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A Review on the Occurrence of Companion Vector-Borne Diseases in Pet Animals in Latin America

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A Review on the Occurrence of Companion Vector-Borne Diseases in Pet Animals in Latin America Maggi and Krämer Parasites Vectors (2019) 12:145 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3407-x Parasites & Vectors REVIEW Open Access A review on the occurrence of companion vector-borne diseases in pet animals in Latin America Ricardo G. Maggi1* and Friederike Krämer2 Abstract Companion vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are an important threat for pet life, but may also have an impact on human health, due to their often zoonotic character. The importance and awareness of CVBDs continuously increased during the last years. However, information on their occurrence is often limited in several parts of the world, which are often especially afected. Latin America (LATAM), a region with large biodiversity, is one of these regions, where information on CVBDs for pet owners, veterinarians, medical doctors and health workers is often obsolete, limited or non-existent. In the present review, a comprehensive literature search for CVBDs in companion animals (dogs and cats) was performed for several countries in Central America (Belize, Caribbean Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico) as well as in South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana (British Guyana), Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela) regarding the occurrence of the following parasitic and bacterial diseases: babesiosis, heartworm disease, subcutaneous diroflariosis, hepatozoonosis, leishmaniosis, trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, bartonellosis, borreliosis, ehrlichiosis, mycoplasmosis and rickettsiosis. An overview on the specifc diseases, followed by a short summary on their occurrence per country is given. Additionally, a tabular listing on positive or non-reported occur- rence is presented. None of the countries is completely free from CVBDs. The data presented in the review confrm a wide distribution of the CVBDs in focus in LATAM. This wide occurrence and the fact that most of the CVBDs can have a quite severe clinical outcome and their diagnostic as well as therapeutic options in the region are often difcult to access and to aford, demands a strong call for the prevention of pathogen transmission by the use of ectoparasiti- cidal and anti-feeding products as well as by performing behavioural changes. Keywords: Companion vector-borne diseases (CVBDs), Dog, Cat, Occurrence, Vector, Latin America (LATAM), Prevalence Background In Latin America (LATAM), a region with one of the Companion vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) have among largest biodiversities in the world, a combination of fac- others a major impact on the welfare of pets. Tey may tors such as intensifcation of agricultural practices, also represent a constant risk to humans due to their landscape modifcation, poor ecosystem protection and zoonotic nature, which emphasizes the importance of potentially slight unstable economics, creates host popu- pets as reservoirs. lations conducive to the performance and persistence of parasites and vectors. Tis is especially important for CVBDs afecting dogs and cats as companion animals, as a signifcant propor- *Correspondence: [email protected] tion of those (i.e. 52–75%) [1, 2], even though owned 1 Department of Clinical Sciences and the Intracellular Pathogens by pet holders, roam freely, besides an exploding num- Research Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA ber of stray dogs and cats. In LATAM, the lack of sensi- Full list of author information is available at the end of the article tive awareness of animal welfare and disease issues, the © The Author(s) 2019. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/ publi cdoma in/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Maggi and Krämer Parasites Vectors (2019) 12:145 Page 2 of 37 restricted economic and technological access to proper treatment, vaccines have been introduced with variable veterinary care, and the absence of responsible pet own- efcacy (see Irwin [14] for summary). According to the ership, have created conditions for the emergence and authors’ knowledge, the vaccines are only available in persistence of many diseases that ultimately will afect Europe, so that prevention of vector exposure in form of people, livestock, and wildlife [3–10]. Besides, socio- acaricidal treatment is essential especially for LATAM. economic, demographic and ecological factors, including globalization, increase in international trade, tourism and Diroflariosis travel, climate change and its efect on vector distribution Diroflariosis is caused by Diroflaria immitis, present- in time and space, have also to be reconsidered. ing as an important disease, causing cardiopulmonary Tis article summarizes the data of reported detec- problems and even death in dogs worldwide and com- tion (or prevalence when available) of the most signif- monly known as canine heartworm disease, and by Diro- cant CVBDs afecting companion animals in LATAM in flaria repens, a subcutaneous parasite of dogs and cats in tabular form and as detailed information per country and Europe, Africa and Asia. discusses research gaps to be addressed in future stud- ies. In case of very scarce published data, additionally the Canine heartworm disease occurrence of the pathogens in potential vectors, wild Canine heartworm disease has a wide distribution in canids or felids and in humans is listed, to illustrate the LATAM (except Belize, Guatemala, Panama, French Gui- fact that the pathogen is occurring in a respective region, ana, Chile and Uruguay; for specifc data see individual even though not ofcially reported in companion ani- country sections). Te pathogen is transmitted by several mals so far. Beforehand a brief introduction on the dis- mosquito species. As a mosquito-transmitted disease, eases, usually followed by a short summary or references it is more prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, for more detailed data on diagnostic methods, treatment due to favorable conditions for mosquito propagation indications and ways of prevention are given. [19–21]. Clinical signs vary from nearly asymptomatic to Generally, for many of the vector-borne diseases very severe and are listed elsewhere [22–24]. Diagnostic (VBDs) described here, diverse diagnostic tests are avail- methods include microflaria testing of blood samples, able (microscopic, serological, molecular). Nevertheless, ideally after a concentration technique (modifed Knottʼs besides their diferent performance regarding sensitivity test or fltration test), and antigen testing. For details on and specifcity in acute and chronic disease, only few are diferent test sensitivities and combinations please see the readily available as diagnostic tools at most clinical prac- guidelines of the American Heartworm Society (AHS) tices in the reported LATAM regions. [25]. Treatment against heartworm varies depending on the severity of the disease and always aims to improve Parasitic diseases the clinical condition and to eliminate all life stages of the Babesiosis heartworms with minimal post-treatment complications. Babesiosis in pet animals in LATAM is mainly caused Prevention by the use of chemoprophylactic drugs is by Babesia vogeli and Babesia gibsoni [11–13]. Te dis- strongly recommended year-round in endemic areas. For ease has been reported in many areas especially of full recommendations see the guidelines of the Tropical South America, whereas reports from Central America Council of Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP) [26] are scarce so far. Babesia vogeli is transmitted directly and the AHS [25]. Prevention of vector exposure on the via tick bites [Rhipicephalus sanguineus (sensu lato)], basis of antifeeding and/or insecticidal treatments and by whereas B. gibsoni in LATAM is expected to be transmit- the use of mosquito screens etc. and reduction of suitable ted via blood transfer through dog bites, blood transfu- breeding sites for mosquitoes support a successful pre- sions and transplacental supply [14–18]. Clinical signs, vention scheme. depending on the species, and further details on clini- cal and laboratory fndings can be found in Irwin [14]. Subcutaneous diroflariosis As diagnosis microscopy remains the simplest and most Subcutaneous diroflariosis is a flarial disease caused by accessible diagnostic test. Diferent sensitivity dur- D. repens. Again, transmitted by diverse mosquito spe- ing the cause of disease may be supported by molecular cies, adult worms are located mainly in subcutaneous methods (see Irwin [14] for details). Treatment does not tissues. Te presence of adult D. repens worms in subcu- eliminate the parasite, but only reduces parasitemia and taneous tissues and/or subcutaneous nodules [27] often supports resolution of clinical signs and is summarized goes unnoticed but can also cause cutaneous disorders elsewhere [14]. Animals diagnosed with Babesia spp. [28–31], as well as extradermic symptoms [32]. For fur- should be considered permanent carriers of the infection. ther details on the parasite see also Genchi et al. [33] Due to the
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