Videotag: Encouraging the Effective Tagging of Internet Videos Through Tagging Games
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VideoTag: Encouraging the Effective Tagging of Internet Videos Through Tagging Games Stacey Lewis BA (hons) MSc A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the University of Wolverhampton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2014 Director of Studies – Professor Mike Thelwall Supervisor - Dr Kevan Buckley This work or any part thereof has not previously been presented in any form to the University or to any other body whether for the purposes of assessment, publication or for any other purpose (unless otherwise indicated). Save for any express acknowledgments, references and/or bibliographies cited in the work, I confirm that the intellectual content of the work is the result of my own efforts and of no other person. The right of Stacey Lewis to be identified as author of this work is asserted in accordance with ss.77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. At this date copyright is owned by the author. Abstract The tags and descriptions entered by video owners in video sharing sites are typically inadequate for retrieval purposes, yet the majority of video search still uses this text. This problem is escalating due to the ease with which users can self-publish videos, generating masses that are poorly labelled and poorly described. This thesis investigates how users tag videos and whether video tagging games can solve this problem by generating useful sets of tags. A preliminary study investigated tags in two social video sharing sites, YouTube and Viddler. YouTube contained many irrelevant tags because the system does not encourage users to tag their videos and does not promote tags as useful. In contrast, using tags as the sole means of categorisation in Viddler motivated users to enter a higher proportion of relevant tags. Poor tags were found in both systems, however, highlighting the need to improve video tagging. In order to give users incentives to tag videos, the VideoTag project in this thesis developed two tagging games, Golden Tag and Top Tag, and one non-game tagging system, Simply Tag, and conducted two experiments with them. In the first experiment VideoTag was a portal to play video tagging games whereas in the second experiment it was a portal to curate collections of special interest videos. Users preferred to tag videos using games, generating tags that were relevant to the videos and that covered a range of tag types that were descriptive of the video content at a predominately specific, objective level. Users were motivated by interest in the content rather than by game elements, and content had an effect on the tag types used. In each experiment, users predominately tagged videos using objective language, with a tendency to use specific rather than basic tags. There was a significant difference between the types of tags entered in the games and in Simply Tag, with more basic, objective vocabulary entered into the games and more specific, objective language entered into the non-game system. Subjective tags were rare but were more frequent in Simply Tag. Gameplay also had an influence on the types of tags entered; Top Tag generated more basic tags and Golden Tag generated more specific and subjective tags. Users were not attracted to use VideoTag by the games alone. Game mechanics had little impact on motivations to use the system. VideoTag used YouTube videos, but could not upload the tags to YouTube and so users could see no benefit for the tags they entered, reducing participation. Specific interest content was more of a motivator for use than games or tagging and that this warrants further research. In the current game-saturated climate, gamification of a video tagging system may therefore be most successful for collections of videos that already have a committed user base. 1 Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................ 7 2 Literature Review 10 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10 2.2 Online Video ............................................................................................................ 10 2.2.1 YouTube Studies ........................................................................................................................ 11 2.2.2 Video Search .............................................................................................................................. 16 2.2.3 Video Annotation – Bridging the Semantic Gap ......................................................................... 18 2.2.4 How Users Search for Videos ..................................................................................................... 22 2.3 Games With A Purpose .......................................................................................... 25 2.3.1 Video Tagging Games ................................................................................................................ 34 2.3.2 Crowdsourcing and Motivation to Participate ............................................................................. 38 2.3.3 Theory of Play - Motivation, Engagement and Flow ................................................................... 44 2.4 Defining ‘Casual’ in Game Design ........................................................................ 53 2.4.1 Designing for Player Enjoyment – Player Type .......................................................................... 56 2.4.2 Designing for Player Enjoyment - Fun Factors ........................................................................... 59 2.4.3 Measuring Enjoyment ................................................................................................................ 63 2.5 Gamification ............................................................................................................ 66 2.6 Tagging .................................................................................................................... 73 2.6.1 Types of Tag .............................................................................................................................. 81 2.6.2 Motivation to Tag ....................................................................................................................... 85 2.6.3 Tagging Video ............................................................................................................................ 88 2.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 92 3 Research Questions 94 4 Classification Studies – Straight Tagging of User Generated Video 98 ii 4.1 Tagging YouTube ................................................................................................... 98 4.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 98 4.1.2 Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 98 4.1.3 Research questions ................................................................................................................... 100 4.1.4 Methods ................................................................................................................................... 101 4.1.4.1 Data Collection ............................................................................................................................................ 101 4.1.4.2 Classification Scheme .................................................................................................................................. 101 4.1.4.3 Findings ........................................................................................................................................................ 105 4.1.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 109 4.1.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 110 4.2 Broad Video Tagging............................................................................................ 112 4.2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 112 4.2.2 Methods ................................................................................................................................... 114 4.2.3 Data Collection......................................................................................................................... 114 4.2.4 Findings ................................................................................................................................... 116 4.2.4.1 Comparison of Tagging Systems ................................................................................................................ 116 4.2.4.2 Tag Classification. ....................................................................................................................................... 120 4.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 127 5 The VideoTag Experiment 129 5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................