Landleaguers was finally serialized in Life: A Weekly Journal of Society, Literature, the Fine Arts and Finance from 16 November 1882 to 4 October 1883. Chatto & Windus would publish the novel in three volumes in 1883. 13. Anthony Trollope, The Landleaguers, ed. Mary Hamer (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 412. Further references will be from this edition, with pages parenthetically given. According to Barbara Arnett Melchiori, ‘Trollope’s orthodoxy can be traced not only in the rewards he distributed (a bride for Frank, a bullet for Florian) but in the very names he gives these characters. Florian, fussy and foreign for the Roman Catholic 10-year-old who lied to his family and Frank, a name which speaks for itself, for his Protestant anti-leaguing brother’. Terrorism in the Late Victorian Novel (London: Croom Helm, 1985), p. 85. Given Trollope’s ‘locale knowledge’ of Ireland, Barbara Arnett Melchiori considers The Landleaguers as a partial failure: ‘had he looked as closely at Irish economics as he did at the English 176 Notes

he might even have made a contribution […] to the solution of the Irish question’ (p. 87). 14. Mary Jean Corbett argues that ‘family plots […] have an especially important place in English writings about Ireland […]. Because efforts to legitimate English rule in Ireland so often involve disputed rights to land and property, the relations of father to sons, of mothers to daughters […] all take on broader implications in that these “private” relations are thoroughly enmer- shed with the political and economic relations of colonial rule’. Allegories of Union in Irish and English Writing, 1790–1870: Politics, History and the Family from Edgeworth to Arnold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 6. 15. The negative influence of America is also mentioned in Chapter XLI, entitled ‘The State of Ireland’. 16. According to Gordon Bigelow, ‘[it] would be [Trollope’s] most overtly political novel, one that rejects the bemused irony of the Palliser novels and instead speaks of the Irish situation with blinding sincerity’. ‘Trollope and Ireland’, in The Cambridge Companion to Anthony Trollope, eds. Carolyn Dever and Lisa Niles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 196. 17. Robert Tracy, Trollope’s Later Novels (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1978), p. 324. For R. C. Terry, The Landleaguers has basically two faults: ‘Whereas in The Macdermots Trollope was stirred by the ruins of the old house to create a fiction which embodied certain truths about the country, in The Landleaguers he was crusading against law reform agitation, and made up a story to fit his thesis. He broke his cardinal rule, writing not because he had a story to tell, but because he had to tell a story’. Anthony Trollope: The Artist in Hiding (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977), p. 192. 18. ‘Trollope portrays a mad world where traditional values are turned upside down. With the Phoenix Park and Joyce Muders, happening even as he writes, Trollope is in the midst of a world gone mad, of alienating politics and domestic disorder’. R. C. Terry, ‘The Landleaguers’, in Oxford Reader’s Companion to Trollope, ed. R. C. Terry (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 301. In Trollope’s Irish novels (most notably in The Landleaguers) ‘[there] is a prevalent atmosphere of violence and savagery, which is very different from the atmosphere of the English novels. Violence and savagery do occur in the latter novels, but they are shocking aberra- tions, out of tune with a general sense of order and civilization. In Trollope’s Ireland they are the norm’. Robert Tracy, ‘“The Unnatural Ruin”: Trollope and Nineteenth-Century Irish Fiction’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, 37.3 (Dec. 1982), p. 360. 19. ‘The inconsistencies in “The State of Ireland” indicate Trollope’s uncertainties about the issues he was raising, as his wish for repressive measures strug- gled with his genuine liking for the Irish and his awareness of the harsh conditions under which they lived. These uncertainties are equally at work in The Landleaguers itself, as Trollope tries to embody his message about Ireland in a plot. Both essay and novel equivocate’. Robert Tracy, ‘Instant Replay: Trollope’s The Landleaguers’, Eire-Ireland, 15.2 (1980), p. 44. 20. While the outcome of his plots nearly always support the prevailing ethos of the times, between his beginnings and endings his women live lives and Notes 177

say things which are remarkable for a man of his time to have articulated’. Margaret Marwick, Trollope and Women (London and Ohio: The Hambledon Press, 1997), p. vii. See also Jane Nardin’s gender-oriented analysis in He Knew She Was Right: The Independent Women in the Novels of Anthony Trollope. Ad Feminam (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989). For her, ‘[in] considering Trollope’s attitudes toward women, we must also remember that ambivalence and complexity characterize his moral vision and the fictional structures in which that vision is embodied’ (p. 1). 21. Anthony Trollope, ‘On the Higher Education of Women’, in Four Lectures, ed. Morris L. Parrish (London: Constable, 1938), p. 71, pp. 74–5. In his essay ‘New York’, included in the collection North America (1862), Trollope defines the manners of American feminists as ‘odious’, and he compares his feelings for these women with those produced by the ‘close vicinity of an unclean animal’. ‘New York’, in North America (Charleston: Bibliobazaar, 2006), pp. 223, 225. John Halperin writes that ‘[on] questions of the day such as the status of women and the rights of Jews, Trollope was unflinchingly reactionary: he hated the new feminism and shared many of the usual prejudices against Jews’. John Halperin, Trollope and Politics: A Study of the Pallisers and Others (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977), p. 22. 22. ‘There is a woman, of whom not to speak in a work purporting to be a mem- oir of my own life would be to omit all allusion to one of the chief pleasures which has graced my later years. In the last fifteen years she has been, out of my family, my most chosen friend. She is a ray of light to me, from which I can always strike a spark by thinking of her […]. I trust she may live to read the words I have now written, and to wipe away a tear as she thinks of my feeling while I write them’ (An Autobiography, p. 316). 23. ‘In The Landleaguers the disruptive force implicit in Rachel’s wish to make a name for herself is made quite explicit by the way the novel marries that wish with contemporary events. Rachel’s career is presented in tan- dem with Irish revolutionary events: they run concurrently’. Mary Hamer, ‘Introduction’, in Anthony Trollope, The Landleaguers, p. xix. 24. According to a reviewer in The Spectator, Trollope ‘was certainly eminent enough to make the public anxious to have all that he wrote, and especially the last work that came from his pen’ (15 December 1883), p. 1627. The Saturday Review writes that ‘the truncum corpus of the book is, despite [its] drawback, far from unpleasant to read’ (12 January 1884), p. 54, and Edmund S. Purcell, who was usually very critical against him, sees the novel as another example of ‘conscientious task’, adding that ‘we are willing to forget utterly what little we remember of his multifarious writings’. The Academy, 24 (1883), p. 328. 25. James Pope-Hennessy notices that ‘[there] is a certain symmetry and a species of fulfillment in the fact that Anthony Trollope’s last novel was, like his first one, on a purely Irish theme’. Anthony Trollope (London: Phoenix Press, 2001), p. 387. For Terry Bareham ‘[in] both his first and last novels Trollope weaves patterns around themes which adumbrate attitudes drawn from experience of a country he had long loved, to which he felt he owed a great debt, and the reality of those tragedy he grasped with more assurance than has been hitherto recognized’. ‘First and Last: Towards a Re-Appraisal 178 Notes

of Trollope’s The Macdermots of Ballycloran and The Landleaguers’, Durham University Journal, 47 (1986), p. 317. 26. Trollope, An Autobiography, pp. 226–7, 256–7, my italics. In a letter to A. P. Watt dated 30 January 1884 in which he deals with An Autobiography, Collins writes an indirect reply to Trollope’s doubts on his writing method: ‘The first part [of An Autobiography] I thought very interesting – but when he sits in judgment on his own novels and on other people’s novels he tell me what I don’t want to know.’ Qtd. in Catherine Peters, The King of Inventors: A Life of Wilkie Collins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 393. As for Trollope, he considered Collins ‘an incarnate gale of wind. He blew off my hat; he turned my umbrella inside out. Joking apart, as good and staunch a friend as ever lived’. Anthony Trollope: Interviews and Recollections, ed. R. C. Terry (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), p. 127. 27. Graham Law and Andrew Maunder, Wilkie Collins: A Literary Life (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2008), p. 179. Collins’s ‘most punishing schedule was undoubtedly in 1886, when he had to complete [...] The Evil Genius for Tillotson, plus the stage version, as well as to compose from scratch two final sketches in the “Victims of Circumstances” series for the Boston’s Youth Companion, The Guilty River for Arrowsmith’s Christmas Annual, and “An Old Maid’s Husband” for the Christmas Number of The Spirit of the Times in New York’ (p. 178). 28. Despite the fact that many critics agree that lack of inspiration, precarious health and increasing dependence on laudanum account for the general decline in the quality of Collins’s late novels, this process ‘is much less relent- less than is often assumed’. Jenny Bourne Taylor, In The Secret Theatre of Home: Wilkie Collins, Sensation Narrative, and Nineteenth-century Psychology (London and New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 209. For Nicholas Rance, ‘[a] distressing feature of the later fiction is a diminution in irony. The basis of Collins’s irony had been to play off the orthodox perception of conventions [...] as being ordained in perpetuity against his own perception of them as historically rela- tive and thereby transient’. Wilkie Collins and Other Sensation Novelists: Walking the Moral Hospital (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), pp. 136–7. 29. See Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1978). 30. Collins had already referred to an insurance fraud in the plot of a short novel entitled The Haunted Hotel (1884). 31. Wilkie Collins, Blind Love, eds. Maria K. Bachman and Don Richard Cox (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2004), p. 62. All further references will be from this edition. This was not the first time Collins used this kind of ‘justificatory’ preface. In introducing Man and Wife (1870), he admitted that ‘[the] story here offered to the reader differs in one respect from the stories which have preceded it by the same hand. This time the fiction is founded on facts’. Man and Wife (New York: Dover, 1983), p. 5. Like The Law and the Lady, Man and Wife was about the inequalities and inadequacies of Irish and Scottish marriage laws. According to Andrew Mangham, ‘[the] serialization of nineteenth-century fiction […] allowed novelists like Collins to respond to important contemporary events. Real crimes, in particular, were a fre- quent source of inspiration for popular novelists’. ‘Introduction’, in Wilkie Collins. Interdisciplinary Essays, ed. Andrew Mangham (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007), p. 2. Notes 179

32. E. M. Ward, a friend of Collins’s who suffered from depression, cut his throat in January 1879. ‘He made a mess of it, not dying instantly but lingering for five days. It was a horrific method of suicide, and one that Wilkie brooded over. He used it several times in his fiction, and in his latest novel, Blind Love, the Byronic Lord Harry cuts his throat […]. The episode is described is sanguinary detail, as if to live through and exorcize Ward’s death’. Catherine Peters, The King of Inventors: A Life of Wilkie Collins, p. 393. 33. Madness in Blind Love ‘operates not only as a psycho-medical malady, but as a political malady as well […]. Writing during England’s era of high imperi- alism, Collins exploits the irrational workings of Lord Harry’s mind to rein- force normative hierarchies of nation and race’. Maria K. Bachman, ‘“Furious Passions of the Celtic Race”: Ireland, Madness and Wilkie Collins’s Blind Love’, in Victorian Crime, Madness and Sensation, eds. Andrew Maunder and Grace Moore, (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), p. 180. Collins does not certainly represent an isolated case of racial prejudice in late-Victorian literature. Just to give two illustrious examples, Dickens and Trollope were repeatedly accused of being anti-Jewish in their characterizations. As Robert J. C. Young writes, ‘[there] were very few writers who did not at some level invoke issues of race, in doing so showing that they accepted the basic premises of racial thought, without for the most part being extremists in any sense’. The Idea of English Ethnicity (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008), p. 43. 34. Thomas Carlyle, Chartism (New York: Winley and Putnam, 1847), pp. 324–5. In dividing the Celtic races into three stocks (The Caledonian, The Welsh and the Irish), Robert Knox’s The Races of Men (1850) connects this anthro- pological problem to a political issue: ‘The really momentous question for England as a nation, is the presence of three sections of the Celtic race still on her soil […] and how to dispose of them.’ The Races of Men, A Fragment (London: Henry Renshaw, 1850), p. 378, my italics. Knox appeals to the ‘Saxon men of all countries’ in attributing the ‘Celtic character’ the following traits: ‘Furious fanaticism’, a love of ‘war and disorder’ and ‘a hatred for order and patient industry’. 35. ‘The Irish-American “dynamite fiend” chooses, by preference, for the scene of his operations crowds of the laboring classes, of holiday-makers, of ordinary travelers, and sweeps them at random into the meshes of his murderous plot with as little concern for their personal merits or demerits as the Thug feels for those of the victims of his deadly cult’. The Times (26 January 1885), qtd. in Barbara Arnett Melchiori, Terrorism in the Late Victorian Novel, p. 24. 36. ‘Whereas the imperial ruler and the Irish soldier were necessarily male, the colonial subject could be cast not only as feminine and weak but also, at times, as aggressively masculine […], the difference being that masculinity in this case signified bestiality and an innate capacity for violence’. Kevin Kenny, ‘Ireland and the British Empire: An Introduction’, in Ireland and the British Empire, p. 17. For L. P. Curtis, ‘[the] stereotypical Irishman was a kind of Celtic Jekyll and Hyde; he oscillated between two extremes of behavior and mood; he was liable to rush from mirth to despair, tenderness to violence, and loyalty to treachery’. Anglo-Saxons and Celts: A Study of Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England (Bridgeport: Bridgeport University Press, 1968), p. 51. 37. ‘Hugh’s impulse, under the circumstances, was to dispense with the formal- ity of a bow, and to shake hands. Mrs. Vimpany met this friendly advance 180 Notes

with a suavity of action, not often seen in these days of movement without ceremony. She was a tall slim woman, of a certain age. Art had so cleverly improved her complexion that it almost looked like nature. Her cheeks had lost the plumpness of youth, but her hair (thanks again perhaps to Art) showed no signs of turning grey’ (‘First Period’, Ch. III, 111). The novel also includes a reference to a change in hair fashion related to the gradual disappearance in the late-Victorian age of moustaches and beards (as a dis- tinctive mark of ‘masculinity’ and of gentlemanliness in the mid-nineteenth century), which were replaced by shaven faces. Indeed, from the mid-1880s ‘clean’ faces would become the new aesthetic trend in male fashion (see ‘First Period’, Ch. XI, 153). 38. George Robb writes that ‘[the] Industrial Revolution called into being a complex economy increasingly dependent on finance and investment. This new economy was characterized by a vast banking network, a bourgeon- ing commercial nexus of insurance, stocks and credit, and an increasingly complicated legal system. These phenomena, as well as the concomitant increase of lawyers, brokers and financiers greatly expanded the potential for white-collar crime’. White-Collar Crime in Modern England: Financial Fraud and Business Morality 1845–1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 1–2. 39. ‘The progress of the Collins heroine from novel to novel suggests that Collins became increasingly intrigued by the possibilities of his female characters and, at the same time, he seemed to lose interest in his male characters. Collins seems to have admired women and wished to promote them to heroic status – or at least to centrality, since some of his best women are villains’. Kathleen O’ Fallon, ‘Breaking the Laws about Ladies: Wilkie Collins’s Questioning of Gender Roles’, in Wilkie Collins to the Forefront: Some Reassessments, eds. Nelson Smith and R. C. Terry (New York: AMS Press, 1995), p. 229. 40. As Sue Lonoff writes, whereas Collins’s male heroes ‘may be gentle, loyal, affectionate, considerate; but […] rarely dominate’ and ‘struggle to maintain equilibrium’, his fallen women ‘tend to be gentle, sympathetic, and self- abnegating, to compensate by their strong qualities for their lack of sexual purity’. Wilkie Collins and His Victorian Readers: A Study in the Rhetoric of Authorship (New York: AMS Press, 1982), pp. 139, 151. 41. In dealing with Laura and Maria’s alliance against Count Fosco’s ‘mesmer- izing’ control, Laurie Garrison argues that ‘[what] is most striking about The Woman in White’s use of mesmerism is that the more common construction is reversed: the seductive mesmerizer [Fosco] fails in the face of a stronger mesmeric connection between two women. Mesmerism can be reclaimed by women and it can be a route to developing and expressing intimate desires and relationships’. Science, Sexuality and Sensation Novels: Pleasures of the Senses (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2011), p. 87. 42. In Pauline Nestor’s view, ‘an extraordinary public debate raged over women’s capacities for friendship and communal activity’. Female Friendships and Communities: Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot, Elizabeth Gaskell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 7. The debate raged in particular over the role of unmarried women. 43. In remarking ‘the increasingly reactionary aspect of Collins’s thinking toward the end of his life in matters of religion, gender, and politics’, Graham Law Notes 181

also reminds readers that ‘[in] order to speak convincingly about what is ideologically and aesthetically challenging in Collins’s work, we need to be clear about what is not’. ‘Modes of Publication and Narrative Form in Collins’s Late Novels’, in Reality’s Dark Light: The Sensational Wilkie Collins, ed. Maria K. Bachman and Don Richard Cox (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 2003), p. 352. 44. Conrad’s story was inspired by the accidental death of Martian Boudin on 15 February 1894. On his way to Greenwich, Bourdin tripped over a tree root and activated the bomb he was carrying. 45. Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1994), pp. 73–4. 46. It is significant that Thomas Hardy’s final novel Jude the Obscure (1895) was published only a few years after Wilkie Collins’s last literary effort, and only a decade before Conrad’s The Secret Agent. Hardy’s case represents, in Edward Said’s words, ‘the recognition by a great artist that the dynamic principles of traditional narrative now seemed somehow inappropriate’. Beginnings: Intention and Method, with an Introduction by Michael Wood (London: Granta Books, 1985), p. 138. Francesco Marroni asserts that ‘[impervious] himself to the ideological pressures of late Victorian orthodoxies, in his last novel Hardy fictionally and meticulously constructs a clockwork mechanism that is analogous to a literal “explosive” act. In other words, his work aims at defining new trajectories of meaning in order to stir the sensibilities and critical responses of future readers’. Victorian Disharmonies: A Reconsideration of Nineteenth-Century English Fiction (Cranbury: University of Delaware Press, 2010), p. 162. 47. O’Donghaile, Blasted Literature, p. 179.

Conclusion: Henry James Sensing the Past

1. Henry James, Henry James Letters, ed. Leon Edel, 4 vols (London and Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1974–84), IV, p. 713. 2. According to Adeline R. Tintner, Wells’s stories ‘The Crystal Egg’ and ‘The Story of the Days to Come’ are among the most probable sources for The Sense of the Past. Adeline R. Tintner, The Pop World of Henry James: From Fairy Tales to Science Fiction (Ann Arbor and London: UNI Research Press, 1989), pp. 275–8. On this aspect, see also Barbara Hardy, Henry James: The Later Writing (Plymouth: Northcote House, 1996), p. 63. 3. Henry James Letters, IV, pp. 151–2. 4. Fred Kaplan, Henry James: The Imagination of Genius (Reading: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd., 1993), pp. 4–5. 5. Henry James, The Sense of the Past (London: W. Collins & Co. Ltd., 1917), pp. 32–3. Further quotations will be from this edition. In The American Scene (1907), which was compiled in the hiatus between the first part of The Sense of the Past (1900) and the second one (1914), James writes that ‘it is the prime business and the high honour of the painter of life always to make a sense – and to make it most in proportion as the immediate aspects are loose and confused’. The American Scene, ed. W. H. Auden (New York: Scribner’s, 1948), p. 273, my italics. Whereas The Sense of the Past recounts a fictional 182 Notes

voyage in time, The American Scene is a travel writing centred on the contra- dictions of capitalism and economic greed of the New Continent. America, in a way, is experienced by James as a sort of ‘futuristic’ England. 6. Some pages earlier, James wrote that Ralph Pendrel used the very word present ‘in a sense of his own and meaning as regards most things about him mark- edly absent. It was for the old ghosts to take him for one of themselves’ (49). 7. ‘Historiography is an especially good ground on which to consider the nature of narration and narrativity because it is here that our desire for the imaginary, the possible, must contest with the imperatives of the real, the actual’. Hayden White, The Content of the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), p. 4. 8. Gert Buelens and Celia Aijmer, ‘The Sense of the Past: History and Historical Criticism’, in Palgrave Advances in Henry James Studies, ed. Peter Rawlings (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2007), p. 204. Philip Sicker interprets The Sense of the Past as a voyage into the human psyche. As he puts it, ‘Ralph Pendrel is journeying not simply into another culture, nor simply into another time, but into the depths of its own psyche. The “new world” that James himself was on the threshold of exploring was […] the uncharted territory of the human unconscious’. Love and Quest of Identity in the Fiction of Henry James (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 103. 9. Julian Wolfreys, Victorian Hauntings: Spectrality, Gothic, the Uncanny and Literature (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2002), pp. x–xi. T. J. Lustig writes that from ‘The Romance of Certain old Clothes’ and ‘The Turn of the Screw’ to ‘The Jolly Corner’ and The Sense of the Past, ‘the ghostly in James’s fiction is intimately connected to the great dynamic forces which play through his work in its entirety’. Henry James and the Ghostly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 1. 10. Virginia Woolf, Moments of Being: Unpublished Autobiographical Writings, ed. Jeanne Schulkind (New York: Harcourt, 1985), p. 147. In Malcolm Bradbury’s view, ‘[in] the history of Modernism, London has always had a somewhat ambiguous reputation. It is the obvious centre of English-language Modernist activity, and between 1890 and 1920 it sustained and generated a vital sequence of experimental movements and phases. Yet it is also in the record as one of the dullest and most deadening of capital cities’. Malcolm Bradbury, ‘London 1890–1920’, in Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1920, eds. Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991), p. 172. 11. Henry James, The Notebooks of Henry James, ed. F. O. Matthiessen and K. B. Murdock (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947), p. 28. In his critical prefaces published between 1907 and 1909, Henry James goes back to his first novel Roderick Hudson (1875) and admits the necessity of a nar- ratively ordered structure in fictional works: ‘the prime effect of so sustained a system, so prepared a surface, is to lead on and on; while the fascination of following resides, by the same token, in the presumably somewhere of a convenient, of a visibly-appointed stopping-place’. Henry James, The Art of the Novel: Critical Prefaces (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934), p. 6. 12. Henry James, ‘The House of Fiction’, in Literary Criticism II: French Writers, Other European Writers, The Prefaces to the New York Edition, ed. Leon Edel (New York: The Library of America, 1984), p. 1075. For an analysis of Notes 183

James’s architectural imagery, see Ellen Eve Frank, Literary Architecture: Essays Towards a Tradition: Walter Pater, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Marcel Proust, Henry James (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979). 13. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit, translated by A. V. Miller, analysis of the text and foreword by J. N. Findlay (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), paragraph 18, p. 10; paragraph 20, p. 11. 14. Theodor Adorno, Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life, translated by E. F. N. Jephcott (London: Verso, 1974), pp. 49–50. 15. ‘The best future James ever imagines remains unwritten (for better or worse) in his last romance, his fabulous story of time travel, The Sense of the Past. But the promise of a happy ending – the only one in his entire oeuvre – is clear in the notes he wrote for the novel’. Beverly Haviland, Henry James’s Last Romance: Making Sense of the Past and the American Scene (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. xiii–xiv. Bibliography

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Abbate Badin, Donatella, 161 Besant, Walter, 14, 16, 125–6, 129, Academy, The, 177 136 Ackroyd, Peter, 166 completion of Collins, Blind Love, Adorno, Theodor, 146–7, 183 14, 16, 125–6, 129, 136 Minima Moralia, 146–7 Bible, The, 72, 73, 118, 165 Aijmer, Celia, 144, 182 Bigelow, Gordon, 176 Ainsworth, William Harrison, 129 bildungsroman, 27, 38, 50, 77, 79, 83, Jack Sheppard, 129 118, 157 All the Year Round, 24, 59, 75, 163, Birtwistle, Sue, 147 164 Blackwood, John, 12 Altick, Richard D., 152 Blast, 137 Annual Registers, 25 see also Modernism Antinucci, Raffaella, 153–4 Bosch, Hieronymus, 56 Arabian Nights, The, 33, 155 Boudin, Martian, 181 Arata, Stephen, 173–4 Bourne Taylor, Jenny, 178 Arnett Melchiori, Barbara, 175, Boycott, Charles, 111–12 179 see also Irish Question Arnold, Matthew, 22 Boylan, Clare Culture and Anarchy, 22 Emma Brown, 9, 150 Athenaeum, The, 22, 44, 82, 167 see also Brontë, ‘Emma’ Austen, Jane, 10, 15, 38, 44, 49 Bradbury, Malcolm, 182 Sanditon, 10 Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, 44, 45, 49, Aycock Metz, Nancy, 161 59, 123, 129 Lady Audley’s Secret, 44, 45, 123 Bachman, Maria K., 179 see also sensation novel Bakhtin, Mikhail M., 58, 92, 160, 167, Brontë, Anne, 20 170 Brontë, Branwell, 20 Banville, John, 103 Brontë, Charlotte, 1–20, 22, 23, 30, Bareham, Terry, 177–8 43, 45, 106, 109, 138, 145, 147, Barker, Juliet, 2, 9, 148 148, 149, 151, 154 Barrett Browning, Elizabeth, 21 Ashworth, 151 Barrie, J. M., 171 ‘Emma’, 4–20, 22, 138, 145, 148, Barthes, Roland, 10, 17, 151 149 Baxter, Charles, 105 Jane Eyre, 3, 5, 30, 43, 149 Beattie, Hilary J., 170–1 The Professor, 4, 154 Beddoe, John, 131 Shirley, 9, 109 The Races of Britain, 131 ‘The Story of Willie Ellin’, 4, 6, 9, Beer, John, 75, 165 149 Belgravia, 22 Villette, 3, 4, 7 Benjamin, Walter, 150 Brontë, Emily, 148 Bentley, George, 114 unfinished novel, 148 Béranger, Jean-Pierre de, 171 Wuthering Heights, 148 Berke, Jacqueline and Laure, 157 Brontë, Maria (nee Branwell), 3

196 Index 197

Brontë, Rev Patrick, 1, 6, 20, 23, 152 Collins, Charles, 53–4, 159 Brooks, Peter, 11, 150 cover design for Dickens, The Broughton, Rhoda, 140, 141, 143 Mystery of Edwin Drood, 53–4, Browning, Robert, 22 159 The Ring and the Book, 22 Collins, Philip, 164, 166 Buchnan, Laurie, 157 Collins, Wilkie, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Buelens, Gert, 144, 182 22, 38, 44, 50, 54, 59, 60, 110, Bulwer-Lytton, Edward, 12, 129 111, 113, 123, 124–37, 138, 145, Paul Clifford, 129 161, 162, 163, 178–81 Braxfield, Robert McQueen, 92, 167 Armadale, 22, 38, 123, 135, 136 see also Stevenson, Weir of Hermiston The Black Robe, 126 Burke, Thomas Henry, 112 Blind Love, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Burns, Robert, 87, 169 110–11, 115, 124–37, 178–80 Bushell, Sally, 14, 19, 104, 151, 173 The Dead Secret, 134 Byatt, Antonia S., 103 ‘The Dream Woman’, 135 Byron, George, 7, 10, 27, 29, 89, 90, The Evil Genius, 126 154, 179 The Fallen Leaves, 126 Don Juan, 10 The Guilty River, 178 The Haunted Hotel, 178 Caird, Mona, 136 Heart and Science, 126 Calder, Jenni, 104, 149, 170, 172, 173 ‘Iris’ (first version of Blind Love), completion of Stevenson, St. Ives, 126 104, 149, 173 The Law and the Lady, 134, 178 Carlyle, Thomas, 34, 109, 130, 179 The Legacy of Cain, 127 Chartism, 109, 130, 179 Man and Wife, 178 The French Revolution, 109 The Moonstone, 16, 59, 60, 129, 161 On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the No Name, 136 Heroic in History, 34 No Thoroughfare (with Charles Past and Present, 34 Dickens), 162–3 Carmichael-Smyth, Lieutenant Henry, ‘An Old Maid’s Husband’, 178 28–9 ‘Rank and Riches’, 126 Cavendish, Lord Frederic, 112, 119 The Woman in White, 14, 127, 130, see also Irish Question 134, 136, 180 Cawelti, John G., 171 see also sensation novel Cecil, Lord David, 37, 156 Colvin, Sidney, 80, 82, 95, 169–70, Cerutti, Toni, 160 172, 173 Cervantes, Miguel de, 103, 173 Conan Doyle, Arthur, 52, 60, 82, 174 Don Quixote, 103, 173 ‘That Little Square Box’, 174 Chatman, Seymour, 84, 126, 168, 178 Connor, Steven, 10, 160 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 10 Conrad, Joseph, 74–5, 77, 137, 139, The Canterbury Tales, 10 174, 181 Chesterton, Cecil, 52 Heart of Darkness, 74–5 Chesterton, G. K., 52 The Secret Agent, 137, 139, 174, 181 Chitham, Edward, 148 ‘Preface’ to The Nigger of the Chorley, Henry Fothergill, 44 Narcissus, 77 chronotope, 58, 83, 160, 167 Corbett, Mary Jean, 176 see also Bakhtin Cornhill Magazine, The, 5, 6, 22–3, 24, Cohen, Jane R., 159 35, 36–7, 38, 152, 153, 154, 155, Colby, Robert A., 29, 154 158, 165 198 Index

Cory, Charlotte, 9 Oliver Twist, 68, 77, 129, 171 ‘The Day I Finished Off Charlotte on W. M. Thackeray’s Denis Duval, Brontë’, 9 165 Cox, Arthur J., 160 Our Mutual Friend, 57–9, 68, 69, 77, Craig, Cairn, 81, 166 161, 166 Crockett, Samuel Rutherford, 168 The Pickwick Papers, 69, 76, 77, The Men of the Moss Hags (working 166 title ‘The Killing Time’), 168 Sketches by Boz, 76, 77 Culler, Jonathan, 10 A Tale of Two Cities, 25, 35, 68, 75, Cuming Walters, J., 52, 159 76, 77, 109, 117, 162 Cunningham, Alison (‘Cummy’), 87 The Uncommercial Traveller, 164 Cunningham, Valentine, 174 ‘A Visit to Newgate’ (Sketches by Curtis, L. P., 179 Boz), 76 Dickens-Perugini, Kate, 53, 160 Daiches, David, 92, 170 Dickinson, Emily, 14 Daldry, Graham, 162 Dilnot, Alan, 165 Darwin, Charles, 11, 21, 45, 60, 72, Disraeli, Benjamin, 36, 109, 131 110, 131, 162 Sybil, or the Two Nations, 109 On the Origin of Species, 72 doppelgänger, 65, 68, 100–2, 142–3 Davidoff, Leonore, 153 in Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Davies, Andrew, 149 Drood, 65, 68 Davitt, Michael, 111 in James, The Sense of the Past, see also Irish Question 142–3 Debrabant, Mary, 157 in Stevenson, St. Ives, 100–2 Defoe, Daniel, 172 Duckworth, Julia, 144 Robinson Crusoe, 172 Duffield, Howard, 164 De Man, Paul, 10 Dugdale, Dr Crashaw, 2, 148 Derrida, Jacques, 10 Dumas, Alexander, 33, 95, 97, 98, 99, De Stasio, Clotilde, 170 154, 155, 172 Diamond Jubilee, 107–8, 173 Le Vicomte de Bragelonne, 98, 172 see also Golden Jubilee; Jubilee Plot Duncan, Ian, 90, 169 Dickens, Charles, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 23, 25, 35, 50, 52–78, 106, Edinburgh University Magazine, 90 109, 114, 117, 123, 125, 129, 138, Edwards, Owen Dudley, 175 145, 149, 151, 155, 159–66, 179 Egg, Augustus, 75 Barnaby Rudge, 77, 109 Eigner, Edwin, 167, 172 Bleak House, 62, 68, 69, 75, 77 Eliot, George, 12, 22, 56, 64, 109, 151, A Christmas Carol, 73 160, 165 David Copperfield, 23, 68, 75, 77, Adam Bede, 56, 160 162 Felix Holt, the Radical, 109 Great Expectations, 12, 14, 27, 65, Middlemarch, 12 77, 162 The Mill on the Floss, 64 Hard Times, 62, 68, 75, 77, 163 Romola, 22 Little Dorrit, 75 Eliot, Thomas Stearns, 139 The Mystery of Edwin Drood, 8, 13, see also Modernism 15, 17, 50, 52–78, 114, 123, 125, Ensor, Sir Robert, 110, 174 138, 145, 147, 159–66 No Thoroughfare (with Wilkie Faulkner, David, 162 Collins), 162–3 Faulkner, Karen, 175 Index 199

Fenianism, 108–9, 112, 119, 126, Sylvia’s Lovers, 43 130–1, 174 The Two Mothers (first version of see also Irish Question Wives and Daughters), 42 Ferrier, James Walter, 90 Wives and Daughters, 8, 13, 15, 17, Field, Kate, 121–2 21–24, 36–50, 138, 145, 147, Fielding, Henry, 30 149–50, 152, 155–8, 160 Fielding, Penny, 166 Gaskell, Meta, 23 Fildes, Luke, 53–4, 166 Gaskell, Rev William, 50 cover design and illustrations for Gentleman’s Magazine, The, 25 Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Gérin, Winifred, 148, 152 Drood, 53–4, 166 Gille, L. F., 95 Fitzjames, Sir James, 23 Mémoires d’un conscrict de 1808, 95 ‘The Professions of Advocacy’, 23 Gillman, Susan K., 68, 163 Folder, Timothy, 53 Gilmour, Robin, 27, 153 Fonblanque, Albany, 31 Gissing, George, 109 Formalism, 12, 31, 80 Demos, 109 Forster, John, 54, 76, 160–1, 166 Gladstone, William, 111, 112, 114, The Life of Charles Dickens, 76, 117, 120, 127, 174 160–1, 166 Golden Jubilee, 108, 131 Forster, William Edward, 112, 119 see also Diamond Jubilee; Jubilee Forsyte, Charles, 52 Plot The Decoding of Edwin Drood, 52 Gordon, Lyndall, 2, 9, 149 Foucault, Michel, 10 gothic novel, 60, 85, 93, 96, 112, 130, Fowles, John, 103 144 Frank, Ellen Eve, 183 Grand, Sarah, 136 Fraser’s Magazine, 30 Gray, William, 171 Fuchs, Barbara, 100, 172 Greene, Graham, 151 Fruttero, Carlo, 52, 161 Across the Border, 151 The D Case (with Franco Lucentini), The Empty Chair, 151 52, 161 Greenwood, Frederick, 36, 37, 152, Frye, Northrop, 102, 172–3 154–5 ‘An Essay without End’, 36 Gallagher, Catherine, 174 Margaret Denzil’s History, 36 Gallix, François, 151 notes on Denis Duval, 36, 155 Garfield, Leon, 52 notes on Wives and Daughters, 36–7 The Mystery of Edwin Drood, 52 Gregory, Sir William, 119 Garrison, Laurie, 180 Gaskell, Elizabeth, 2, 3, 4, 14, 15, Hall, Catherine, 153 17, 19, 21–4, 36–51, 106, 109, Halperin, John, 177 111, 114, 123, 138, 147, 149–50, Hamer, Mary, 177 152–3, 155–8, 165 Hannay, James, 23 Cousin Phillis, 46, 158 ‘Bohemians and Bohemianism’, 23 Cranford, 39, 156 Hardy, Thomas, 12, 22, 85, 151, ‘Curious, If True’, 23, 156 181 The Life of Charlotte Brontë, 2, 3, 4, Far From the Madding Crowd, 22 23 Jude the Obscure, 181 Mary Barton, 43 The Return of the Native, 12, 151 North and South, 14, 48–9, 109, 158 Hasler, Anthony, 169 Ruth, 43 Haviland, Beverly, 183 200 Index

Hegel, G. W. F., 139, 146–7, 183 Washington Square, 22 The Phenomenology of Spirit, 146–7, The Wings of the Dove, 145 183 James, Thomas, 52 Henley, W. H., 97 John, Juliet, 164 Hogg, James, 87, 169, 173 Joseph, Gerhard, 56, 160 Holland, Norman N., 152 Joyce, James, 139, 169 Hollington, Michael, 163 Ulysses, 139 Holmes, Rupert, 53 see also Modernism Drood, 53 Jubilee Plot, 108, 131 Homer, 33, 88, 100 see also Diamond Jubilee; Golden The Iliad, 33 Jubilee The Odyssey, 100 Household Words, 24, 75, 152 Kaplan, Fred, 141, 181 Howells, William Dean, 140, 141 Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, 4 Hughes, Gwyneth, 159 Keffe, Robert, 3, 148 Hughes, Linda K., 155–6, 158 Kenny, Kevin, 179 Hugo, Victor, 95, 112 Kermode, Frank, 12–3, 150 Toilers of the Sea, 112 Kiely, Robert, 169 Kingsley, Charles, 63, 109 ideologeme, 92, 170 Alton Locke, 109 see also Bakhtin Kipling, Rudyard, 107–10, 140, 173 Illustrated London News, The, 125 ‘Recessional’, 107–10, 173 Ingham, Dr Amos, 2 ‘White Man’s Burden’, 110 Irish Question, 16, 108–13, 116–19, Knox, Robert, 179 123–32, 136, 175–7, 179 The Races of Men, 179 Iser, Wolfgang, 151–2 Langland, Elizabeth, 157–8 Jacobs, Joseph, 82, 167 Larson, Janet, 72, 165 Jacobson, Wendy S., 163 Law, Graham, 125, 178, 180–1 James, Henry, 13, 17, 18, 22, 37, 81, Lawrence, Lindsay, 152 138, 141–7, 147, 150, 152, 167, Leech, John, 75 174, 181–3 Lester, John A., 32, 154, 155 The Ambassadors, 140 Letley, Emma, 170 ‘Anthony Trollope’, 150 Lever, Charles, 33 ‘The Art of Fiction’, 13, 150 Levinson, Marjorie, 151 ‘The Aspern Papers’, 141 Lewes, G. H., 36, 160 The Golden Bowl, 140 Lewis, Wyndham, 137 ‘The House of Fiction’, 145 see also Modernism The Ivory Tower, 141 Life: A Weekly Journal of Society, ‘The Jolly Corner’, 143 Literature, the Fine Arts and The Portrait of a Lady, 145 Finance, 175 The Princess Casamassima, 145, 174 Lincoln, Abraham, 21 review of Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives London Journal, The, 22 and Daughters, 37, 156 Longman’s Magazine, The, 99, 155 ‘Robert Louis Stevenson’, 81, 167 Lonoff, Sue, 161, 180 Roderick Hudson, 182 Lucentini, Franco, 52, 161 The Sense of the Past, 18, 138, 140–7, The D Case (with Carlo Fruttero), 152, 181–3 52, 161 ‘The Turn of the Screw’, 140–1, 183 Lukács, Georg, 11, 150 Index 201

Lund, Michael, 35, 151, 155, 158 Modernism, 100, 132, 144, 152, 189 Lustig, T. J., 182 Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), 172 Lyell, Charles, 11 Montaigne, Michel de, 172 Lynn Linton, Eliza, 121 Moore, John Robert, 172 ‘The Girl of the Period’, 121 Moretti, Franco, 50, 158

Macherey, Pierre, 18, 104, 151, 173 Nardin, Jane, 177 Macmillan’s Magazine, 22 Naugrette, Jean-Pierre, 170 MacTurk, Dr William, 2 Nestor, Pauline, 180 Mallock, W. M., 109 Newell, R. H. (‘Orpheus C. Kerr’), 52 The Old Order Changes, 109 Newgate Novels, 77, 129 Manchester Examiner and Times, The, Nicholls, Rev Arthur Bell, 1, 4–5, 6, 8, 44 9, 20, 148 Mangham, Andrew, 178 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard, 174 Marlowe, Christopher, 10, 90 Nordau, Max, 107 Doctor Faustus, 90 Degeneration, 107 Hero and Leander, 10 Norquay, Glenda, 95, 98, 171, 172, 173 Marroni, Francesco, 40–1, 157, 167, Norton, Charles Eliot, 49, 141 181 Nussbaum, Martha C., 19, 152 Martineau, Harriet, 23 Nussey, Ellen, 1, 149 ‘Middle-Class Education in England: Boys’, 23 O’ Connell, Daniel, 131 ‘Middle-Class Education: Girls’, 23 see also Irish Question Marwick, Margaret, 177 Oliphant, Margaret, 49 Mason, Philip, 153 O’ Donghaile, Deaglán, 137, 174, 181 Masters, Joellen, 158 O’ Fallon, Kathleen, 180 Matus, Jill L., 59, 161 O’ Farrell, Patrick, 175 Maunder, Andrew, 125, 178 Omond, George William Thomson, 90 Mayhem, Henry, 9 O’ Rossa, Jeremiah Donovan, 108 London Labour and the London see also Irish Question Poor, 9 Osbourne, Fanny, 105, 171 Maynard, John, 3, 148 Osbourne, Lloyd, 98, 172 Maxwell, Richard, 162 Oxford Movement, 72 McClure’s Magazine, 171–2 McMahon, Deirdre, 174–5 Pall Mall Gazette (Pall Mall Magazine), McManus, C., 165 36, 160, 172 Meckier, Jerome, 161 Parey, Armelle, 150 Menikoff, Barry, 166 Parnell, Charles, 108, 111–12, 131 Meredith, George, 152, 172 see also Irish Question Celt and Saxon, 152 Paroissien, David, 159 The Egoist, 172 Pattern, Robert L., 68, 163 Michie, Elsie B., 150–1 Pearl, Matthew, 53 Mill, John Stuart, 121 The Last Dickens, 53 On the Subjection of Women, 121 Pearson, Richard, 153 Millen, Francis, 108-9 Peters, Catherine, 154, 161, 178, 179 Miller, D. A., 10, 53, 150, 159 Pigott, Richard, 108 Miller, Hillis J., 151 Pinion, F. B., 148 Miller, Lucasta, 3, 148 Plotz, John, 174 Miyoshi, Masao, 166 Pope, Alexander, 33 202 Index

Pope-Hennessy, James, 177 Green Emeralds for the King: Story of Postmodernism, 12, 52, 55, 79, 88, the Civil Wars, 9 103, 104 see also Brontë, ‘Emma’ Pound, Ezra, 137 Schor, Hilary, 157 see also Modernism Scott, Walter, 33, 81, 82, 87, 88, 90, pre-Raphaelites, 46 97, 102, 103, 155, 168, 169, 172, Punch, 24, 112, 119 173, 195 Pynchon, Thomas, 103 Chronicles of the Canongate, 173 Prescott Flynn, Judith, 165 Heart of Midlothian, 195 Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 88 Quiller-Couch, Arthur, 82, 104, 125, Old Mortality, 168 149, 167, 172 Rob Roy, 172 completion of Stevenson, St. Ives, Waverley, 90 82, 104, 125, 149, 172 sensation novel, 4, 36, 38, 43–7, Dead Man’s Rock, 167 59–60, 119, 123, 124, 127, 129, 132, 133, 157, 178, 179, 180 Raeburn, Henry, 92, 170 influence on Gaskell, Wives and Radcliffe, Ann, 44 Daughters, 43–7 Rance, Nicholas, 178 see also Braddon, Collins, Reade, Ray, Gordon N., 24, 153 Wood Reade, Charles, 44, 129 Shakespeare, William, 71, 172 see also sensation novel Macbeth, 71, 164 Reed, John R., 154 Shaw, George Bernard, 52 Reeve, Clara, 103–4, 173 Shillingsburg, Peter L., 153 The Progress of Romance, 103–4, 173 Shuttleworth, Sally, 7–8, 149, 158 Reid, Julia, 167 Sicker, Philip, 182 Renton, Nick, 149 Simmons, Dan, 52 Rhodes, Dr Philip, 2, 3, 148 Drood, 52 Rhys, Jean, 30 Simpson, K. G., 169 Wide Sargasso Sea, 30 Smiles, Samuel, 23, 27, 153 Robb, George, 180 Self-Help, 23, 27, 153 Robertson Nicoll, W., 54, 160 Smith, George Murray, 4, 5, 22, 31, 36 romance, 27, 33, 35, 50, 80–2, 88–90, Smith Williams, William, 6, 149 94–8, 100–5, 155, 167, 171–3, 183 Spectator, The, 177 see also Stevenson, St. Ives Spenser, Edmund, 10 Ruskin, John, 22 The Fairie Queen, 10 Unto His Last, 22 Stephen, Leslie, 144 Stevenson, Bob, 94, 168 Said, Edward, 12, 150, 181 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 8, 13, 14, Salisbury, Robert Cecil, 109, 127 15, 16, 17, 19, 26, 33, 50, 79–106, Sanders, Andrew, 152, 162, 123, 125, 138, 145, 147, 149, 151, Sandison, Alan, 168 155, 166–73, 174 Saturday Review, The, 21, 152, 177 ‘The Beach of Falesá’, 83, 89 Savage, Richard Henry, 174 ‘Books Which Have Influenced Me’, The Anarchist, 174 172 Savery, Constance (Elizabeth Catriona (David Balfour), 80, 166 Goudge), 9 ‘Child’s Play’, 171 Emma, 9 The Dynamiter, 174 Forbidden Doors, 9 The Ebb-Tide, 80, 83, 89 Index 203

‘A Gossip on a Novel of Dumas’s’, Thackeray, William Makepeace, 5, 6, 172 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21–35, ‘A Gossip on Romance’, 33, 80, 155 36, 37, 39, 47, 49, 50, 51, 75, Heathercat, 84-5, 168 106, 111, 114, 124, 138, 145, 149, ‘The House of Eld’, 91–2, 93, 170 152–5, 158, 165 ‘A Humble Remonstrance’, 80, 96, The Adventures of Philip, 24, 35, 155 105 Barry Lyndon, 27, 29, 154 In the South Seas, 167 Catherine, 32 Kidnapped, 34, 80, 96, 100, 166 ‘De Juventute’ (Roundabout Papers), The Master of Ballantrae, 80, 90, 169 33, 155 The New Arabian Nights, 172 Denis Duval, 6, 13, 15, 17, 18, ‘A Note on Realism’, 80, 166 21–35, 36, 39, 47, 49, 50, 75, 111, ‘Olalla’, 93, 170 114, 124, 138, 145, 147, 151, The Pentland Rising, 81 152–5, 165 ‘The Persons of the Tale’, 80, 166 The History of Henry Esmond, 23, 26, ‘The Scot Abroad’, 167 27, 31, 32, 153, 154, 155 ‘Some Portraits by Raeburn’, 92, 170 The Knights of Borsellen, 25 Sophia Scarlet, 93 ‘The Last Sketch’, 5, 149 St. Ives, 8, 13, 16, 17, 26, 79, 80, 81, The Newcomes, 35 82, 93, 95–105, 125, 167, 171–3 ‘Nil Nisi Bonum’ (Roundabout The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Papers), 26, 153 Mr. Hyde, 14, 82, 94, 96, 164, 179 Pendennis, 27, 29, 35 ‘Thrawn Janet’, 85, 168 Roundabout Papers, 24, 26, 33, 153, Treasure Island, 80, 91, 96, 97, 100, 155 167 A Shabby Genteel Story, 30, 35 Weir of Hermiston, 13, 15, 16, 17, Vanity Fair, 5, 14, 28, 32, 154, 155 26, 50, 79–95, 97, 98, 102, 104, The Virginians, 154 105, 123, 145, 147, 167–71 Tennyson, Lord Alfred, 3, 14, 22, 24, The Young Chevalier, 151 148 Stoneman, Patsy, 150, 156 The Idylls of the King, 24 Storey, R. J., 173 ‘Tithonus’, 22 Strong, Belle, 97, 105, 169, 171, 173 ‘To –, After Reading a Life and Sussex Archaeological Collections, 25 Letters’, 3, 148 Sutherland, John, 26–7, 153 Terry, R. C., 176 Tillotson, Kathleen, 174 Taine, Henri M., 160 Times, The, 30, 108, 119, 127, 131 Taylor, Amelie, 2 Tintner, Adeline R., 181 Taylor, D. J., 154, 158 Torgovnick, Marianna, 56, 150, 160 Temple Bar, 22, 114, 175 Tracy, Robert, 117, 163, 176 Tenniel, Sir John, 112 Trevelyan, Emily, 121 ‘The Irish Frankenstein’, 112 Trollope, Anthony, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, ‘The Irish Vampire’, 112 17, 18, 19, 22, 27, 50, 85, 106, Ternan, Ellen, 58 110, 111, 113–24, 126, 130, 132, Thacker, John, 165 133, 136, 138, 145, 150, 151, 153, Thackeray, Anne (nee Becher), 28–9 155, 175–8, 179 Thackeray, Anne Richie, 50–1, 158 An Autobiography, 113, 114, 121, Thackeray, Isabella (nee Shawe), 123, 124, 175, 177, 178 29–30, 154 Barchester Towers, 13, 151 Thackeray, Richmond, 28–9 Can You Forgive Her?, 27 204 Index

Trollope, Anthony – continued Villon, François, 171 Castle Richmond, 114 Visser, Nicholas, 174 Framley Parsonage, 22, 120 The Kellys and the O’Kellys, 113–14 Wales, Kathleen, 162 He Knew He Was Right, 121–122 Walker, Stuart, 53 The Landleaguers, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, Ward, E. M., 179 18, 50, 110, 111, 113–24, 126, Wasinger, Carrie, 156, 158 130, 132, 135, 136, 137, 145, 151, Watt, A. P., 125, 178 155, 175–8 Wells, H. G., 139, 140, 181 The Macdermots of Ballycloran, 113, ‘The Crystal Egg’, 181 178 ‘The Story of the Days to Come’, ‘New York’, 177 181 ‘On the Higher Education of Tales of Space and Time, 140 Women’, 121, 177 The Time Machine, 140 Orley Farm, 114 Weyman, Stanley John, 95, 98–9 Phineas Finn, 114 A Gentleman of France, 98–9 Phineas Redux, 114 Under the Red Robe, 98 The Prime Minister, 27 White, Hayden, 88, 143, 169, 182 The Scarborough Family, 113 Williams, Raymond, 174 The Vicar of Bullhampton, 121 Wilson, Edmund, 56, 163–4 The Way We Live Now, 14, 120 Winstanley, Michael J., 175 Trollope, Henry, 115 Wolfreys, Julian, 114, 182 Tynan, Maeve, 175 Wood, Mrs Henry (Ellen), 44, 49 see also sensation novel Uglow, Jenny, 43, 153, 157 Woolf, Virginia, 139, 144, 182 see also Modernism Victoria, Queen and Empress of Wordsworth, William, 14 England, 107–8, 110 Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in Yonge, Charlotte, 49 the Highlands, 22 Young, Robert J. C., 179 see also Diamond Jubilee; Golden Jubilee; Jubilee Plot Zenzinger, Peter, 169