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31 August 1988 Mr Jim Keenan Department of Science

31 August 1988 Mr Jim Keenan Department of Science

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31 August 1988 L21/8720L01

52l Brunswick Street Mr Jim Keenan Fortitude Valley Department of Science: Division Post Office Box 431 Antarctic Policy and Transport Studies Branch Fortitude Valley. Q. 4006 PO Box 65 BELCONNEN ACT 2616 Telephone (07) 3584744

Dear Jim

MAWSON'S HUTS

We now enclose final copies of our report on the significance of Mawson1s Hu ts. One copy is bound and the other unbound for further photocopying should you require additional copies.

L

RICHARD ALLOM Director

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Pty Ltd Consultant: trading as Allam Lovell & Associates Pty Ltd Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle (03) 654 8910 Mawson's Huts

Statement of Significance CONTENTS i

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 MAWSON'S HUTS 1 1.2 THIS DOCUMENT 1 1.3 COMPLETENESS OF THE EVIDENCE 2 1.4 SYNOPSIS 3 1.5 THE STUDY TEAM 3 1.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3

2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 5

2.1 SUMMARY 5 2.2 POLAR REGIONS 5 2.2.1 The Region 5 2.2.2 Antarctica 7 2.2.3 Antarctica's Physical Geography 8 2.3 NORTH 10 2.4 POLAR EXPLORATION 11 2.4.1 The Pre-Wintering Period of South Polar Exploration 11 2.5 THE HEROIC PERIOD 12 2.5.1 Early Expeditions 13 2.5.2 Three Simultaneous Expeditions 1901-1903 13 2.5.3 Bruce's Expedition 1902-1904 14 2.5.4 Charcot's Expeditions 1904-1905 &. 1909-1910 14 2.5.5 Shackleton's Expedition 1909-1910 15 2.5.6 Scott's and Amundsen's Expeditions 1909-1911 16 Other Minor Expeditions 1911-1914 EARLY AUSTRALIAN INVOLVEMENT IN EXPLORATION 16 2.7 THE AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 1911- 1914 17 2.7.1 Sir 17 2.7.2 The Objectives of the Expedition 18 2.7.3 The Expedition 20 2.8 THE BASE STATION 21 2.9 THE MAIN BASE STATION 22 2.10 THE MAIN LIVING AND WORKSHOP HUT 23 2.10.1 Origins of the Design 25 2.10.2 The Specification of the Hut 26 2.10.3 The Construction of the Hut 27 2.11 OTHER STRUCTURES AT THE MAIN BASE STATION 30 2.11.1 The Hangar 30 2.11.2 The Absolute Hut 31 2.11.3 The Magnetograph House 31 2.11.4 The Transit Hut 32 2.11.5 The Memorial Cross and Plaque 32 2.12 THE WESTERN BASE STATION 33 2.13 CONCLUSION OF DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 33

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CONTENTS ii

3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 35

3.1 SUMMARY 36 3.2 THE MAIN LIVING AND WORKSHOP HUT 36 3.3 OTHER STRUCTURES AT THE MAIN BASE STATION 37 3.3.1 The Hangar 37 3.3.2 The Absolute Hut 37 3.3.3 The Magnetograph House 38 3.3.4 The Transit Hut 38 3.3.5 The Memorial Cross and Plaque 38 3.4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS 41 3.5 MORE RECENT BUILDINGS AND ARTEFACTS 41

4: COMPARATIVEANALY&S 42

4.1 POLAR HUTS 42 4.2 HUTS OF THE HEROIC AGE OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION 42 4.2.1 Scandinavian Designs 43 4.2.2 British Designs 43 4.2.3 Australian Designs 44 4.3 MAWSON'S HUTS 44 4.4 OTHER SURVIVING HUTS 45

5 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 41

CONCEPT 5.3 CRITERIA FOR SIGNIFICANCE 48 5.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MAWSON'S HUTS 49 5.4.1 49 5.4.2 Rarity 49 5.4.3 Associational Value 49 5.4.4 Aesthetic, Creative and Technical 50 5.4.5 Social and Cultural Value 51 5.4.6 Scientific Value 51 5.5 SUMMARY STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE 52

6 POLICY ISSUES

6.1 ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED 54 6.2 A CONSERVATION POLICY FOR MAWSON'S HUTS 54

APPENDICES 58

7.1 CRITERIA FOR THE REGISTER OF THE NATIONAL ESTATE 58 7.2 ARCTIC HUTS 60 7.2.1 1596 Dutch Arctic Expedition 61 7.2.2 1891-1893 American Arctic Expedition 63

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7.2.3 1893-1895 American Arctic Expedition 65 7.2.4 1898-1902 Norwegian Arctic Expedition 67 7.2.5 1899-1902 American Arctic Expedition 68 7.2.6 1900 Danish East Expedition 70 7.2.7 1903-1906 Norwegian Arctic Expedition 71 7.3 ANTARCTIC HUTS 72 7.3.1 1882-1883 German Expedition 73 7.3.2 1898-1900 British Antarctic Expedition 75 7.3.3 1901-1903 Swedish Antarctic Expedition 77 7.3.4 1901-1904 British National Antarctic Expedition 79 7.3.5 1902-1904 Scottish National Antarct ic Expedition 81 7.3.7 1907-1909 British Antarctic Expedition 85 7.3.8 1910-1913 British Antarctic Expedition 87 7.3.9 1910-1912 Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 89 7.3.10 1910-1913 British Antarctic Expedition (Northern Party) 91 7.3.11 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (Macquarie Island Base Station) 93 7.3.12 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition 96 7.4 GEORGE HUDSON & SON LTD'S MANIFEST 98 7.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY 101 7.5.1 Published Sources 101 7.5.2 Unpublished Sources 102

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects Mawson's Huts

Antarctica

Report on their Cultural Significance for Science

August 1988

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 MAWSON'S HUTS The term 'Mawson's Huts' is that most commonly associated with the site, the huts' remains and the other artefacts associated with the main base of the 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition which was established at the head of a natural harbour towards the western end of , Commonwealth Bay, , Antarctica in . Named after the instigator and leader of the Expedition, geologist Douglas Mawson, the site was the location of two year's occupation by the 18 members of the main base party who undertook an extensive scientific programme covering such fields as terrestrial magnetism, meteorology, biology, geography and .

The importance of this site to Australia's heritage and to the history of Antarctic exploration has been acknowledged through its inclusion on the Register of the National Estate. As the property of the Commonwealth of Australia it is offered protection within the terms of the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975. The site is also included in the Antarctic Treaty List of Historic Monuments and is afforded protection within the terms of that Treaty. Renewed interest in Mawson's Huts over the last few years has highlighted the necessity for the formulation of a suitable management plan to enable the significant aspects of the site to be retained in the future. The objective of this report, through clearly establishing the nature of cultural significance of Mawson's Huts, to provide an appropriate basis decisions can made or policy developed the conservation the Cape Historical Site, in accordance with the Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (the Burra Charter).

1.2 THIS DOCUMENT The preparation of this document was commissioned by the Antarctic Division of the Department of Science on behalf of the .Commonwealth of Australia in May 1987. The requirements of the brief were to assess the cultural significance of the historic site at Cape Denison and to provide a succinct Statement of Significance. The a'ssessment of the cultural significance of Mawson's Huts involved two stages which are reflected in the layout of the report: 1 th e a nalysis of extensive, although often incomplete, documentary evidence on the history of Mawson's Huts and of its fabric; 2 the determination of the significance of Mawson's Huts compared with other polar huts, particularly those Antarctic huts constructed during the period between 1895 and the onset of known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 1 INTRODUCTION 2

Chapter 2 contains the documentary evidence relating to the physical characteristics of the Antarctic region, the historical background which led to the instigation of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914; the Expedition itself, its objectives and achievements and the buildings constructed in association with it, particularly those of the Main Base Station, Commonwealth Bay. Chapter 3 discusses the condition of the structures at the Commonwealth Bay site as understood from the available evidence. Chapter 4 compares Mawson's Huts and the Commonwealth Bay site with other polar huts, particularly those which are known to survive in the Antarctic region prior to World War I. In Chapter 5, the Cultural Significance of Mawson's Huts and its associated site is determined and stated in summary form with policy issues to be addressed appearing in Chapter 6. Within the Appendices, details of the polar huts used as part of the comparative analysis are tabulated chronologically.

1.3 COMPLETENESS OF THE EVIDENCE

The scope of this study did not include the examination of the physical fabric of Mawson's Huts by the authors. This information was provided by the recent expeditions of Ledingham & others (1978), Project Blizzard (1984-1985; 1985-1986), Dr Michael Pearson (1986) and a report by Mr Duncan Marshall on the performance of the structure and materials of the main living and workshop huts and the memorial cross at Main Base Station of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914.

Inf'orlmatioln with history at base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, their construction and present condition is still incomplete with numerous questions remaining to be answered. These include: 1 Detailed comparison between the documentary evidence of the main living hut prior to its construction (the manifest and specification for the Main Hut from George Hudson and Son Ltd, Wholesale Timber Merchants) and the as-built plans and sections by Alfred Hodgeman combined with the remaining physical evidence on site. These variations were caused by the damage sustained by some of the timbers during the journey south and by Mawson's decision to combine two of the three huts upon their arrival at Commonwealth Bay. 2 Research to ascertain hOW, why and to what extent the manufacturer of the largest hut, George Hudson and Son Ltd contributed to the development of the hut form, if at all and whether he had been previously involved in the manufacture of prefabricated buildings. 3 The structural condition of the Main Hut and Memorial Cross

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 1 INTRODUCTION 3

at the Main Base Station. In this regard a report by Marshall1 summarises what is known of the existing structure of the main living and workshop huts, the subsequent changes and loadings sustained by the structure and its materials and outlines those outstanding unanswered questions related to the structural condition of the huts.

L4 SYNOPSIS Th e study uncovered a useful although incomplete collection of documentary material pertaining to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 and Mawson's Huts. Information relating to the physical fabric and condition of the Commonwealth Bay structures is also incomplete. Nevertheless, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914 made a substantial contribution to Australian history as the basis for continuing Antarctic exploration up to the present day dating from the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration. This in itself is sufficient to establish the significance the site, buildings and artefacts and is further enhanced by the little human intervention on the site since the occupation of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 compared with other Antarctic sites of similar stature. The report identifies site and surviving fabric of Mawson's Huts as being of exceptional importance amongst the extant huts of Antarctic region due to its substantial value to scientific research, past, present and future; as an historical resource on a national and international level; for its rareness; its associations with important and individuals; its technical and merit and symbolic The cultural significance of Mawson's Huts is summarised in section 5.5 of this report.

1.5 THE STUDY TEAM

The stUdy was carried out and the report prepared by Richard Allom and Margaret Lawrence-Drew.

1.6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The assistance of the following people during the preparation of this study is gratefully acknowledged: Mr James Keenan, Antarctic Division, Department of Science. The Australian Heritage Commission - partiCUlarly Dr Michael Pearson and Mr Duncan Marshall.

1 Duncan Marshall, Mawson's Huts, Commonwealth Bay­ Structural and Materials Performance, (A Report to the Antarctic Historic Sites and Monuments Advisory Committee, January 1987)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 1 INTRODUCTION 4

Project Blizzard - particularly Mr William Blunt, Ms Angela McGowan and Ms Estelle Lazer.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 5

2.1 SUMMARY Mawson's Huts at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, remain as the only vestige on the Antarctic continent of what is widely accepted as one of the greatest polar scientific expeditions to have occurred during the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration. This is of particular significance to Australia on both national and international levels as the expedition was the only one during this period that was organised, funded and largely manned by Australians. The site and structures are the basis and the physical representation of Australia's claim to 42% of the Antarctic territory, dating back to this most significant period of Antarctic exploration. The following Chapter gives a brief overview of the geographic and historic context within which the site and the achievements of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 can be assessed. Section 2.2 deals with the physical characteristics of the Arctic region briefly and of Antarctica in more detail. Sections 2.3 and 2.4 provide a brief history of the exploration of the north and south poles prior to the period known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration providing the background from which the contribution made by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 can be compared. The remaining sections consider the Heroic Period, the Expedition and the provision of accommodation and services as part .of the planning for and during the Expedition. 2.2 POLAR REGIONS The polar regions are the areas at the northern and southern ex·tremlt1E~s of the centred the South respectively. Polar associated regions are astronomical concepts and denote latitudes north and south of which, the phenomena of the midnight sun occurs or where the sun does not set for at least one day per year.2 Whilst sharing similarities in frigid temperatures and some animal and bird life, the north and south polar regions are considerably dissimilar in their geographic structure, history and resources. 2.2.1 The Arctic Region The Arctic land areas form an irregUlar circular strip around the Polar Basin and include the northern tip of Scandinavia, the Soviet arctic coast and islands, a coastal strip of north Alaska, all Canadian Arctic islands, Greenland, the islands of Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and a narrow belt in northwest Canada which broadens to the southeast to include most of the land around Hudson Bay. The southern limit of the Arctic regions is the 10 0 C isotherm for the warmest month excluding areas with a mean annual temperature

2 JF Lovering &. JRV Prescott, Last of Lands: Antarctica (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1979) p. 72.

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 6

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Illustration 1: The Arctic Region

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 7

above OOC and also coincides with the northern limit of trees.3

2.2.2 Antarctica

Unlike the north polar ice cap, which is simply a relatively shallow ice covering of the , the south polar ice cap covers an immense continent with an area of about 12,000,000km2•

The Antarctic continent itself has a diameter of about 4,500km and its roughly circular coastal outline· is broken only by two deep embayments, the Ross and Weddell Seas and the narrow S-shaped curve of the mountainous which points 1,600km toward South America.

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Illustration 2: National Claims in Antarctica

It reaches from the to latitude 70 0 S around half of its perimeter and has more than one third of its coastline fringed by ice shelves or floating ice sheets. During winter, the pack ice

3 Lovering & Prescott, p. 8.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 8

which forms by the freezing of the sea reaches outward to latitude 60 0 S, virtually doubling the area of summer ice covering of the continent. The formation of the winter pack ice cover very effectively isolates Antarctica from access by shipping from mid-March to late November.

Much of the Antarctic Territory is claimed by several nations including Great Britain, , France, , Chile and . A number of USA and USSR bases are located on the Antarctic continent however, no specific claims are made by these two nations to any territory. The Australian Antarctic claim represents 42% of the Antarctic continent which is the largest percentage claimed by any nation.

2.2.3 Antarctica's Physical Geography

Antarctica is the coldest, windiest and driest of the Earth's continents. The climate of the Antarctic region is much colder than that of the Arctic due to the distribution of the land and water in the two hemispheres and the variation in the high mean elevation of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Arctic conditions are more favourable for human habitation with its less extreme climate favouring a growth of vegetation that support a wide range of herbivorous animals which in turn, support a population of many thousands.

On the Antarctic coast, where the ocean has a temg,ering effect, the mean annual temperature is approximately -17 C with minimum winter temperatures rarely dr below -40°C and summer maximums as high as 9 Inland, up continental ice slope, increasing altitudes and latitudes result in a decrease in mean annual temperatures of slightly more than 10 C /100m rise in elevation.

Easterly winds predominate around the Antarctic coast but this may often be severely modified by local, or katabatic winds which are particularly strong at the foot of the steep slopes between the high central plateau of and the coastal region.

Katabatic winds recorded by Mawson's party at Cape Denison in Terre Adelie during 1912-1913 averaged 80km/hr for the whole year. Average hourly velocities greater than 160km/hr were common, and daily averages of over 144km/hr were recorded. Frequently the air travelled forward in series of cyclonic gusts, near the foci of which momentary velocities were reached very much higher than the averages mentioned above. These winds are a the factor in limiting th~ activity and comfort of man in the Antarctic environment.

Practically all precipitation in the Antarctic is in the form of snow originating from the great cyclonic or low pressure storm systems

4 Douglas Mawson, "Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-1914", The Geographical Journal, XLIV, No 3 (September 1914), p. 269.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 9

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Illustration 3: The Antarctic Region

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 10

formed in the troposphere over the . The storms seldom penetrate the continent, with precipitation occurring in a narrow belt within 200-300km of the coast where the mean accumulation of snow is 60-150cm, the equivalent of 20-50cm of water. Inland, the high plateau of East Antarctica is a cold desert with a mean annual accumulation of snow equivalent to only 5cm of water.5

2.3 NORTH POLAR EXPLORATION

Exploration and occupation of the Arctic region began much earlier than the Antarctic region with the settlement and development of some areas occurring from the ninth century.

The commercial expansion of north-west Europe during the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries resulted in the exploration of most of the Arctic region. This was accomplished with greater ease than the exploration of the Antarctic region due to its close proximity to Europe, its vastly different physical characteristics and its less extreme climate.

Notwithstanding the early settlement, the contest to reach the was a later phenomenon and led to exploration of the seas and islands north of the Atlantic Ocean with the British and American expeditions in the nineteenth century progressing further and further north. The north-east passage across the Arctic Basin was accomplished in 1878-1879 by Swedish explorer Baron AE Nordenskjold with the north-west passage finally completed by in 1903-1906. Amundsen later led an expedition to the Antarctic and wintered on the and was the man to reach the

In 1893 Fridtof Nansen on the '' crossed the arctic basin from east to west and also attempted to reach the Pole on foot across the ice floes. He reached 86 0 14' N lat, which was 235 nautical miles [435km] from the Pole and 160 miles [256km] further north than any of his predecessors. Nansen's successful journey and the geographic triumphs and discoveries he made along the way, were a result of his scientific reasoning in planning his polar journey, his understanding of the need for a line of retreat and the simplicity and efficiency of his equipment. Arctic veterans of the time regarded this as the initiation into a new era of polar travel.6

The conquest of the North Pole was finally achieved more than a

5 Lovering & Prescott, p. 9.

6 Hugh Robert Mill, "The Revival of Polar Exploration 1892­ 1905", The Record of the Royal Geographical Society 1830-1930 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, 1930), p. 158. Nansen's success was attributed to his reliance on scientific reasoning in planning his polar journey; his understanding of the need for a line of retreat; and the simplicity and efficiency of his equipment.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 11

decade before the South Pole by , an United States Naval Officer in April 1909. (see Appendix 7.2.2, 7.2.3 & 7.2.5 for details of Peary's huts) 2.4 SOUTH POLAR EXPLORATION

Learned men of the fifteenth century insisted that a great southern continent existed to balance the continents of the northern hemisphere. Cartographers in the sixteenth century indicated that a vast continent covered the base of the globe, extending high into the three great oceans of the southern hemisphere connecting with South America and South Africa. Named Antarktos by early Greek philosophers and based solely on man's credulity, Antarctica remained a mythical continent for several centuries. 7

2.4.1 The Pre-Wintering Period of South Polar Exploration

Prior to the first landing on the Antarctic continent and subsequent wintering of parties in the region, there was a fairly extensive period of exploration and circumnavigatory voyages of the Antarctic waters and coastline. Much myth and uncertainty cloud the details behind the first sighting of the southern continent, made even more difficult by large ice masses and small islands being sighted and mistaken for the mainland.

1773-1775: Captain crossed the Antarctic Circle three times setting a clear northern limit to the southern continent and possibly sighted land.

1773: Lieutenant de ,o1n_·-'·"'emarc ench) discover Kergeulen discovered Marion and Crozet Islands.

1779: Pierre Bouvet (French) discovered Bouvet Island.

1819-1821: Captain Thaddeus Bellinghausen (Russian) circumnavigated Antarctica crossing the Antarctic circle six times, but did not sight land.

1820-1821: (American) is credited with the first sighting of the Antarctic continent in the vicinity known as .

Several notable expeditions were despatched during the next few years by the public firm of Enderby Brothers, a whaling company:

1823: 's expedition achieved the thus far when 74 0 15'S lat. was reached. Also discovered the .

1831: Captain Biscoe discovered .

7 Harold Fletcher, Antarctic Days with Mawson (: Angus & Robertson, 1984), p. 14.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 12

1833: Captain Peter Kemp sights Heard Island and ice covered land rising to the interior of the continent.

1837: The final Enderby expedition was led by John Balleny who discovered the Balleny Islands south of the Antarctic Circle.

1837: Captain E Dallman rediscovered the Biscoe Islands and discovered Bismarck Strait, which Biscoe had mistaken for an area of land.8 Also named a number of islands after Kaiser Wilhelm.

The existence of a great southern continent was now quite apparent and many nations became very interested, sending well equipped expeditions to a still mysterious southern continent.

1838: Captain (American) commanded a six vessel fleet on a four year voyage.

1840: Jules Dumont D'urville (French) discovered Adelie Land and claimed the Territory in the name of France.

1840: Sir sailed south-west over what is now called the sighting a 'spectacular mountain range which he traced for 800km.,9 He observed and named two volcanoes, Mt Terror and Mt Erebus after the two vessels in his command. He nam ed this newly discovered land, . Ross also discovered a great ice barrier naming it the Great Barrier, now known as the . Ross made one landing on an offshore island near which he named Possession Island.

1892-1893~ CA Larsen spent 0 summers Antarctic Peninsula area sailing further along ea;st coast peninsula than any his predecessors. He also discovered and named Robertson, Christensen and Seal Islands.lO

2.5 THE HEROIC PERIOD

Characteristics of the second phase of Antarctic exploration known as the 'Heroic Age' or 'Heroic Period' of Antarctic exploration included the replacement of circumnavigatory voyages with scientific expeditions; the for the South Pole; numerous expeditions wintering in the Antarctic; the use of inventions such as balloons, wireless, petrol motors and aircraft and great feats of human by individual .explorers during the latter half of the period which ceased with the onset of World War 1.11

8 Lovering &. Prescott, p. 122.

9 Fletcher, pp. 20-21.

10 Lovering &. Prescott, p. 123.

11 Lovering &. Prescott, p. 124.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 13

2.5.1 Early Expeditions

1895: Captain Christensen on the 'Antarctic', led an expedition organised by Henrick J Bull, a Norwegian resident of Melbourne to investigate whaling prospects south of Australia. The coast of Cape Adare was reached and a party went ashore but stayed only a few hours.

1895: 's 'Belgica' expedition is credited with the first wintering in a high southern latitude winter when their vessel became trapped in heavy ice.

1899: The British Antarctic Expedition led by Carstens E Borchgrevink - a Norwegian-born Australian schoolmaster - were the first to actually winter on the Antarctic continent.

Borchgrevink's party surveyed the east and south coasts of Robertson Bay, and collected zoological, botanical and geological specimens. Climatic statistics and magnetic readings were also included in their scientific programme and they achieved the 'farthest south' journey at that time. The first insects were discovered by this expedition and for the first time sledges pulled by husky dogs, were used on the continent. The party of ten men erected two huts at Cape Adare, one used as a storehouse in which a considerable amount of provisions and equipment was left when the party departed. (see Appendix 7.3.2 for hut details)

2..5..2 Three Simultaneous Expeditions 1901-1903

The next event in Anta ic tion the scientific tion , Germa and Swed on simultaneous expeditions. The President of the Royal Geographical Society, Sir , one of the forces behind the revival of Antarctic exploration and the initiator of the British Antarctic Expedition12 , is said to have divided the continent into quadrants, identifying several routes for the Qurpose of stUdying those parts of the territory yet to be discovered.1.3

The Swedish expedition pursued the course which coincided with Larsen's track down the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Otto Nordenskjold led the expedition and Larsen captained the vessel, 'Antarctic'. In February 1902, Nordenskjold leading a party of five landed on . Due to subsequent events this party remained on the island for twenty months accumulating muc~ information about the regions geology, climate, flora and fauna.1 (see Appendix 7.3.3 for hut details)

The German expedition selected the route which lay south of

12 Mill, pp. 154-168.

13 Lovering & Prescott, p. 126.

14 Lovering & Prescott, pp. 126-127.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 14

Kerguelen Island towards the areas visited by Wilkes and lying between the continental discoveries of Kemp and Balleny. Led by Drygalski, the expedition called at Kerguelen Island in December 1901, landing a party there to take magnetic and climatic observations. Following this, the '' sailed southeast and became trapped in Podowsky Bay.15 No land base of any significance is known to have been constructed as the party wintered on the 'Gauss'.

The British National Expedition led by Commander , on the vessel, '' followed the west coast of the Ross Sea along tracks sailed previously by Ross and Borchgrevink. Land was discovered at the eastern end of the Ross Ice Shelf. Whilst returning westward, the 'Discovery' was anchored in an inlet, a small sledge party was formed and a short journey southward was made. This was the first occasion that Antarctic explorers used air travel. On 4 February, 1902, Scott ascended 245m above the ice in a balloon to survey the journey southward. The 'Discovery' was then taken to winter quarters in McMurdo Sound and moored in a sheltered position protected by Mt Erebus. A hut was erected on Hut Point but proved to be very uncomfortable and living quarters were maintained on the 'Discovery'. The hut was used for storage and entertainment. (see Appendix 7.3.4 for hut details)

2.5.3 Bruce's Expedition 1902-1904

The Scottish National Expedition led by William Bruce on the '' in 1902-1904 tried to force a passage into the Weddell Sea. Unsuccessful, they retreated to the South Orkneys, and became en into a large bay on Lau e Isla , where the crew constructed a meteorological sta on the shore and began to record the weather as well as undertaking other valuable scientific investigations on the island. Bruce handed the station over to Argentinian authorities in 1904. The station has been permanently manned ever since and forms part of Argentine's claim to sovereignty in the Antarctic. Bruce also discovered , which forms the east coast of the Weddell Sea. (see Appendix 7.3.5 for hut details)

2.5.4 Charcot's Expeditions 1904-1905 &: 1909-1910

The general programme of the French expedition led by Jean Charcot in the summers of 1904-1905 was to survey the north-west coast of the ; to stUdy the south-west entrance to Gerlache Strait and to search for a land wintering station in that vicinity as far south as possible.

The vessel 'Francais' failed to progress through the ice much further than Booth-Wandel Island. Here Charcot, the party of five other officers and 14 crew set up 'all the structure needed for their

15 Lovering & Prescott, p. 128.

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operations and safety in case of any damage to the ship'.l6 (see Appendix 7.3.6 for hut details)

Charcot embarked on a second expedition in 1908-1910, to the region he had previously begun to explore with the objective of studying from all points of view the greatest possible ex.panse of ground in the Antarctic without consideration of latitude.1 He established a wintering station at Petermann Island18 which, as it was in the same vicinity as Booth-Wandel Island, allowed earlier surveys to be connected. Charcot discovered Marguerite Bay and the Fallieres Coast, and charted and in detail.

2.5.5 Shackleton's Expedition 1909-1910

Ernest Shackleton, a member of Scott's 1901-1903 expedition returned to the Antarctic in 1908, leading his own expedition funded by numerous sources including the Australian and New Zealand governments.

Shackleton's party sailed from New Zealand in January 1908, for the Ross Ice shelf and discovered the ice peninsula between inlets used by Scott and Borchgrevink had collapsed into the sea and the two had coalesced to form a wide bay which Shackleton named the .

Shackleton established a base at the western end of the Ross Ice Shelf at in February 1908. (see Appendix 7.3.7 for hut details) During the following summer, three different parties were organised, one led by Shackleton journeying toward the South Pole; one led , Professor Geology at the University Sydney Douglas Mawson travelled as far as the Drygalski and then climbed the Reeves Glacier to the Plateau moving westward toward the magnetic pole situated at meridian 155 0 15'E and 72 0 25'S. The third party searched for fossils in the mountains west of McMurdo Sound and included another Australian geologist.

On his journey northwards, Mawson produced a more accurate map of the coast between McMurdo Sound and the . In March 1909, enroute to New Zealand Shackleton sailed west along Cape Adare to Cape North identifying 40 nautical miles [74km] of

16 Dr JB Charcot, "The French Antarctic Expedition", The Geographical Journal, XXVI, No 5 (November 1905), pp. 497­ 507.

17 Dr JB Charcot, "The Second French Antarctic Expedition", The Geographical Journal, XXXVII, No 3 (March 1911), p. 242.

18 Charcot, "The Second French Expedition", p. 243. The wintering station at appears to have been ship based.

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coast to the west and south.19

2.5.6 Scott's and Amundsen's Expeditions 1909-1911

Following Shackleton's return in 1909, Scott set out to reach the South Pole taking with him a team of men to undertake a scientific programme. Simultaneously, the Norwegian Roald Amundsen was preparing for his assault on the South Pole. The race to the Pole has been well documented but in terms of scientific results, the epic journeys of Scott and Amundsen were less important than many other contemporary expeditions - the main addition to information about the Antarctic being the fixing of the Queen Range, south-east of the Beardmore Glacier by Amundsen.

Both Scott and Amundsen landed their parties in . One of Scott's parties reused the Hut Point base in McMurdo Sound, which he established during his 1901-1903 expedition whilst the main party established a base at . (see Appendix 7.3.8 for hut details) Amundsen's party set up a base known as the '' at the Bay of Whales. (see Appendix 7.3.9 for hut details)

2.5.7 Other Minor Expeditions 1911-1914

Filchner, a German, made an unsuccessful expedition to the Weddell Sea in 1911. This was the first of two unsuccessful attempts to make a crossing from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea to determine if the Antarctic consisted of two major segments separated by an ice covered channel. Filchner discovered , naming it after Prince Regent; an ice barrier which he named Kaiser Wilhelm Barrier, renamed Ice and Vahsel Bay loeated on the ice ... A"'......

In January 1912, the 'Kainan Maru' a Japanese vessel commanded by Lt Choku Shirase of the Japanese army made a quick dash to the Pole in an attempt to reach the South Pole first, but abandoned their plans when it was discovered that Scott and Amundsen had begun their race. Shirase, however, recorded the first landing from the sea on King Edward VII land.

Shackleton led a second expedition into the Weddell Sea in 1914, planning simultaneous landing on the shores of the Ross and Weddell Seas. In the vessel 'Endurance' was trapped in ice and in October 1915, was crushed by the pressure of the ice and sank. The crew were able to man lifeboats and transport their stores to an ice floe which eventually drifted toward where they established a camp at until they were rescued in August 1916.

2.6 EARLY AUSTRALIAN INVOLVEMENT IN ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

Following the initiation into Antarctic exploration with an expedition organised by Henrick J Bull, a Norwegian residing in Australia, in

19 Lovering & Prescott, pp. 131-132.

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January 1895. (see Section 2.5) Australia's association with and investigation of Antarctica has continued up until the present day.

In the first decade of the twentieth century, a number of Australian scientists worked with British Antarctic expeditions in the Ross Sea area with some financial assistance coming from the then new Australian government.

Louis Bernacchi, a Tasmanian physicist of Italian parentage, had been a member of the British Antarctic Expedition in 1899 under the command of Carstens E Borgrevink, a Norwegian-born Australian. Bernacchi returned to Antarctica in 1901-1903 as a member of Captain R Falcon Scott's expedition. Other Australians such as Dr (later Sir) Douglas Mawson, Professor (later Sir) Edgeworth David, Dr Forbes Mackay, and Raymond Priestley were members of the scientific team on Sir 's 1907-1909 expedition and in , became the first men to reach the Magnetic Pole.

Australians Griffith Taylor and studied geology and glaciology with Scott's last expedition 1910-1913 and Ivan Gage, , Owen Jack and Richard Richards took part in Shackleton's 1914-1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition.20

Of greatest significance to Australia's history in relation to Antarctic exploration, however, was the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914.

THE AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 1911-1914

Australasian Antarctic edition was organised and led by ge ogis Dr Douglas Mawson, manned largely by Australian and New Zealanders and financially supported by the Australian and British Governments, and a number of scientific societies and private individuals.

This Expedition formed the foundation for Australia's participation in Antarctic exploration up to the present day. During their two years' occupation the Expedition discovered and mapped a large section of previously unknown coastline and collected substantial scientific information.

2.7.1 Sir Douglas Mawson

Douglas Mawson was born on 5 May 1882 at Bradford, Yorkshire, moving to Sydney, Australia with his parents at the age of four. He was educated at the Fort Street Boys High School after which he entered the Mining Engineering Course at the . He graduated Bachelor of Engineering in 1902 at the age of 19, and continued at the university with further science subjects, having particular regard for Geology and Mineralogy. He completed the

20 Australia's Involvement in Antarctica. Reproduced in Project Blizzard's Conservation Plan dated December 1984. Source not given. ------

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honoffs course in Geology and graduated Bachelor of Science in 1905.

Illustration 4: Sir Douglas Mawson

He spent six months doing geological exploration of the in 1903 and on the strength of his work, Mawson published his first scientific papers. In 1905 Mawson was appointed lecturer in Mineralogy and Petrology at the Adelaide University in 1905. It was around this time that Mawson became interested in the geological evidence ancient glaciation in , also spending a summer Snowy Mountains stUdying terrain.

In 1907 he was released from the university to take up an invitation to join ShackletonTs Antarctic expedition as route surveyor, cartographer and magnetician. He was a member of the party led by his mentor from his student days at Sydney University, Professor Tannatt Edgeworth David, who were the first to ascend Mt Erebus, as well as making the first journey to the area. MawsonTs personal contribution to ShackletonTs scientific research included reports on Ice, Snow, Mineralogy, Chemistry, Meteorological Optics, the Magnetic Pole and the Aurora.

2.'1.2 The Objectives of the Expedition

A year after he returned to Australia, Mawson began planning his own expedition to the Antarctic, with plans to explore the coast immediately south of Australia. His ambition was to Treduce to the terms of scienceT the region that lay between Cape Adare in the east and Gaussberg, over 3000krn to the west, the only remaining Antarctic region about which very little was known and for which support was easily gained from a young Australian nation, anxious to develop a national identity.

21 Obituary: Douglas Mawson. Reproduced in Project BlizzardTs Conservation Plan dated December 1984. Source not given.

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Backed by the Australian Government and nation, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science and the Royal Geographical Society, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition raised £46,000.

The object of the Expedition was to investigate the Antarctic Continent to the south of Australia, a region which only the most scant information was known at the time. Most of the recent expeditions of this era had the South Pole as their objective and as a consequence their fields overlapped as each tried to secure the most promising route, therefore the area of the unknown was not diminishing commensurably with the magnitude of those undertakings.22

Since 1840, no one had been within the limits of the Antarctic Circle in the region selected by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition asa field for operations. The only three sources of information concerning this region prior to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 was the following:

1 In 1839, Balleny in the sealing vessel 'Sabrina', reported the appearance of land at a spot near the Antarctic Circle in lat 120 0 E. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition proved this sighting to be non existent.23

2 The French Expedition under Dumont D'Urville in 1840 sighted approximately 150 miles of an Antarctic coastline within the Circle, situated between 136 0 SOlE and 142 0 E which was named Adelie Land. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition was able to confirm existence of land.24

3 Wilkes the 1840 United States Expedition reported sighting land at frequent intervals during a long voyage from east to west, close to the Antarctic Circle and in the very region to which the efforts of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition were directed. Many of Wilkes' reports were found to be erroneous, althoug~ much of his work was of value according to Mawson. 5

It was the intention of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition to land three self-contained wintering parties at widely separated points between 90 0 E and 158 0 E long, each making continuous scientific records at the base station, and investigations of the surrounding regions by sledge journeys. On the southward voyage, a party was to be left at Macquarie Island, a relatively unknown possession of

22 D Mawson, "Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-1914", The Geographical Journal, XLIV, No 3 (September 1914), p. 257.

23 Mawson, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914', p. 258.

24 Mawson, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914', p. 258.

25 Mawson, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914', p. 258.

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the Commonwealth. Wireless telegraphy was to be used for the first time in Polar exploration by this Expedition and the was to be used for transmitting Antarctic news to . 2.7.3 The Expedition

The vessel selected and fitted for the work of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition was the'Aurora'. It had a carrying capacity of approximately 600 tons, was built in Dundee and prior to the Expedition was engaged in sealing and whaling in the Arctic. Captain J K Davis, formerly of Shackleton's '', was appointed Master of the SY 'Aurora' and Second-in-Command of the Expedition. ------~----~

Section

Deck Plan SCale lOll - r Illustration 5: Plan and Section of the S Y Aurora

Excluding the crew of the 'Aurora', the Expedition numbered thirty-one and included the five members of the Macquarie Island party and the 12 staff for the Main Antarctic Base. The remaining 14 men were to form one party of six and another of eight to man the two other bases propos~g at widely separated points along the east coast of the continent.

As it happened, the objectives of the Expedition were somewhat frustrated. A party was landed as planned at Macquarie Island, but the journey south to the continent was hindered by the weather. Upon reaching the coast of the continent some distance west of their desired destination, it became apparent that they were situated in the vicinity of the centre of a permanent anticyclone. It was thence decided to combine the smallest of the parties with the

26 Douglas Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard (Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1971) pp. 10-11.

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largest at the point of landing, Commonwealth Bay. The third base was later established further west.

Although plans had to be modified and many journeys curtailed throughout the term of the Expedition's occupation of the Main Base, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 was successful in achieving the majority of their objectives. These included an extensive and comprehensive scientific program in the fields of terrestrial magnetism, meteorology, biology, geography and geology.

The vast distance which eventuated between Cape Denison and the made the possibility of linking the two land bases very unlikely. In spite of this, extensive sledging programs were conducted, radiating form both the Eastern and Western Bases. It was during one such sledge journey, that BE Ninnis and lost their lives leaving Mawson as the sole survivor to complete the 100 mile [160km] trek back to the Hut suffering starvation, inadvertent poisoning, exhaustion and exposure.

2.8 THE MACQUARIE ISLAND BASE STATION

The 'Aurora' sailed from the Australasian Antarctic Expedition's Commonwealth headquarters in Hobart on 2 December, 1911. On 21 December, a party of six men led by GF Ainsworth was landed on Macquarie Island, a sub-Antarctic possession of , situated in the same latitude as South Georgia to establish the wireless relay station and scientific base.

Miles " St-uJe1;:OOOOO ua.." !lao.b "' :HO Stabd• .l1iJto1ii JJr.f~q1t1. fn fhot. lh-ptlul in. 1U11lt/IIfU Qlntuw'wl nt1)"'::au 1«£

., .r'.

South \\CsL •. J. / • ::' ~ __ rv. Gre"\\. .. • .sou.lh.Ea"t lUer Illustration 6: Macquarie Island as surveyed by Blake

.~~.~--~------~--_.

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Prior to this expedition there had been very little accurate information known about the island, and the only available map preceding Blake's survey was a sketch made by a sealer. The site for the station was on a low neck of land at the north end of the island. There a hut, coal store and instruments for a year's occupation were landed as well as the masts, stays, engines, apparatus, and materials for constructing a receiving hut and an engine house. The wireless station was erected on the summit 350' above sea level. Also located on Macquarie Island were the remains of numerous sealers' huts and these were used as bases by the party for exploration of the surrounding areas. (see Appendix 7.3.11 for hut details)

2.9 THE MAIN BASE STATION

Mawson's original plan for the journey southward from Macquarie Island had been to find an open passage directly down meridian 156 0 E, which would have brought them to a landing site, approximately 100 miles [160km] west of Cape Adare. From this point he had planned to settle at least three groups of men at stages along the 1800 mile [2880km] coastline between 156 0 E and the land sighted by Drygalski, near Gaussberg, around 95 0 E meridian.

However the voyage south to the mainland was to be continuously hindered by ice packs, driving them further and further west in search of a suitable place to land. By distancing themselves from the party on Macquarie Island as they were, the Expedition risked the success of their vital radio link to the mainland, as well as making the intended South Magnetic Pole work more difficult the further they went.27

On 8 January 1912, at a point less than 40 miles [64km] from the 140 0 E meridian, the nearest portion of D'Urville's Adelie Land, a suitable spot was discovered for a wintering station.

'This was a rocky outcrop a little over a mile in extent henceforth known as Cape Denison. In this location rocks projected from under the ice-sheet within a sweeping indentation of the coastline which we named Commonwealth Bay,.28

Upon discovering the wind-swept and desolate nature of the newly discovered land, Mawson decided that only two bases should be attempted, amalgamating the smallest of the SUbsidiary bases with the main base.

'In the light of subsequent events it was well we did this, for

27 D Mawson, Geographical Narrative and Cartography (Sydney: Government Printing Office, 1942) Scientific Reports, Series A, Vol 1, pp. 18-30.

28 D Mawson, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914', pp. 263-264.

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the climate, and consequently, the exploration of Adelie Land, proved to be the toughest task on any ~gt known Antarctic land - for the matter of that of any land.'

""'" . ~.,. " ... w.·..

IV\j

~"'-"'. l\O 0 100 clOO 4lX)m'

Il tra on 7: The Site s Huts, Cape Deniso Commonwealth Bay

By 19 January, the equipment had been unloaded from the vessel, and included 'their two piles of timber for two huts, the aircraft, the three 60 foot radio masts, transformers, electric motors, batteries, furnaces, stoves, equipment for sledging, the dogs, scientific instruments, food fS6 eighteen men for two years, bedding blankets, tools, nails, fuel•••'

2.10 THE MAIN LIVING AND WORKSHOP HUT

The initial shelter built by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition upon their arrival at the main base station, was a rough hut built of cans of benzine and boards with a tarpaulin for a roof. After spending one night in this makeshift hut, the necessity of erecting a permanent residence as soon as possible was realized. Sixteen hours per day were thence spent working on the main living hut,

29 Mawson, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914', p. 264.

30 Leonard Bickel, This Accursed Land, (Melbourne: The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, 1977), 0.' 38.:

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JF===~'l--.:1 I ,,~~-....po===yo=~=<=~=>==.....~-.-~~ I I .. _ ..'u ~ I I I· I I I I I I I t1u'Ja, ". I • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ~ _H~~r;~~.;;''':'' . .J i. (\ i i I - (-; : i 1 i is j£( \~~ " . ~ \ • I :

~ ., '0 ~ C.II.. r o il 0_ ; L~" Q ''5'), ')' \'J ~

t .•· ~ ( t /) _f 1 \ /' i 0 ~.~.~ ./.. j ~.'" .... { (-----~ I )!~I ~! L!-f Ii ( ~'-'~ .<- :o

/ SC .... I.. or (oal ~.J Ground Pion of the Hut

Illustration 8: Plan and Sections of the Main Hut

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 25

with breaks for meals and bad weather, resulting in the completion of the hut ~~ approximately two weeks between January and February 1912. The site chosen for their permanent shelter was a rocky platform partially sheltered on the southern side by a large upstanding rock, within a natural trough formed by 40m high ridges to the east and west (resulting in the funnelling of high winds through the area) and within close proximity of the boat harbour.

The living hut, originally designed to house twelve men and a second smaller hut designed to house a sUbsidiary party of six men were both landed at Cape Denison after the plan for the third Antarctic land base was abandoned. The two huts were amalgamated with the second smaller hut constructed in the lee of the living hut and equipped as a workshop and ante-room.

2.10.1 Origins of the Design

As part of the brief developed by Mawson for the design of the huts for his forthcoming Antarctic Expedition, the 'strength to resist hurricanes, simplicity of construction, portability and resistance to external cold,3Z were the principal requirements.

Mawson's original idea for the fulfillment of the above criteria had been the construction of a pyramid on a square base which with its inherent strength, its comparatively large base area, and its inclined wall surfaces, would ensure its stability and reduce resistance in high winds.33

development idea resulted inclined surfaces of the pyramid forming the roof of the hut which was discontinued 5' [105m] above the ground to eliminate those relatively useless areas generated by the pyramidal form. This was further developed through the creation of a verandah space around three sides, the inner walls of which assisted in the stabilization of the hut and provided not only a storage area but also an insulating zone around the living area within.

Through the stacking of boxes of stores against the outer verandah walls, such that the roof slope was continued to the ground, the pyramidal form was thereby completed: 'thus, the wind striking the hut met no vertical surface, but was partly deflected: t24 other force-component tending to pin the building to the ground'.

Mawson's previous Antarctic experience with the 1907-1909 British

31 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, pp. 84-85.

32 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 84.

33 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 84.

34 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 84.

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Antarctic Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton undoubtedly assisted his development of a hut model for the three huts required for his own Antarctic Expedition. However, from the evidence available it would appear that his resulting design was derived primarily from first principles, that is, through the application of his knowledge and experience to the problem rather than drawing upon any set precedents.

It has also been suggested that the prefabrication of buildings in Australia, particularly those being designed for more remote areas of Queensland which bear a slight resemblance to Mawson's hut model, having hipped roofs, surrounding verandahs and stump foundations and were undergoing a revival during the first decade of the twentieth century with the development of North Queensland, influenced the nature of the design. This was apparently the case with the design of the hut for the British Antarctic Expedition 1902-1904 led by Scott. (see Section 4.2.3) However, from Mawson's account of the hut's development in 'The Home of the Blizzard,35 this association with an existing prefabricated form appears to be inconsequential, as the hut's resulting design was simply the culmination of a logical progression from a strong initial design concept. The prefabricated method of construction with its small components capable of being quickly assembled to a predetermined system with relatively little need for specialised labour in an area where no materials were available and the climatic conditions were unsui table for spending prolonged periods outdoors was a consideration but did not apparently influence the form of the building.

Having established the design, Mawson forwarded it to Alfred J Hodgeman, the Expedition cartographer, meteorological assistant and clerk of works on the construction of the hut, for the calculation of timber sizes, the development of the details and the production of the plans.36

The living hut was procured from Geojfe Hudson and Son Ltd, Wholesale Timber Merchants of Sydney, . who provided with the hut, directions to assist with its erection. The hut which was subsequently used as the workshop at the main base was possibly purchased from Walter & M03~is Ltd, Port Adelaide and constructed at their Sania Timber Yards.

35 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 84.

36 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, pp. 84-85.

37 Nothing is known of their prior associations with methods of prefabrication.

38 A quote for a hut was given by Sania Timber Yards on 13 November 1911, Mawson Institute Collection 20.1 AAE/Box 6/Soc. 2. The third hut of the same design used at the

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 27

A colour, numbering and lettering system39 was used to identify materials of the living hut and their correct location once on site. However, the tongue and groove boards which were to form the roof, walls and floor cladding suffered some damage during the voyage south a~ deck cargo and this hampered the re-erection of the hut on site. 0

Information comparing material specified by George Hudson and Son Ltd in the manifest for the hut and the final assemblage of the hut on site has not been gathered. However, the hut is likely to vary considerably due to the damage sustained on the journey south and the decision to combine two of the party's huts at the main base. The following section is a description of the huts as constructed, obtained from the recollections of Mawson and the records of the existing structure by recent expeditions.

2.10.3 The Construction of the Hut The living hut comprised one room, 24' [7.31 m] square, with the workshop hut comprising another, 18' [5.48 m] square. These two rooms were surrounded by a 5' [1.52m] verandah on three sides and two sides respectively.

Illustration 9: The Framework of the Main Hut building, Cape Denison

Western BaseStation was constructed by Messrs Anthony ofMelbourne.

39 See George Hudson and Son Ltd's manifest (Appendix 7.4). 40 Mawson, Narrative, p. 105.

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The substructure of the hut consisted of timber stumps, possibly oregon, wedged and frozen into holes blasted from the rock. To stabilize the structure, the area between the stumps was filled with almost fifty ton of stones to a depth of one metre in some places.41 The walls, floor and roof framing were of heavy timbers recorded as being 4"~2" [100x50mm] and 3"x2" [75x50mm] oregon with members bolted together. Support for the pyramidal roof of the living hut, which was the largest of the three huts to Mawson's design, was provided by four 4"x4" [100x100mm] posts at its centre which also supported a platform for the acetylene plant approximately 8'6" [2.59m] square.

Illustration 10: An advanced stage in the construction of the Main Hut

Tongue and groove Baltic pine boarding was specified as the cladding material fixed horizontally internally and on the outer walls of the inner huts but fixed vertically to the roof and verandah walls. The outer walls of the living area and the roof of the hut consisted of a double layer of boards dressed on one side only with a layer of tarred paper between. The partitions and enclosing verandah walls incorporated a single skin of boards dressed on both sides. The floor also consisted of a single skin of tongue and groove boarding. Insulating material in the hut as it was designed was li~~ted to tarred paper, however records of what actually exists differ.

41 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 86.

42 Michael Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, (Draft) p. 17, claims that there is evidence in the surviving fabric of the insertion of sawdust and straw-packing in the

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 29

The snow bark which covered the building in the winter months was deemed to be the most effective form of insulation whilst also protecting the building for the abrasive action of wind driven ice and snow.

lustration A view of the Main in Autumn

Entry to the living hut was via the workshop hut, the entrance to which was protected by the western verandah enclosure. During winter, heavy snow drifts covered the vicinity of the hut so that only the top of the hut roof remained unsubmerged. Entrance to the hut in those conditions was effected via the tr~ doors in the roof and at other times through tunnels in the neve.

Mawson's room and the dark room were the only divisions of the

cavities of some walls.

In The Home of the Blizzard, p. 86, Mawson mentions the use of two courses of tarred paper as insulation for the walls and roof, however in his 'Part 1: Narrative', the use of 'a course of heavy tarred paper inserted under the lining boards' of the walls and floor is given. Also supplied here is the description of the use of an old sail fixed with battens as cover for the roof and mention is made of steel wire cables passed over the roof and secured to the underlying rock formation as addi tional tie down.

43 Mawson, Narrative, p. 113.

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Allom Lovell I\1arquis-Kyle

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internal space with the remainder of the mens' bunks located around the perimeter of the living area. Under the central platform which housed the acetylene plant and stores was a large table and benches and the corner between the entry and the dark room housed the cook's table, dresser and the Smith and Wellstood stove. The verandah which surrounded the living hut on three sides was used for the storage of food, general supplies and biological specimens.

The workshop hut was fitted out by the wireless telegrapher Walter Hannam, with laboratory benches, a lathe, sewing machine and wireless operator's bench, DC and AC generators and engine. Its western verandah, in addition to housing the entrance porch contained the latrine and trap-door access to the meat cellar, whilst the eastern verandah was used to house the dogs. An aurora obseIlatory was attached to the northern face of the workshop hut.

Artificial lighting in both huts was provided by an acetylene generator feeding a number of gas jets. Four skylights in the living hut roof and two in the workshop hut roof provided the natural lighting.

Ventilation was achieved by opening the doors, the flue to the stove and a louvred ventilator in the workshop roof. Heating was provided by the main stove which was kept alight 24. hours a day and fueled with Welsh coal and seal blubber. When snow covered the hut, a comfortable 5-10 0 C was maintained.45 The temperature near the walls and floor was always lower, usually at or below freezing point. This resulted in moisture from the air inside the hut condensing on the walls and parts ceiling, leading to ice ...... ng up on e inside the windows occasionally winter.

2.11 OTHER STRUCTURES AT THE MAIN BASE STATION

Upon completion of the living and workshop hut, work was commenced on the erection of the huts necessary for housing the instruments and equipment for the scientific programme and sledging journeys. These included the Hangar adjacent to the Main Hut; the Absolute Hut and Magnetograph House used for magnetic recording and located approximately 200m north-east of the main Hut; and the Transit Hut located to the east of the Main Hut and used for astronomical observations.

2.11.1 The Hangar Using the western wall of the Main Hut as one side, a hangar was built to house the air-tractor (the aeroplane which was damaged during the voyage south). The southern and western composite walls of the hangar were constructed from two rows of cases of

44 Mawson, Narrative, pp. 106-107.

45 Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, p. 17.

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stores so arranged that their contents could still be removed with a solid core of snow approximately, one foot [300mm] thick rammed between them. The timbers of the original packing case of the aeroplane provided the roof, while the front of the hangar on the lee side was e~~losed by a sheet of canvas held in place by a wall of snow blocks.

2.11.2 The Absolute Hut Observations of the variations in magnitude and direction of the earth's magnetic field were made from the Absolute Hut which was constructed from scrap materials, as part of the magnetic programme of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. The hut was completed on 13 February, 1912.

2.11.3 The Magnetograpb House The Magnetograph House was purchased complete by the Expedition for £16/15/- from Risby Brothers, Timber Merchants of Hobart in . Risby Brothers prepared and packed the material ready for erection, providing the oregon studs, rails, rafters braces, purlins, 1/2" [12mm] outside lining, 6"x3/8" [150x10mm] inside lining and one outside door and frame. The 'ship provided the frames for the two inside doors, all the nails and bolts and the 'P & B' paper,.47 '

Work on the skillion roofed, windowless Magnetograph House and the erection of wireless masts was undertaken by with the assistance of FL Stilwell whenever the wind fell off to 30 miles per hour or less. When shell Magnetograph House was near completion work on interior lining was executed. Following the subsidence a blizzard which had hindered construction, all party members assisted in the erection of a solid stone wall around the Magnetograph House. Thirty tons of rock were used in the walls' construction which took two days to build. 'The unprotected roof was lagged with sacks and sheepskins and, after this had been effected, the hut became practically windtight. The external covering controlled the influx of cold from the penetrating winds, and on the other hand, the conduction of the sun's warmth in summer. Thus a steady temperature was maintained; a most desirable feature in a magnetograph,.48

46 Mawson, Narrative, p. 110. 47 From a quotation dated 29 November 1911 and an account paid on 5 December 1911, held in the Mawson Institute Collection, .

48 Mawson, The Horne of the Blizzard, p. 103.

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The Magnetograph House was completed on March 14.49 This hut is the only building on the site still weather tight. It held the delicate instrument that continuously monitored the variations in the earth's magnetic field attended to daily by the Expedition magnetician Eric Webb. 2.11.4 The Transit Hut • On May 27, Robert Bage, astronomer, commenced the erection of the astronomical observatory, the 'Transit Hut', on the eastern side of and close to the Main Hut. It served as a shelter for taking star sights by theodolite to determine the Cape's exact longitude. The Transit Hut was built from scrap timber with an internal cladding of fibrous cement sheets, possibly as an insulation material and '58s covered with canvas in an attempt to make it drift proof.

·.. r·

; ",-.. ,#..!:-,,.e,. ;.' . .... :,:.\" . Illustration 12: The Transit Hut (Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914) 2.11.5 The Memorial Cross and Plaque In the Spring of 1913, a memorial cross and plaque were erected to expeditioners, Mertz and Ninnis who lost their lives on a tragic sledging journey leaving Mawson as the only survivor. Located on the highest point west of the Main Hut, the plaque had been made during the winter months by Hodgeman who cut down the dining

49 Mawson, Narrative, p. 110.

50 Michael Pearson, Letter to Antarctic Division dated 17 October 1987: Specific Comments on Draft Report of Cultural Significance of Mawson's Huts.

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room table and carved the inscription. FH Bickerton constructed the cross.

Illustration 13: The Memorial Cross (Australasian Antarctic Expedition

The 'Aurora' departed from Commonwealth Bay in the evening of the 19 January, with and his party of seven men to undertake operations approximately 500 miles [800km] further west. The ice packs again proved to be impenetrable and approximately 1400 miles [2240km] was crossed before a landing was effected on a great frozen platform that Wild named the Shackleton Ice Shelf.

The site chosen on the Ice Shelf as the location of the Western Base was approximately 17 miles [27km] from the actual land itself and 640m from the brink of the ice precipice where they had disembarked from the Aurora, which then returned to Hobart for the winter. The site chosen was selected as being reasonably free from small crevasses and the job of erecting the hut was commenced immediately. (see Appendix 7.3.12 for hut details) Following the completion of the Main Hut, the party set about their meteorological and magnetic programme which involved building an igloo as a magnetic observatory and undertaking a number of sledging journeys.

2.13 CONCLUSION OF DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

The Main Hut and the Magnetograph Hut remain the most intact of the huts at the Commonwealth Bay base. Valuable evidence remains of the Memorial Cross and Plaque and the Transit Hut. The

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 2 DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE 34

Absolute Hut walls survive to between one third and one half of their original height and are rapidly eroding, whereas the Hangar is virtually nothing more than part of the artefacts scattered over the site. As the site and structures of the Main Base Station are the least interfered with of all the Antarctic bases from the Heroic Period, it is therefore an important archaeological, scientific and historic resource deserving careful consideration.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 35

Illustration 14: Mawson's Huts (1985)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 36

3.1 SUMMARY

As the scope of this report precluded an examination of the site by the author, the reports of recent expeditions to Mawson's Huts, Commonwealth Bay provide the basis for this discussion of the fabric.

Previous studies51 have indicated that those elements which constitute the surviving 'fabric' of the main base of the Australian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914, otherwise known as 'Mawson's Huts' established in January-February 1912, include the main living and workshop hut, the Absolute Hut and Magnetograph House, the Transit Hu t, the Hangar, the Memorial Cross and those other artefacts associated with the Expedition that are located within the site between John O'Groats and Land's End from the edge of the ice cap to the sea.

Of these, the two huts which were consequently combined as the main living and workshop hut are the only remaining physical evidence of Mawson's design, were the quarters of the Expedition for two years, and as those elerents which was the most visible have come to symbolise the site.5

3.2 THE MAIN LIVING AND WORKSHOP HUT

The main living and workshop hut at present is two thirds full of snow and each winter it becomes buried in snow almost to the apex of the roof. The effects of this seasonal freezing and thawing, combined with severe abrasion caused by wind dr!~en ice particles over a of 75 as Marshall are summarised

1 The deflection and buckling of the floor under the ice load.

2 The possible pUlping of the lower section of the stumps, bearers, joists, bottom plates and studs by freeze/thaw cycles. 3 The weight of the ice and snow has caused the north-east and south-east hip rafters to split above the platform; the collar tie supporting the platform has fractured which may have induced lateral deflection in the two northern posts and the eastern collar tie is suffering severe deflection. 4 The fracture of all collar ties in the workshop hut, two of which have fractured mid-way and pulled out at their end

51 See Appendix 7.4.2.

52 The hut constructed by the Western Base Party on the Shackleton Ice Shelf was also based on the design developed by Mawson.

53 Duncan Marshall, Mawson's Huts: Commonwealth Bay: Structural and Materials' Performance (Canberra: January 1987).

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 37

fixings.

5 The disconnection of two tension rods supporting the platform from their fixing with the timber struts at the apex of the roof.

6 The disconnection of the Workshop ceiling lining boards from fixings adjacent to failed collar ties and in a number of places due to the snow load in the roof cavity.

7 The erosion of the external cladding in some places to 19mm on the main living hut and to llmm on the workshop hut. Erosion is at its severest on the exposed southern faces on the huts, however the south-west corner is generally well protected by drift snow.

8 The gaps between the boards of the workshop hut range up to 5-15mm, and up to 50mm between some boards on the main living hut. In some place no gaps are apparent. 9 The possibility of pUlping of the lower section of the wall cladding by freeze/thaw cycles, especially along the eastern wall of the hu t where a melt pool has developed for a considerable depth against the wall.

10 The corrosion and loosening of fastenings although the cladding has been reported as being generally well fixed.

OTHER STRUCTURES THE MAIN BASE STATION In addition to Hut are the remains structures that date back to the occupation of the site by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. These include the remains of the Hangar, Absolute Hut, Magnetograph House, Transit Hut, the Mertz-Ninnis memorial cross and plaque located on Memorial Hill, meteorological equipment located on Anemometer Hill and the radio masts north and south of the main Hut.54

3.3.1 The Hangar

The hangar no longer survives, however its artefacts are undoubtedly amongst those scattered over the site.

3.3.2 The Absolute Hut Of all the huts at the main base, its present condition is the poorest, with its roof and many of the boards which lined its walls missing or broken away. The remains of this hut are significant as the site from which accurate measurements of the variations in the location of the earth's magnetic field were taken over a long period of time and from which further variations can still be monitored.

54 Estelle LazeI', Mawson's Huts: Interim Conservation Report, vol 5 (Part A), Archaeological Report 1984/85, p. 4.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 38

3..3..3 The Magnetograph House

Whilst on a recent visit Michael Pearson55 nh';:!e:>w'u",,'41 the interior of the House, fully clad with black tarred paper which was fixed with battens, was totally free of snow. However, the connection between the roof and wall on the southern side of the hut was very badly eroded with the cessation of weathertightness imminent. The hut was still surrounded with boulders to eaves height and there were remnants of the sheep skin beneath a batten on the roof's edge. The upper half of the external door, a stable door, was being held in place by six bent nails.

3.3.4 The Transit Hut

The Transit Hut is still extant. The canvas which once made it drift-proof has long since deteriorated as have some of the boards and fixings.

3.3.5 The Memorial Cross and Plaque

Whilst the vertical member of the cross remains in its original location, the fixing of the horizontal member has failed and the

55 Michael Pearson, Report for Antarctic Historic Sites and Monument Advisory Committee on a Visit to Mawson's Hut, Commonwealth Bay (25-29 December 1986).

------

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Illustration 16: The Magnetograph House (1982)

Illustration 17: The Transit Hut (1985)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 3 THE FABRIC OF MAWSON'S HUTS 40

cross member is now loca~gd some distance from its original location. According to Blunt , the fixing of the cross bar to the vertical member has failed several times since 1914 due to the f erocity of the winds. The vertical member has also suffered erosion from wind driven snow and ice particles.

The memorial plaque was first removed from the site in 1977 by members of an ANARE party 'for preservation,57 and again in 1985 by Project Blizzard for examination by the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences. The plaque is said to be suffering from the high moisture content build up between the timber of the plaque and the sealed perspexcover which was applied to it in 1977 prior to its return in 1978.58

Illustration 18: The Memorial Cross (1985)

56 William Blunt, Mawson's Huts Interim Conservation Report, vol 2, 'Constraints, Condition Policy and Implementation' (September 1985) p. 211.

57 William Blunt, Report on the Repatriation to Australia of the Mertz-Ninnis Memorial Plaque and Proclamation Plaque from Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica by Project Blizzard (May 1985).

58 Blunt, Repatriation of Plaque, pp. 12-13.

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3.4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS The area of Cape Denison which contains evidence of the occupation of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 extends from John O'Groats in the east to Land's End and from the edge of the ice cap north to the coast line. Contained within this area are the remains of structures and artefacts associated with the Expedition and their scientific endeavours. These numerous artefacts include the refuse, stores and remains of structures related to the work and domestic life of the Expedition, which were not considered to be saleable. All of those artefacts that were considered to be of monetary value that were easily removed from the site were returned to Australia to assist in financing the operations of the Expedition.59

Significant quantities of evidence of archaeological and historical value are contained both inside and outside the huts. The site, the relationship of one hut to the next and the scatter and concentration of artefacts provide evidence of the spatial behaviour of the expedition with relationship to their work and domestic activities outdoors. The internal arrangement of the Main Hut into personal and communal living and working quarters, along with numerous artefacts also provide valuable information for spatial/behavioural research into prolonged and confined communal living and behaviour under Antarctic conditions. Those artefacts which remain are scattered over the entire area from John O'Groats to Land's End and north to the sea with the major concentrations located in the vicinity of the huts, many of which have en scattered by wind. These artefacts have considerable providing an interesting medium behavioural/environmental studies. 3.5 MORE RECENT BUILDINGS AND ARTEFACTS Some more recent buildings and artefacts associated with latter expeditions are located with the site of Mawson's Huts. No description of these is contained here and the assumption is made that they contribute little to the value of the historic site and indeed, in some cases, detract from that value.

59 Percival Grey Antarctic Voyages, Diary entry, 13 December 1913.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

4.1 POLAR HUTS

Numerous expeditions to the Arctic region have been recorded prior to and at the turn of the twentieth century. Far fewer are the number of huts built in association with these expeditions when compared with the Antarctic continent. Parties venturing to the Arctic basin tended to use their vessels as accommodation more frequently than setting up bases on the ice or surrounding islands.

Nevertheless a number of expeditions did set up stations, beginning in 1596 with the unplanned wintering on the north-east coast of Novaya Zemlya by William Barent's Dutch expedition. The illustrations of Barent's hut indicate that it was a framed structure with boards fixed to either side of the frame, with an inclined roof and bunks located around the walls. (see Appendix 7.2.1 for hut details) This hut which is said to have survived for 300 years60 was not unlike those huts constructed later during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when polar expeditions and wintering in polar regions became more common, due to commercial expansion and the increase in exploratory voyages.

The two aspects of polar hut design which were of the utmost importance to the success of the building were its structural stability and a comfortable living environment.

Throughout the history of polar exploration due to the nature of the destination of the expeditions, the buildings constructed for the purpose of wintering in these regions took on a similar simple, pragmatic form as demanded by the user1s requirements for transportability, ease of erection on site, resistance to the cold and strength against cyclonic winds. The form that these buildings usually took was rectangular in plan with a gabled roof or slight variation of a gabled roof and methods of construction which varied from clad timber framing to traditional plank construction. The degree of attention given to the insulative performance of the cladding components also varied from hut to hut. (see Appendices 7.2 and 7.3 for hut details)

4.2 HUTS OF THE HEROIC AGE OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

Although Shackleton's 'Nimrod' expedition of 1914-16 and the advent of World War I has come to symbolise the end of the era known as the Heroic Age when scientific expeditions and regular wintering on and near the continent was commonplace, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914 was the last in which huts were built during that era.

As documented in Section 2.5, a number of nations were involved in scientific endeavours in the Antarctic region during this period which spanned almost twenty years. Of these, there is markedly

60 Paul-Emile Victor, Man and the Conquest of the Poles (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962) pp. 64-65.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 43

more information on the Scandinavian, British and Australian designed huts, and these huts have therefore formed the body of this discussion. What details are known of the other huts from this period have been included along with details of the huts below in chronological order in Appendix 7.3.

4.2.1 Scandinavian Designs

The hut designs of the Scandinavians, Borchgrevink, Nordenskjold and Amundsen have many features in common including their link to traditional Scandinavian building techniques. Each of these huts had a rectangular plan and a gabled roof with a loft above the living space, providing not only storage but insulation as well. Footings, either sleepers or bearers were laid directly on the ground and no vertical substructural members were used as was the case with one of the British and the two Australian hut designs. All three huts were designed to be tied down with steel cables that passed over the roof and were fixed to the foundations.

In BorchgrevinkTs and NordenskjoldTs huts, a double layer of thick planks, with insulation material inserted between the planks were used in a construction form traditionally practiced in Sweden and Norway.61

Of the three Scandinavian designs which performed adequately structurally, a comfortable living environment which involved the balance between ventilation, insulation and heating, was only achieved by Amundsen.

The huts of British design, ShackletonTs, CarnpbelPs and ScottTs Cape Evans hut also had a similar basic form, with rectangularly planned, framed structures clad with tongue and groove boarding or weatherboards with insulating material between. The loft which characterized Scandinavian designs was absent here, replaced by ceiling boards attached to the underside of the roof purlins of gabled or gambrel roof forms.

The footings of the British huts varied from stumps at Cape Royds to bearers laid on the ground at Cape Adare and Cape Evans. The sizes of the huts ranged from a six man hut at Cape Adare to a 25 man hut at Cape Evans, which was the largest of all the Antarctic huts of the era.62

Ventilation systems designed for the British huts were generally inadequate to their need. The problem of smoke and foul air that plagued the Scandinavians however, appears to have not been as great a problem.

61 Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, p. 8.

62 Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, pp. 13-14.

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4.2.3 Australian Designs Other than Mawson's huts, the only other Antarctic hut design developed in Australia during the Heroic Period was that of the Hut Point hut for Scott's 1901-1904 Expedition. The design of this hut has been attributed to J W Gregory, a Londoner appointed to the Chair in Geology at Melbourne University and who was to have been the leader of the scientific party with this Expedition until a difference of opinion led to his resignation.

The suggestion that this hut was based on a prefabricated homestead design developed in Australia for remote areas, where materials and skilled labour were scarce is given credence by a description of it from Scott as having 'been brought from Australia, and was in fact, a fairly spacious rungalow of a design used by the outlying settlers of that country,.6

Characteristics which this hut shares with those of Mawson's, apart from its country of origin, are its pyramidal roof form, square plan and surrounding verandah. The wall framing appears to have been continuous from where it was sunk 3'-4' [1-1.2m] into permafrost ground through to the top plate. This hut much larger than Mawson's, supported centrally by only one post whereas Mawson's living hut was supported by four posts. Both huts had verandahs to three sides, but the Hut Point hut's verandah was not fully enclosed like the Cape Denison hut to provide an effective insulating barrier but remained partially open.

Of the Antarctic huts from the Heroic Period, the Hut Point hut was one of the least successful. It had no ventilation system and because of its large volume was difficult to heat which made the environment unsuitable for comfortable living. Other than its use as emergency shelter by later expeditions, it was abandoned as living quarters and used only for storage and entertainment.

4.3 MAWSON'S HUTS The hut model developed by Douglas Mawson (for use as for the main living and workshop huts at Cape Denison and Wild's hut at the Shackleton Ice Shelf) combined some elements which were consistent with other polar huts and others which made it distinctly Australian.

Although similarities exist between Mawson's hut design and that of the Hut Point hut, which result in a superficial resemblance between the two, this association can be seen as being relatively inconsequential. Unlike the Hut Point hut (which was freely adapted from an Australian prefabricated housing type), and the British and Scandinavian huts (generally based on local building traditions or set precedents), Mawson's hut design was a conscious attempt to develop a suitable building from first principles. This

63 Robert Falcon Scott, Scott's Last Expedition (London: John Murray, 1923) p. 160.

AIlOll1 Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 45

use of prefabrication as the most convenient method for erecting and transporting the building under the given conditions, was the approach used in the construction of the Antarctic huts generally. To what degree the form of the huts was influenced by this prefabricated method of construction readily available in Australia, as has been suggested is unknown. However, Mawson made nQ mention of it in his description of the synthesis of the design,64 therefore the evaluation of its effect on the design's evolution would be no more than speculation.

The general form of Mawson's hut model compared to those of Scandinavian and British origin is markedly different, however, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 appear to have relied heavily on the knowledge and experience of earlier expeditions with respect to cladding, insulating materials, equipment and fittings.

The similarities shared with other Antarctic huts as displayed by the Main Hut at Cape Denison include: the use of Baltic pine; tongue and groove boarding; a double layer of lining; tarred paper insulation; cables passed over the hut and secured to the foundations providing additional tie down.

The variations encompass: its pyramidal roof form extending to within 5' of ground level and its square plan shape (with the exception of the Hut Point hut); its fully enclosed verandahs to three sides of the hut; the stacking of provisions against the verandah to the height of the roof providing additional insulation and a continuously inclined surface to the winds; no windows other than skylights also used as alternative exits; stump footings (with exception of the Cape Royds and 50 ton of stones used as an additional foundation to the building.

While Mawson's hut design was as structurally sound as the most successful of the other Antarctic hut designs, some difficulties were experienced in achieving the correct balance between heating, ventilation and the insulation systems. This proved to be a problem with all of the Antarctic huts to varying degrees.

4.4 OTHER SURVIVING HUTS

Of considerable importance is the fact that of the five Antarctic huts known to survive from this period prior to the First World War, the Main Hut of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition at Commonwealth Bay is the least disturbed by human intervention.

The three huts in the New Zealand Antarctic Territory of , have been subjected to regular conservation activities since the 1960's and are relatively close to the American McMurdo Base and New Zealand's . The distribution and retention of the original artefacts has been greatly disturbed around these huts and has substantially reduced their value for archaeological research by

64 Mawson, The Home of the Blizzard, pp. 84-85.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 46

artefact study.

Mawson's Huts is less accessible and as a result relatively few visits have been made to the site and only one attempt has been made at restoration work which was undertaken in 1979. Therefore, the site, its structures and artefacts are largely undisturbed and as such provide an invaluable resource for archaeological and historical research.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 5 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 4'1

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Cultural significance as defined by The Burra Charter of Australia ICOMOS is 'aesthetic, historic, scientific, or social value for past, present or future generations.'

The Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975-1976 defines the National Estate as 'those places being components of the natural environment of Australia or the cultural environment of Australia' that illustrate any of the values outlined in the above definition. This broad basis enables significance to be recognised for a variety of reasons.

Mawson's Huts, including Main Hut, Transit Hut, Magnetic Hut and the Memorial Cross at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, King George V Land, Antarctica are protected under the Australian Heritage Commission Act through its inclusion on the Register of the National Estate. This, in itself, is an acknowledgement of the significance of Mawson's Huts to Australia's heritage and it is the object of this report to further explore that significance.

~ ~

~ \j

Illustration 19: The Recorrunended Principal Historic Zone

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 48

A recommendation has been made to the Antarctic Division65 as to the establishment of a principal historic zone to assist in the management of the site. It is that area included in the Register of the National Estate and embodies the area bounded by the ridge east of the magnetic huts and the Australasian Antarctic Expedition east marker, south to the ice cap edge and then west to Land's End, that is the whole of the Hut Valley and adjacent ridge areas. This zone encompasses all of the structures, equipment, survey marks and other major artefact deposits related to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 and their two year's occupation of the site.

5.2 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

The concept of cultural significance is based upon the belief that places, be they buildings, sites or relics etc, are valuable beyond their obvious utilitarian worth. The places that are most likely to be of significance are those which assist an understanding of the past; which enrich the present and those which are believed will be of value to future generations.

While there is a subjective element associated with the concept of cultural significance, every attempt must be made to avoid making judgements within narrow preferences, biased by particular interests or without historical perspective. The objective assessment of significance is therefore aided by the use of recognised criteria.

5..3 CRITERIA FOR SIGNIFICANCE

The Australian Heritage Commission consider an extensive set of criteria when determining the eligibility a place inclusion the Register of the National Estate. These criteria, outlined in App end ix 7.1, have been develop ed to give effect to the identification of places within Australia's natural and cultural environment that are of value to its people. Briefly, these criteria establish places which are of:

importance in the evolution and pattern of Australia's natural and cultural history;

importance as rare, endang ered or uncommon aspects of Australia's natural or cultural history;

importance as representative of Australia's natural, prehistoric and historic places;

importance for associations with lives or works of significant persons in the past;

importance for aesthetic values or high creative or technical achievern ent;

65 The recommendation has been made by Dr Michael Pearson, Assistant Director (Historic Environment), Australian Heritage Commission.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 49

importance for cultural or social associations or as the focus of cultural or social sentiment;

importance for potential in yielding information contributing to an understanding of Australia's natural or cultural history.

5.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MAWSON'S HUTS

For the purposes of this assessment, six of the seven criteria above are considered appropriate for the establishment of the significance of Mawson's Huts. These are discussed below using the general approach of both the Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (Burra Charter) and the Australian Heritage Commission Act with the discussion organised under headings tailored to suit the case.

5.4.1 Historical Value

Mawson's Huts have importance for their association with the cultural phase represented by the Heroic Age of Antarctic

exploration and scientific research. Australia's contribution to that I phase was substantial and Mawson's expedition was one of the last of that period. The only subsequent expedition, that of Shackleton on the 'Endurance' in 1914 failed to fulfill all its objectives. The period of Antarctic exploration which followed after World War I was characterised by the use of aeroplanes and major efforts by several nations to claim sovereignty over parts of the continent.

I n terms of its scientific e, the site Mawson's Huts is significant, marking the location one of the earliest efforts at large scale scientific enquiry by Australians outside Australia in the decade following Federation. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, laid firm foundations for Australia's continued participation in Antarctic research and exploration and the Cape Denison site is significant as the main base of these undertakings.

5.4.2 Rarity

Mawson's Huts is one of only five bases known to survive in the Antarctic region from the Heroic Period and due to its isolated location it remains the most intact of these bases. As the main base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, the first and the only expedition organised, manned and supported by Australians during the Heroic Period, it is one of only two bases constructed in the Australian Antarctic Territory up until this period and the only surviving base.

5.4.3 Associational Value

From the Heroic Period, only the Main and Western bases of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, (the first expedition to the Antarctic continent which was instigated, manned and supported largely by Australians) were located in what is now Australian Antarctic Territory, with the base at Cape Denison, Mawson's Huts,

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 50

containing the only surviving material.

This base contains the only in-situ evidence of early Australian Antarctic research and is associated with numerous important figures and events in Australian history including:

1 The associations of the 18 members of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 with the construction and occupation of Mawson's Huts and as the site from which they undertook an extensive scientific programme are important to Australia's history in terms of Australia's early achievement in Antarctic exploration and discovery. Included amongst these achievements was the use of the new innovation of radio on the Antarctic continent linking the main base at Cape Denison with mainland Australia via the relay station established on Macquarie Island.

2 The importance of Mawson's Huts (as the only physical link to the Australian Antarctic Territory during the earliest and most significant period of Antarctic exploration known as the Heroic Age) to Australia's territorial claim to 42% of the Antarctic continent.

3 The association with the instigator and leader of the Expedition and designer of the huts, Douglas Mawson. Mawson was instrumental in every facet of the Expedition's organisation from its conception through to the development of the main structure and the execution of the scientific undertakings. In addition, Mawson was the sole survivor of a tragic sledging journey in which BES Ninnis and Xavier Mertz lost their lives and to whom a memorial was erected on Memorial

Viewed in an international context, MawsonTs Huts is historically significant as one of only five bases from the Heroic Period known to be extant. Of these, its structures and its site are the least disturbed by human intervention.

5.4.4 Aesthetic, Creative and Technical Contribution

Mawson's Huts and their site do not conform to a common set of values or principles related to aesthetics in the usual sense of scale, form, homogeneity of materials or views in an urban or a townscape sense. They do however, have a landscape value associated with the visual impact of isolated structures within a vast desert of ice and snow. On a smaller scale, the weathering of the huts and the patination of their fabric and of other artefacts, serve as a gauge to the observer of time elapsed since the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914 and of the conditions endured by its members in this remote and hostile environment.

MawsonTs Huts has largely maintained its historic form due to the isolation and remoteness of their site on a small peninsula of rock surrounded by a vast area of ice and this, whilst reinforcing the symbolic and historical significance of the site, provides powerful visual value. The later, post-Australasian Antarctic Expedition

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 51

buildings and some signs and plaques on the site detract from this visual impact.

The creative significance of Mawson's Huts lies in the development of a hut model by the instigator and leader of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, geologist Douglas Mawson.

Of the three huts based on this design, only two survive, and these, the largest and the smallest, were amalgamated at the main base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, Cape Denison as the living quarters and workshop hut (the Main Hut). The significance of this hut for its remaining physical evidence of documented concern by Mawson for hut design adds to its significance.

The pragmatic considerations for shelter in a foreign and remote environment appear to have overshadowed any aesthetic concerns in the usual sense in the development. of huts for polar regions. Although the exact derivation of Mawson's hut design is unknown, the resulting building displays an inherent architectural quality reflecting the strength of the structural form.

Technically the Main Hut of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition is of substantial importance. Of all the polar huts considered in this report, the Main Hut was one of only two hut structures, both Australian, which departed significantly from the general form of polar hut construction and comprised a distinctive pyramidal roof over a square plan with verandahs to three sides. The other hut was the Hut Point hut of the 1901-1903 British Antarctic Expedition. In terms the huts' performance however, the Main Hut of the Australasian Antarctic was far superior to the Hut Point hut, which was undoubtedly the least successful of all the Antarctic

In detailed construction, the Main Hut is significant in terms of its inherent strength derived from its form and its performance in the most severe of polar climates. The conscious design of the hut by Mawson was a bold and successful attempt in the development of a suitable building for the inhospitable Antarctic environment. It not only relied upon the experience of earlier expeditions with regard to rna terials, cladding and insulating methods, but from his own knowledge and experience came aspects of the hut which adds to its architectural and technical significance.

5.4.5 Social and Cultural Value The site of Mawson's Huts generally, with the huts and memorial cross particularly, is significant as a symbol of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914, its members, its achievements and its sacrifices. The site is also of importance as the location of the claim to sovereignty in the name of the British Crown by Douglas Mawson on a return journey in 1931, acknowledged by the placement of a proclamation plaque on the site.

5.4.6 Scientific Value The site of Mawson's Huts as already determined encompasses the

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 52

area between John O'Groats and Land's End from the edge of the ice cap to the sea, with evidence of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition scattered over its entirety. The Hut Valley, where all of the structures associated with the Australasian Antarctic Expedition and the highest concentration of artefacts are located has the greatest level of significance. Within this area original points from which surveying, cartographic, meteorological and magnetic pole observations were made are still extant and provide the facility to continue valuable, comparative scientific research.

At another level, the weathering and survival of the huts and the decay of other artefacts as a result of 75 years exposure in hostile conditions, provides valuable archaeological and scientific research potential in the area of materials deterioration and conservation.

As an archaeological resource, the significance of the site at Cape Denison and its associated structures and artefacts lies not only in the intrinsic historic value of these artefacts but also in the insights it provides into human behaviour in Antarctic conditions and the provisions and equipment available to the Expedition during the early twentieth century. It contains valuable information on human responses to isolation and confinement imposed by the distance from civilization and extreme climatic conditions. This aspect of the site's significance is enhanced by the fact that of all the remaining historical hut sites in the Antarctic region, it has been subject to the least intervention.

5.5 SUMMARY STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The site the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 known as Mawson's Huts exemplifies its surviving form, the isolation and hardship encountered by members of the expedition in their important work during that period. The expedition resulted in not only scientific achievements but also the claim to a large portion of the Antarctic continent by an emerging nation. Those visual and symbolic qualities emphasise dramatically, the now almost legendary activities of Sir Douglas Mawson and his party in that period and represent an ethos within which the continuing exploration and scientific expeditions in Antarctica by Australians operates.

Historically the site is of significance for its associations with Mawson's expedition. As part of an international endeavour in polar regions during the Heroic Era, the Australasian expedition was important in helping to create an Australian identity.

The site including its surviving buildings and artefacts is significant for the rich resource of undisturbed material from the period of its first settlement. The extant buildings are significant for their architectural form and technical adaptation, derived by Sir Douglas Mawson, from general experience in Arctic and Antarctic regions and from his particular associations of climatic conditions and living requirements in a previous expedition of which he was a member.

Finally the site, buildings and artefacts have added significance as one of five Antarctic sites of that period in which evidence

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 53

survives of settlement. That quality is enhanced because the fabric has been so little disturbed by human intervention since the site was abandoned in 1914.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 6 POLICY ISSUES

6.1 ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED

Given the significance of structures and artefacts associated with the 1911 -1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition and in particular the relationship of those structures and artefacts to their site, it is necessary that any conservation program instigated should address the following issues:

1 The retention and conservation of Mawson's Huts and artefacts in situ as a primary objective.

2 The impact upon visual significance of any new structures at including structures erected to protect historic fabric.

3 The decision as to the most appropriate means of conservation of material in situ.

4 The determination of the stage at which the threat of destruction of any item or element through decay and weathering justifies its removal, from either its current location or from Antarctica itself.

5 The protection of material within the broader site against loss or decay.

6 The preparation of a plan of management for the site bearing in mind its particular significance, its location and climatic conditions.

7 availability access to and the site by individuals or parties other than those connected with the care and management the site.

8 The appropriate interpretation of the site both to visitors and to others in mainland Australia.

9 The removal from the site of less important or insignificant material that may have accumulated since 1914.

10 The return to the site of material removed at the Expedition's end in 1914 and sUbsequently.

6.2 A CONSERVATION POLICY FOR MAWSON'S HUTS

The preparation of a comprehensive conservation policy for Mawson's Huts while flowing from the assessment of significance of the site must also rely on the various opportunities and constraints identified and is not a simple process or one which can be determined without a great deal of further investigation and consideration of facts. It is not part of the present brief to determine policy.

While the various policy issues raised in the previous section are likely to be central to the process, they have been deliberately phrased in a neutral form so as to avoid any prejudicial decisions

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 6 POLlCY ISSUES 55

before full understanding of the variables of constraint and opportunity which may effect any conservation policy.

Notwithstanding that, the establishment of significance has identified at Mawson's Huts, circumstances which are unusual in Australian cultural conservation and which present uniqu e opportunities for the care and management of this important site.

In essence these are as follows:

1 The symbolic quality of the site which, while remote from mainland Australia, nevertheless represents an important part of the developing ethos of isolation, hardship and mateship which have come to be accepted as an integral part of the Australian character.

Something of the site strikes an important chord in Australian understanding of themselves. Its very isolation, its climatic conditions and visual quality are important elements in that perception and understanding. The continuing isolation and sense of mystery is part of the significance of the site that might be compared to sites such as the Dig Tree of Burke and Wills at Coopers Creek or perhaps Anzac Cove at Gallipoli.

2 The archaeological resource. of the site, abandoned in 1914 and only superficially disturbed by subsequent human intervention since that date, places Mawson's Huts in a unique group of culturally important sites in Australia. The growth of tourism and the relatively easy access to once remote sites in mainland Australia has left Mawson's Huts as one of the best preserved and least disturbed culturally significant sites.

In terms of the undisturbed resource, it may be compared with below ground archaeological sites such as the first government house in Sydney or to shipwreck sites around the coast.

3 The protection of the site and lack of immediate threats of tourism or subsequent development makes Mawson's Huts unique in Australia. Despite the real problem of erosion of above ground material by wind borne ice and water damage to some artefacts and materials, in general the climatic conditions continue to protect the physical remains in a frozen state. Those conditions will, of course, continue and while further research may reveal the necessity for special conservation action, the site is, and continues to be, well protected.

Similarly the relative absence of human intervention in the past due to the isolation of the site will continue. With appropriate management techniques the site may remain remote and protected.

4 The control of the site by the Commonwealth of Australia is not unique in cultural conservation in Australia. However, this situation combined with the relative lack of pressure for disposal or redevelopment, places the site of Mawson's Huts in

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 6 POLICY ISSUES 56

a position where its care and conservation may be better administered without external threat or undue commercial consideration.

While the cost of conservation and management will be real, the pressure to negotiate with private owners or to find an adaptive re-use for the site and buildings should not form a critical part of the considerations. Plans to establish a working base nearby will provide an ideal opportunity for maintenance and capital works to be carried out on a regular basis.

In framing a conservation policy then, particular attention might be paid to those unique or special characteristics which flow from or contribute to the significance of Mawson's Huts.

The retention of the essential isolated character of the site is not only important, but indeed far more important it might be argued, than any demand for access to the site or for individual artefacts to be displayed in mainland Australia.

It is the very isolation and remoteness of the site that contributes most strongly to its symbolic character which in turn, is important to the Australian cultural ethos.

The intactness of the site as literally, a frozen moment, is similarly important and surely presents an unusual opportunity for the conservation of Mawson's Huts in all its detail. The absence of external threats of tourism which has had such a marked on more accessible mainland sites, similarly is a factor which must present an opportunity the management of the site. That isolation together with close to ideal conditions for the protection of organic material should help to focus policy decisions.

While other constraints and opportunities will no doubt present themselves in the formulation of the conservation policy, the significance of the site would seem to suggest that the conservation of Mawson's Huts may be approached a little differently to other culturally significant sites in Australia. Its isolation and well preserved s tate must surely be amongs t the critical if not determining factors.

No doubt pressure will be brought to bear by some who would see the need to present the site to a wider public by encouraging tourist activity or by removing significant material to museums in mainland Australia. While as a general principle, public accessibility of culturally significant sites may be appropriate in this instance, the significance of Mawson's Huts as a symbolic site, remote, intact and relatively well protected suggests a conservation of the total fabric in situ.

Display and interpretation of the site in mainland Australia may be achieved by the use of reproductions, models and other devices that do not require intervention or disturbance of the significant material at the site.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 6 POLICY ISSUES 57

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 58

7.1 CRITERIA FOR THE REGISTER OF THE NATIONAL ESTATE

The following criteria are observed by the Australian Heritage Commission for the determination of places of cultural significance. CRITERION 1

Importance in the evolution and pattern of Australia's natural and cultural history.

1.1 Importance in the evolution of Australian flora, fauna, landscapes or climate;

1.2 Importance in maintaining existing processes or natural systems a t the regional or national scale;

1.3 Importance in exhibiting unusual richness or diversity of flora, fauna and landscapes;

1.4 Important for their association with events, developments or cultural phases which have had a significant role in the history of the nation, state, region or community;

1.5 Importance to the development in Australia of arts and sciences related to natural and cultural history;

CRITERION 2

Importance as rare, endangered or uncommon aspects of Australia's natural or cultural history

2.1 Importance for rare endangered or uncommon flora, fauna, natural landscapes or phenomena;

2.2 Importance as distinctive of way of life, custom, process, land­ use, function or design no longer practiced, in danger of being lost, or of exceptional interest.

CRITERION 3

Importance as representative of Australia's natural, prehistoric and historic places

3.1 Importance as representative of the range of landscapes, environments or ecosystems, the attributes of which identify them as being characteristic of their Type;

3.2 Importance in representing the range of human activities in the Australian environment (inclUding way of life, philosophy, custom, process, land-use, function, design or technique).

CRITERION 4

Importance for associations with lives or works of significant persons in the past

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4.1 Importance for close associations with the work of important scientists;

4.2 Importance for their close associations with individuals whose activities have been significant within the history of the nation, state, region.

CRITERION 5

Importance for aesthetic values or high creative or technical achievement

5.1 Importance in exhibiting particular aesthetic characteristics valued by a community or cultural group;

5.2 Importance in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement for the time.

CRITERION 6

Importance for cultural or social associations or as the focus of cultural or social sentiment

6.1 Importance as places highly valued by the Australian community (or an identifiable or regional segment of it) for reasons of cuItural, educational or social associations;

6.2 Importance to society by virtue of wilderness quality

CRITERION 7

Importance for potential in yielding information contributing to an understanding of Australia's natural or cultural history

7.1 Importance for information contributing to wider understanding of Australian natural history, by virtue of their use as research sites, teaching sites, type localities, reference or benchmark sites;

7.2 Importance for information contributing to a wider understanding of Australian prehistory or history.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 60

7.2 ARCTIC HUTS

A small number of Arctic Huts have been collated in chronological order in sections 7.2.1 -7.2.7. These huts date from 1596 through until 1906. Parties venturing to the Arctic region used their vessels for accommodation more frequently than they set up bases on the ice or surrounding islands.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 61

7.2.1 1596 Dutch Arctic Expedition

Location North-east coast of Novaya Zemlya, Arctica.

Expedition Leader William Barents. Number Accommodated 17

Design Origins The Expedition was forced to winter in the Arctic region following serious damage to their vessel by a moving ice pack. The shelter which they sUbsequently built was constructed from an abundance of driftwood which was available and from planks and ribs from the ship's forecastle.

)( ",,#,~•.,iF;;:-- 1<

Size 33'x19' [10x5.8m]

Internal Arrangement No divisions within the hut are apparent. The party's wooden bunks were arranged around the walls with a central fire for heating with a chimney over. Also housed in the hut were the provisions, weapons, tools and a turkish bath built from a wine keg.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Appears to have been timber framed.

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Footings Not known.

Walls A layer of timber boards appears to have been fixed to either side of the framing.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known. Appears to be timber lined.

Ceiling Appears to be timber lining to underside of roof framing.

Roof Of similar construction to the walls.

Ventilation Central chimney.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Open fire.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes The hut was rediscovered in 1871 by Captain Carlson of Tromso, Norway. It was said to be in a near perfect condition, and many contents were returned to a museum in the .

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References Paul-Emile Victor, Man and the Conquest of the Poles (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962)

G Kish, North-East Passage: Adolf Erick Nordenskjold, his life and times (Amsterdam: Nico Israel, 1973)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 63

7.2.2 1891-1893 American Arctic Expedition

Location Redcliff House, McCormick Bay Greenland. Expedition Leader Robert Peary.

Number Accommodated 7

Design Origins Conscious development of Eskimo principles.

Size 21'x12'x8Ihigh [6.4x3.66x2.44m] (internal).

Internal Arrangement Two rooms.

Form Rectangular plan, flat roof with gabled full length skylight.

Structure Timber framed, tongue and grooved cladding with at least lO" [.025m] air space between inner and outer cladding.

Footings Not known.

Walls Timber framed, tongue and grooved cladding with at least 10" [.025m] air space between inner and outer cladding. Another wall of rock and cases built 41 [1.2m] away from house and connected to it by a canvas roof.

I Blankets nailed around walls, tarred paper o layers on e outside, heavy brown paper internally.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling Air space up to 3' above ceiling.

Roof Slight incline with full length central gabled skylight.

Ventilation Vent Iboxesl built into structure.

Natural Lighting Skylights and windows on southern side.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Stove sunk in pit in centre of floor.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References RE Peary, Secrets of Polar Travel (New

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 64

York: The Century Co, 1917)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 65

7.2.3 1893-1895 American Arctic Expedition

Location Bowdoin Bay, Greenland 'Anniversary Lodge' Expedition Leader Robert Peary.

Number Accommodated 14

Design Origins A larger version of 'Redcliff House'. (see 7.2.2)

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Four rooms.

Form Rectangular plan, flat roof with gabled full length skylight.

Structure Timber framed, tongue and grooved cladding with at least 10 n [.025m] air space between inner and outer cladding.

Footings Not known.

Walls Timber framed, tongue and grooved cladding with at least 10 n L.025m] air space between inner and outer cladding. Another wall of rock and cases built 4' [1.2m] away from house and connected to it by a canvas roof.

Insulation Blankets nailed around walls, tarred paper in two layers on the outside, heavy brown paper internally.

Floor Double layer of tongue and grooved boards with tarred paper lining.

Ceiling Air space up to 3' above ceiling.

Roof Slight incline with full length central gabled skylight.

Ventilation Vent 'boxes' built into structure.

Natural Lighting Skylights and windows on southern side.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Stove sunk in pit in centre of floor.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes

Present Condition No longer existing.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 66

Main References RE Peary, Secrets of Polar Travel (New York: The Century Co, 1917); RE Peary, Northward over the Great Ice (London: Methuen, 1898)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 . APPENDICES 67

7.2.4 1898-1902 Norwegian Arctic Expedition

Location Hayes Sound, Ellesmere Land.

Expedition Leader Captain Sverdrup. ('Fram')

Number Accommodated Not known.

Design Origins Not known. The hut built was to be transported to Robeson as winter quarters and the starting point for a sledge expedition.

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Not known.

Footings Not known.

Walls Not known.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling

Roof Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Not known.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References 'The Arctic Expeditions - Return of Sverdrup, Peary and Baldwin', The Geographical Journal, XX, No 4 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, October 1902)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 68

1.2.5 1899-1902 American Arctic Expedition

Location Etah, Foulke Fiord. (August 1899)

Expedition Leader Robert Peary. ('Windward')

Number Accommodated Not known.

Design Origins Not known.

...... ~.- . ..,;-:.. '

". -', .... '. . . .'-~ .. . ~' -. i .....

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Not known.

Footings Not known.

Walls A layer of timber boards appears to have been fixed to either side of the framing.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known. Appears to be timber lined.

Ceiling Appears to be timber lining to underside of roof framing.

Roof Of similar construction to the walls.

Ventilation Central chimney.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 69

Heating Open fire.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Said to have survived over a period in excess of three centuries.

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References 'The Arctic Expeditions - Return of Sverdrup, Peary and Baldwin', The Geographical Journal, XX, No 4 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, October 1902)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 70

'1.2.6 1900 Danish East Greenland Expedition

Location Cape Dalton.

Expedition Leader Lieutenant GC Amdrup RDN. ('Antarctic')

Number Accommodated Not known.

Design Origins Not known. '••• built a small wooden house, where all our provisions, sledges, kayaks, etc were stored.'

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Not known.

Footings Not known.

Walls Not known.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling Not known.

Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Reating Not known.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes The 1901-1903 Swedish 'Antarctic' Expedition based their living quarters on the plans for this hut. (See Appendix 7.3.3 for details)

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References Lieutenant GC Amdrup, 'The Danish East Greenland Expedition in 1900', The Geographical Journal, XVI, No 6 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, December 1900)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 71

7.2.7 1903-1906 Norwegian Arctic Expedition

Location It is unknown if the hu t was actually constructed.

Expedition Leader Roald Amundsen. (IGjoa')

Number Accommodated Not known.

Design Origins Not known.

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Not known.

Structure Not known.

Footings Not known.

Walls Packing cases specially built from tongue and groove boards fixed with copper nails. These cases were to be filled with earth and placed one above the other to facilitate swift erection.

Insulation Not known.

Not known.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Grooved boards laid on top of the packing cases

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Not known.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Not known.

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References , Scott and Amundsen: The Last Place on Earth (Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 72

7.3 ANTARCTIC HUTS

The following Antarctic Huts are collated in chronological order in Sections 7.3.1 - 7.3.12. The majority of the huts recorded below are from that period of Antarctic exploration known as the Heroic Age, which was characterised by the wintering of parties in the region for scientific purposes. A small number of other huts not related to this period have been included to provide as total a picture as possible of Antarctic hut construction generally.

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7.3.1 1882-1883 German International Polar Year Expedition

Location Royal Bay, South Georgia.

Expedition Leader Dr Georg von Neumayer.

Number Accommodated 11

Design Origins Not known.

Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure frame.

Footings Not known.

Walls Not known.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Not known.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes 1882-1883 was an international observation years.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 74

Present Condition Not known. Found to be in 'pretty good condition' by the Swedish Antarctic Ex p e d i t ion, 1901-1903 1e d by 0 t to Nordenskjold. Filchner's 1911-1912 Expedition found the hut in poor condition and it was totally demolished by 1982.

Main References N 0 G Nordenskjold, Antarctica (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1977); R Headland, The Island of South Georgia (London: Oxford University Press, )

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 75

7.3.2 1898-1900 British Antarctic Expedition

Location Ridley Beach, Cape Adare, Robertson Bay.

Expedition Leader Carsten E Borchgrevink. ('') Number Accommodated 11

Design Origins Norwegian design and manufacture.

Size Living hut: 5'x19' [4.57x5.79m]; Store hut: 5' [4.57m] square.

Arrangement Two small rooms used as a dark room and ice off the entrance porch were partitioned off from the remainder of the hut.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Traditional Norwegian plank construction with gable roof. Huts separated by 12' [3.66m] timber framed all weather passage.

Footings Sleepers on excavated platform, 600mm below ground line on a pebble beach.

Walls 50-70mm thick planks, half notched at corners, outer faces rounded in profile. Inner timber lining. Passage between huts covered with canvas and seal skins on western side. Canvas and seal skins also covered the windward side of huts.

Insulation Layer of papier mache between outer planks and inner timber lining.

Floor Similar to wall construction.

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Ceiling Double thickness plank ceiling, 7'[2.13m] above floor separating body of hut from loft.

Roof Timber frame.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Small windows to two sides of hut.

Artificial Lighting Oil Lamp.

Heating Large mobile camp stove.

Design Problems Lack of ventilation combined with efficient insulation led to periods of overheating and foul air in mid winter.

Notes Smallest area per person of all huts. Scott's Northern Party from the 1910-1913 'Terra Nova' exp edition used these hu ts for accommodation and storage whilst building a new hutat Cape Adare in 1911.

Present Condition According to Harrowfi eld's report, .the structural condition of the living hut was in very good condition in 1982 although work was required on the roof and treatment needed for fungal decay.

References DL Harrowfield, Historic Sites in Robertson Bay r egi on, Northern Vict or i and, Antarctica (July 1982)

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7.3.3 1901-1903 Swedish Antarctic Expedition

Location Snow Hill Island, area of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Expedition Leader Otto Nordenskjold. ('Antarctic')

Number Accommoda ted 6

Design Origins Constructed from plans for Amdrup's first wintering party expedition to Cape Dalton, East Greenland.(See Appendix 7.2.5) . Prefabricated in Sweden, taking one week to erect.

Size 21'x13'6 11 [6.3x4m] with 5' [105m] square entrance porch.

Internal Arrangement Hut divided into two bunk bedrooms, a kitchen and a central living area. Loft enter through doors in gable ends.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Timber fram e.

Footings Bearers laid on levelled surface on 'shingle beach terrace'.

Walls 3/4 11 [19mm] timber boards to both outside and inside of timber frame. Covered with linoleum over a layer of thick felt.

Insulation Layer of tarred felt between boards.

Floor Single thickness timber boards.

Ceiling Single thickness timber boards.

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Roof Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Small windows to two sides.

Artificial Lighting Oil Lamps.

Heating Not known.

Design Problems Smoke, damp and mildew.

Present Condition Evidence of its current condition or if it is still extant is not known. The hut was visited by Wilkins during the 1933-1934 Ellsworth Expedition and was found to be in good condition at that stage.

Main References NaG Nordenskjold, Antarctica (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1977).

0·5 0 1 2 mztrlVi IL-IL--J

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7.3.4 1901-1904 British National Antarctic Expedition

Location Hut Point. (1902)

Expedition Leader Robert Falcon Scott. ('Discovery')

Number Accommodated Up to 16 men for period up to four months.

Design Origins Designed by Professor JW Gregory '••• brought from Australia••• a fairly spacious bungalow of a design used by outlying settlers of that country'.

Prefabricated by James Moore of Sydney for £360/14/5. Erected in Melbourne before transportation south. Erected on site by Dailey - 'Discovery' carpenter.

. .

~~r~]llI~~~~r~lir9······

Size 36' [10.97m] square with a 4' [1.2m] verandah to three sides.

Internal Arrangement No partitions.

Form Square plan, pyramidal roof.

Structure Timber framed with wall, verandah and central post continuous from footings to top plate.

Footings Verandah, central and wall posts sunk 3'-4' [1-1.2m] into permafrost ground.

Walls Two layers of Douglas fir tongue and groove boards. Verandah walls were not fUlly enclosed - filled with packing cases.

Insulation Felt layer between cladding.

Floor Two layers of tongue and groove boards. No

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floor to verandah.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Similar to walls.

Ventilation None.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Candles and blubber lamps.

Heating One stove.

Design Problems Inadequate heating and insulation for the size of the hu t. Least successful of all Antarctic huts. Living area was reduced with wall of canvas and boxes.

Notes Used as sledging transit post by Shackleton 1908; Scott's party in 1911-1912 and Shackleton's 1915-1917 stranded . Modified by each group to suit needs.

Present Condition Restored in 1964-65 by aNew Zealand party - is on edge of United States McMurdo Base.

Main References David Harrowfield, Historic Sites in the Robertson Bay Region, Northern Victorian Land, Antarctica: A report to the Canterbury Museum Trust Board and Ross Dependency Research Committee's Antarctic Historic Sites Management Committee. (July 1982)

Roland Huntford, Scott and Amundsen: The Last Place on Earth (Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979)

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7.3.5 1902-1904 SCottish National Antarctic Expedition

Location , South Orkneys. Expedition Leader William Bruce. ('Scotia')

Number Accommodated 6

Design Origins 'A spontaneous decision'.

e 14' [4.98m] square; 61-81 [1.83-2.44m high]

Internal Arrangement Consisted of the one room, no partitions.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Stone structure with timber framed roof.

Footings Large stones from the 'many moraines and scree's nearby'.

Walls Bu ilt of s tones us i ng the 'dry dyke' principle. 4'-5' thick with buttresses at the corners lined inside with 'stout' canvas.

Insulation Thickness of walls and layer of felt to roof cladding.

Floor Consisted of the 'Scotia's 'tween deck hatches.

Ceiling Was formed by canvas roof cladding.

Roof Scrap timber from various sources was used to construct a frame. A double layer of canvas (an old sail) with an intervening

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 82

layer of felt was stretched over the timber framework and its ends were securely weighted down with stones. This was then saturated with oil and grease to make it watertight.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Small fixed windows in the north and east walls.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating A spare fo'c'sle stove.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Buried halfway in snow during winter. Carpenter constructed the necessary furniture from packing cases. Two mattresses and four hammocks were used for bedding.

Present Condition The Station was handed over to the Argentine Government in 1904, to maintain the observatory. According to Lovering and Prescott, the station had been permanently manned up until 1979, and is therefore most likely still existing.

Main References RC Mossman &. others, The Voyage of the Scotia (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978)

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'1.3.6 1904-1905 French Antarctic Expedition

Location Booth-Wandel Island.

Expedition Leader Dr Jean B Charcot. ('Francais')

Number Accommodated 20

Design Origins Not known. Set up '•• all the structure needed for their operations and safety in case of any damage to the ship••'

11.,..:.

.. Size Not known.

Internal Arrangement Not known.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Timber frame.

Footings Not known.

Walls Not known.

Insulation Not known.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 84

Heating Not known.

Design Problems Not known. Notes

Present Condition Not known.

Main References Dr Jean B Charcot, 'The French Antarctic Expedition', The Geographical Journal, XXVI, No 5 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, November 1905)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 85

7.3.7 1907-1909 British Antarctic Expedition

Location Cape Royds, Ross Island.

Expedition Leader Ernest Shackleton. ('Nimrod')

Number Accommodated 5

Design Origins No known precedent but had previous Antarctic experience. Specially constructed to Shackleton's specifications by Humphrey's of Knightsbridge. Assembled in London, prior to packaging for transportation south.

Size [lOx5.8m]; 8' [2.44m] floor to eaves.

Internal Arrangement The hut was divided into seven cubicles with two men in each and one for Shackleton using sheets and blankets. There was also a dark room and an area for the cook's pantry and stove; an airlock at the entrance with Mawson's laboratory to one side and a store room to the other.

Form Rectangular plan, gambrel roof.

Structure lOOxlOOmm timber frame with morticed and tenoned joints strengthened with iron cleats and noggings.

Footings Stumps sunk into holes fixed usin~ a mixture of frozen volcanic earth and lava. 6

Walls Clad in 12mm matchlining internally with a layer of 25mm tongue and groove boards between two layers of roofing felt.

Insulation Granulated cork in wall cavity.

Floor 103m above natural ground; One layer of

66 Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, p. 8.

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25mm tongue and groove boards.

Ceiling 12mm matchlining attached to underside of 125mm purlins.

Roof Trussed roof with cladding similar to walls.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Small windows to two sides.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating Heat lost through sub floor space reduced by accumulation of boxes and scoria around building perimeter.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Ring bolts in corners of roof and at ends of ridge with cables run diagonally over roof fixed to ice anchors as additional tie down.

Present Condition The hut was restored by aNew Zealand party in 1960-61, and has been maintained since that date as an historic site.

Main References David Harrowfield, Historic Sites in the Robertson Bay Region, Northern Victorian Land, Antarctica: A report to the Canterbury Museum Trust Board and Ross Dependency Research Committee's Antarctic Historic Sites Management Committee. (July 1982)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 87

'1.3.8 1910-1913 British Antarctic Expedition

Location Cape Evans, Ross Island. (January 1911)

Expedition Leader Robert Falcon Scott. ('Terra Nova')

Number Accommodated 25

Design Origins The hut was prefabricated by a firm in the East End of London, and was erected on a vacant site in Poplar. Origins are unknown. Hut was re-erected in New Zealand to check the components before its transportation south.

Size 50'x25' [15.24x7.62m]; 9' [2.75m] above natural ground to the eaves; 14' [4.27m] to ridge.

Internal Arrangement The hut was divided into a mess room the men and a wardroom for the officers with a partitioned area for Scott and a darkroom/bedroom for the photographer, Ponting. Bunks were arranged around the wall, with tables in the centre of the room.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Timber frame with trussed roof.

Footings Bearers laid on levelled sandy ground.

Walls Two layers of tongue and groove boards against the outside of the wall frame with insulating material between. Internally one layer of 12mm tongue and groove boarding was used.

Insulation Gibson seaweed quilting - two lengths of jute fabric enclosing dried seaweed in quilted compartments.

Floor A layer of boards against the joists following by a layer of Gibson quilt, a layer

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 88

of felt, another layer of boards and linoleum as the final covering.

Ceiling 12mm tongue and groove boards to the underside purlins.

Roof Cladding 12mm tongue and groove against the purlins, covered with 2 ply ruberoid, a layer of Gibson Seaweed Quilt, a second layer of tongue and groove boards followed by 3 ply ruberoid as the outermost layer. Ventilation The ventilation system was designed by FE C Davies the 'Terra Nova's' carpenter. It c onsis t ed of tw 0 roof-m ounted vents connected to the flue system which linked the two stoves in the hut. Was unsuccessful and had to be sealed off.

Natural Lighting Not known.

krtificial Lighting Acetylene lighting.

Heating Two stoves - a Gurney's Patent Schoolroom stove and a Bentham Sons cooking range; acetylene lighting.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Occupied by the Ross Sea Party of Shackleton's tarctic Expedi on under Mackintosh, from 1915-1917 when ten men were stranded for two winters.

Present Condition The hu t was cleared of snow and minor repairs were carried out in 1958. The hut was restored in 1960-61, and has been maintained by New Zealand since that date as an historic site.

Main References Robert Falcon Scott, Scott's Last Expedition: The Journals (London: Methuen, 1927) : I: I IIII II II I I l: l : I , I f I I II , ~------:------:--~ -{--- ~--_i------i '-7t----j' I I I, 'I I n~ • .1 :__1._J __ l __ l J :/ ------1 jqallt

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 89

'1.3.9 1910-1912 Norwegian Antarctic Expedition

Location Bay of Whales, Ross Ice Shelf.

Expedition Leader Roald Amundsen. (tFrarnt)

Number Accommodated 9 (designed to house 10)

Design Origins Described by Amundsen as tordinary Norwegian houset• Prefabricated and erected at his horne in Norway by Hans and Jorgan Stubberud and re-erected in Antarctica in 14 days. Hut was known as tFrarnheimt•

Size 8x4rn; 3.7m to ridge.

Internal Arrangement Divided into two rooms - a 6x4rn living room with ten bunks and a table; and a 2x4rn kitchen housing the kitchen range and shelving. Trap door in kitchen ceiling provided access to loft.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Timber frame.

Footings Excavated to a depth of 1.2m, through snow and blue ice, into which a framework of 100x100mm sleepers was set.

Walls 75mm planks were attached to either side of the wall framing. Battens fixed to the planks were then covered with 25mm thick prefabricated wall panels which were then tarred.

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 90

Insulation Cellulose pulp with tarred roofing paper used under the outermost panelling to prevent rime.

Floor 2 layers of boards, 50x37mm separated with battens with insulation. Linoleum floor covering.

Ceiling As for floor.

Roof 1 layer of boards, tarred then covered with tarred paper.

Ventilation Had a n e f f e c t iv even t ila t ion sy stem consisting of two pipes, one to admit fresh air and one to exhaust it.

Natural Lighting Not known.

Artificial Lighting Lux lighting lamp.

Heating Kitchen range.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Tie down bolts were provided at each corner of the roof and at the gable ends.

Present Condition No longer existing. Hut site had calved from the Ice Shelf by 1928.

Main References Roland Huntford, Scott and Amundsen: The Last Place on Earth (Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 91

7.3.10 1910-1913 British Antarctie Expedition (Northern Party)

Location Cape Adare, adjacent to Borchgrevink's huts. (February 1911)

Expedition Leader Robert Falcon Scott (Party leader: Victor Campbell).

Number Accommodated 6

Design Origins Not known. Of similar construction to Scott's Cape Evans hut.

Size 20' [6.1m] square.

Internal Arrangement No internal partitions, six beds and a table and a stove. Entrance porch to front door provided air lock.

Form Rectangular plan, gable roof.

Structure Timber framed with trussed gable roof.

Footings Most likely to have been bearers

Walls Similar to Scott's Cape Evans hut.

Insulation Not known.

Gibson quilt over joists, followed by two layers of tongue and groove boards separated by a sheet of malthoid. Over this another layer of Gibson quilting was laid with linoleum as the final floor finish.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Not known.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Windows to two sides.

Artificial Lighting Acetylene lamps.

Heating Central stove.

Design Problems Difficult to erect by the unskilled labour available. As a result the hut was unstable and collapsed during the 1960's. It was however described as comfortable and warm by the wintering party.

Notes The roof was tied down with cables attached a t anchors frozen into the ground.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 92

Present Condition In ruins.

Main References David Harrowfi eld, Historic Sites in the Robertson Bay Region, Northern Victorian Land, Antarctica: A report to· the Canterbury Museum Trust Board and Ross Dependency Research Committee's Antarctic Historic Sites Management Committee. (July 1982)

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 93

7.3.11 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (Maequarie Island Base Station)

Location Macquarie Island. (December 1911)

Expedition Leader Douglas Mawson (Party leader: George F Ainsworth).

Number Accommodated 5

Design Origins From Mawson's narrative67 it appears that Mawson was partially responsible for the design of this structure which was designed to be erected in the lee of adequate shelter from storms.

Size 20'x13' [6.1x3.96m]

Internal Arrangement One end of the room was partitioned into two rooms, one for Ainsworth and the other for use as a dark room and laboratory. The remaining area housed bunks around the outer walls, a central table and a stove to one side. Outhouses such as the store and specimen room were constructed as the occasion permitted.

Form Rectangular plan, skillion roof.

Structure Timber (oregon) framed with a galvanised iron skillion roof.

Footings Not known.

Walls Two layers of Baltic Pine boards covered the frame.

67 Mawson, Narrative, pp. 277-278.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 94

Insulation A course of heavy tarred paper was used between inner and outer walls to exclude draughts.

Floor Not known.

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Galvanised iron sheeting.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Small windows to three sides.

Artificial Lighting Not known.

Heating A cooking range.

Design Problems Not known.

Notes Rainwater from the roof was held in a tank found lying on the beach nearby. Prior to the construction of the Hu t, temporary accommodation was found in the sealers' huts at the southern end of the Isthmus. The sealers' huts were also used as bases whilst their surrounding area was explored.

Present '-'VAlUL Not known.

Main References Sir Douglas Mawson, 'Geographical Narrative and Cartography' (Sydney: Government Printing Office, 1942) Scientific Reports, Series A, Vol 1.

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 95

The old Macquarie Island

The sealers' hut at Sandy Bay, Macquarie Island

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 96

1.3.12 1911-1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (Western Base Station)

Location Shackleton Ice Shelf (February 1912)

Expedition Leader Douglas Mawson (Party leader: Frank Wild)

Number Accommodated 8

Design Origins One of the three huts constructed to Mawson's hut model. Manufactured by J Anthony Co of Melbourne and procured by the Expedition for half the cost of construction.

Size 20' [6.1m] square; 16' [4.88m] to roo& apex. 6' verandah to three windward sides.6

Internal Arrangement The hut was divided into Wild's cubicle, a dark room and the ves bule wi e remaining area housing men's bunks around the outer walls.

Form Square plan, pyramidal roof.

Structure Timber frame.

Footings Most likely to have been bearers laid on a prepared surface.

Walls Two layers of Baltic Pine boards covered the frame.

Insulation A course of heavy tarred paper intended for between the inner and outer cladding was tacked onto the outside ~~ the outer cladding by 'amateur builders'.

Floor Not known.

68 Pearson, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917, p. 19, states that the verandahs were 5' wide.

69 Mawson, Narrative, p. 225.

Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 97

Ceiling Not known.

Roof Pyramidal roof, timber framed and clad.

Ventilation Not known.

Natural Lighting Four plate glass skylights, one to each face of the pyramidal roof.

Artificial Lighting Acetylene gas lighting.

Heating A coal stove and acetylene gas lighting.

Design Problems Due to damage to timber on southern voyage and inexperienced labour on site.

Notes

Present Condition No longer existing.

Main References Sir Douglas Mawson, 'Geographical Narrative and Cartography' (Sydney: Government Printing Office, 1942) Scientific Reports, Series A, Vol 1.

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. CUJ31CLE

BVNK BUNK ,~ I '.

VERANDA J«d< .L..-: ·f..,

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Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 98

7.4 GEORGE HUDSON <\ SON LTD'S MANIFEST

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dlreoUon~ houwHh oopha "of 'lIhioh wtll 1>11 helptlll :1 n 01'10 Ung . ,"~ th"~lan :hl Hut. We rl«1ehred. ""IS 10 IIWlre .=18 of yOIl rEl­ o.$~:1ng it. Our ~jeot In.Jending the direct,lone 11'1 tr1pliCAh

tal to £..rIl1I:1h (H.pi". to thoM who ArllI engaglild 1n the erlOUOn,ll.1I

it 11 probuble "'hen the worle ie in hund, yeu -'ill require to :.IJ.Te the etruoture ereoted quiokly," und if BOTeruJ.. ure ucqlluinted with

the detoJ.la lIuoh us our dh'eoti ((\11 gin, it ehouU: [l.4c1Utut'e the wark.

W1th the \'".... or p;ood "11lhe1 for u .perodY eucceee 1n ~'Ol.-

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 99

... A~lo;. J:XPJJ.: 0 .. '-'_A".. 0],' ~I:m'r!i' or J.:·;nC~J(" )!'.,!':,

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dilt 1r.1;~\i tlhed CroJ;l ned W4.1.1 by IAvl,,~ II P.l.... 1n t ...,/:ucd :01r.~, whprell.

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llourd. tor dovbl_ 11...1.1._; the 1111 or1 len~t.}-.l1 tl'...t 1. 51~~ Itnt lor ~ •I lJuter -ILlJ.. a. _town on pl...r., Itnl1thf' l;Bgth 6 16- for n:r..lI11r.g ..uttlr

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lcngtt."i '(;.1. ~- :....ltlc L1n1J~1': cu~ on the _plu~' l:r.1Qr.,f' to rocf ..ui

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 100

REoFtRN. l7th ::ov tH. ~r."" •• Jz.. t· ..-. -\ _~~. Tou1'1.t :8U1'.l&u. - r.-;-·-r . - .-~~. ua.Quarh strut. ~ .1 HOBART. ,.t· '. ---- 'to In w1'1 Un,.....­.fxpltt.na:t1on yo.t.rdAY W. \', ~1tt.d to .tat. ~hAt the L1n1n~ ~d be put up 1n ~h. tollowlng ~

or4.r .- .& T...... R14. Whito. Gr••n. Blu.. ,.. '.. It w1.l.l. bo found thtl.t the &ttlllUIii ulIIlIId tar t,ustenlng the Llnlfl8 \ then 0<1.4111)' fu.ll. into pla.olll·. "~' .

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Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 101

'1.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography has been divided into published and unpublished sources.

'1.5.1 Published Sources

'Australia's Involvement in Antarctica'. Reproduced in The Conservation of Sir Douglas Mawson's Hut, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica: A Conservation Plan by Margaret Thornton and William Blunt (December 1984). Source not cited.

'Obituary: Douglas Mawson'. Reproduced in The Conservation of Sir Douglas Mawson's Hu t, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica: A Conservation Plan by Margaret Thornton and William Blunt (December 1984). Source not cited.

'The Arctic Expeditions - Return of Sverdrup, Peary and Baldwin', The Geographical Journal, XX, No 4 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, October 1902)

Adams, R & Lockley, R, Voyage through the Antarctic (New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1983)

Amdrup, Lieutenant G C, 'The Danish East Greenland Expedition in 1900', The Geographical Journal, XVI, No 6 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, December 1900)

Bell, Peter, Timber and Houses in North Queensland Mining Settlements, 1861-1920 (St University Queensland Press, 1984)

Bickel, Leonard, This Accursed Land, (Melbourne: The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, 1977)

Bruce, William, 'The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition', The Geographical Journal, XX, No 2 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, October 1902)

Charcot, Dr Jean B, 'The French Antarctic Expedition', The Geographical Journal, XXVI, No 5 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, November 1905)

Charcot, Dr Jean B, 'The Second French Antarctic Expedition', The Geographical Journal, XXXVII, No 3 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, March 1911)

Charcot, Dr Jean B, The Voyage of the Pourquois-Pas (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978)

Fletcher, Harold, Antarctic Days with Mawson (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1984) .

Harrowfield, David, Historic Ridley Beach 0

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 102

Huntford, Roland, Scott and Amundsen: The Last Place on Earth (Sydney: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979)

Lovering, JF & Prescott, J R V, Last of Lands: Antarctica (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1979)

Mawson, Douglas, 'The Australasian Antarctic Expedition', The Geographical Journal, XXXVII, No 6 (April 1911)

Mawson, Sir Douglas, 'Geographical Narrative and Cartography' (Sydney: Government Printing Office, 1942) Scientific Reports, Series A, Vol 1.

Mawson, Sir Douglas, The Home of the Blizzard (Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1971)

Mawson, Sir Douglas, 'Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-1914', The Geographical Journal, XLIV, No 3 (September 1914) .

Mill, Hugh Robert, 'The Revival of Polar Exploration 1892-1905', The Record of the Royal Geographical Society 1830-1930 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, 1930)

Mossman, RC & others, The Voyage of the Scotia (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978)

Nordenskjold, N 0 G, Antarctica (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1977).

Pearson, Dr Michael, 'Heritage a Harsh Climate: Historic Places Antarctica', Heritage Newsletter, X, No 2 (Australian Heritage Commission, June 1987)

Peary, Robert E, ' Four years ', The Geographical Journal, XXII, No 6 (London: The Royal Geographical Society, December 1903)

Victor, Paul-Emile, Man and the Conquest of the Poles (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1962)

1.5.2 Unpublished Sources

Blunt, William, History of the Site from 1914 and Conservation Proposals, vol 2, Mawson's Huts - Interim Conservation Report (September 1985)

Blunt, William, Constraints, Condition, Policy and Implementation, vol 2, Mawson's Huts - Interim Conservation Report (September 1985)

Blunt, William, Report on the Repatriation to Australia of the Mertz-Ninnis Memorial Plaque and Proclamation Plaque from Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica 1:Jy Project Blizzard, May 1985.

Blunt, William, Preliminary Report and Recommendations, Project

Allam Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects 7 APPENDICES 103

Blizzard 1984-1985 Expedition (April 1985)

Grey Percival, 'Antarctic Voyages', Diary entry 13 December, 1913.

Harrowfield, David, Historic Sites in the Robertson Bay Region, Northern Victorian Land, Antarctica: A report to the Canterbury Museum Trust Board and Ross Dependency Research Committee's Antarctic Historic Sites Management Committee. (JUly 1982)

Hughes, Janet, Materials Conservation Issues, vol 6, Mawson's Huts - Interim Conservation Report 1986.

Lazer, Estelle, Archaeological Report, vol 5 (Part A), Mawson's Huts - Interim Conservation Report (1984/85)

Ledingham R et aI, Commonwealth Bay Report, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No 69 (January - February 1978).

Lugg, DJ & Humphreys, A E, 'Mawson's Antarctic Base Revisited' Polar Record, XVII, No 108, (1974)

Lugg, DJ & Humphreys, A E, Report on Visit to Cape Denison, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No 24 (January 1974).

Marshall, Duncan, Mawson's Huts, Commonwealth Bay - Structural and Materials Performance, (A Report to the Antarctic Historic Sites and Monuments Advisory Committee, January 1987)

Me Gowan, Angela, Archaeological Report, vol 5 (Part B), Mawson's Huts - Interim Conservation Report (1985/86)

Nisbet, J S, Restoration of Mawson's Hut, Cape Denison Commonwealth Bay, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No 59 (D ecember 1976)

Nisbet, J S, Report on Visit to Cape Denison, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No 34 (January 1975)

Nisbet, J S, Proposed Restoration of Mawson's Hut, Commonwealth Bay: Year 2, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No 83 (November 1978)

Pearson, Dr Michael, Report for Antarctic Historic Sites and Monument Advisory Committee on a Visit to Mawson's Hut, Commonwealth Bay, 25-29 December 1986.

Pearson, Dr Michael, Expedition Huts in the Antarctic 1899-1917.

Pearson, Dr Michael, Statement of Significance: Paper for discussion (February 1987)

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