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Una Storia Dell'ipertesto.Pdf, 1364 KB Una Storia dell’Ipertesto Andrea D’Alessandro “Sino ad allora avevo pensato che ogni libro parlasse delle cose, umane o divine, che stanno fuori dai libri. Ora mi avvedevo che non di rado i libri parlano di libri, ovvero è come se si parlassero fra loro.” Umberto Eco – Il Nome della Rosa Hans Hartung, T. 1935 - 1, 1935 1 Introduzione Il World Wide Web ha cambiato per sempre il modo di memorizzare, organizzare e ricercare le informazioni: esso è basato sul concetto di ipertesto, una struttura elastica e multiforme di collegamento fra informazioni. Un ipertesto consiste essenzialmente in un testo non lineare e non sequenziale, formato da documenti a loro volta composti da una collezione di nodi (frammenti di testo o altri media) connessi da collegamenti. Ma l’ipertesto non è nato con il web. Come vedremo, il modello nacque molti anni prima, e vi furono moltissimi approcci all’implementazione, che ebbero quale più, quale meno successo. Inoltre, le sue radici sono molto più antiche, fondate sui tentativi connaturati all’uomo di collezionare informazioni, categorizzarle, organizzarle in complesse strutture fisiche e mentali, ed infine indicizzarle per rendervi più facile l’accesso. La maggior parte delle storie e cronologie del web fanno risalire il concetto di ipertesto a Vannevar Bush, noto scienziato, tecnologo e “futurologo” che nel 1945 descrisse l’idea del memex, un dispositivo del futuro destinato alla memorizzazione, organizzazione e recupero della conoscenza, che avrebbe permesso di collegare i vari segmenti di informazione tramite libere associazioni in modo analogo a quanto accade dentro alla mente umana. Vedremo che Bush in realtà non inventò nulla; i concetti e le tecnologie su cui si basava l’idea del memex erano all’epoca già esistenti e ben affermate. Egli ebbe però il merito di fonderli in un'unica visione del futuro della conoscenza umana, e di descriverla in modo così naturale da convincere i suoi attenti lettori della possibilità (se non addirittura della facilità) della sua realizzazione. La strada dell’ipertesto - dal memex di Vannevar Bush al World Wide Web di Tim Berners-Lee - fu poi lunga e tortuosa. Vedremo come i concetti, le tecnologie e gli idiomi semantici su cui oggi è fondato il web - e che diamo ormai per scontati – si sono lentamente formati e cristallizzati negli anni grazie agli sforzi di innumerevoli ricercatori. 1 Prima dell’ipertesto Libri sacri La Bibbia è forse il testo più anticamente e profondamente studiato tra quelli che fanno parte della cultura indo-europea. Fin dall’inizio i dotti, prima quelli ebraici con Vecchio e poi quelli cristiani con il Nuovo Testamento, hanno dissezionato il Libro commentandolo, analizzandolo e indicizzandone parole e situazioni, in modo da carpirne anche il significato più segreto. Anche Talmud e Corano, altri testi sacri con origini simili, sono stati soggetti ad esegesi simili, e tali intricati sistemi di riferimenti incrociati rendono evidente il fatto che la complessità intertestuale e ipertestuale è connaturata al modo di pensare della mente umana. Arte della memoria e Teatri della Sapienza Con la nascita della retorica, iniziò anche lo studio dell’arte dell’incremento artificiale della memoria; i retori greci e romani per aiutarsi nei discorsi escogitarono molte tecniche ed artifici per aiutare la mente umana a estendere la propria - limitata - capacità mnemonica (il più antico testo a noi giunto ove sono descritte tecniche mnemoniche è il libro terzo della Rhetorica Ad Herennium, a lungo attribuito a Cicerone); i predicatori medievali mantennero poi viva la tradizione utilizzando ampiamente tali tecniche (vedi la Rhetorica Divina di Guillelmus Alvernus del 1240). Fu però il Rinascimento - stranamente proprio quando, con l’arrivo della stampa, avrebbero teoricamente dovuto perdere d’importanza - che le arti mnemoniche ebbero la massima fioritura; i maggiori letterati dell’epoca, da Giovanni Pico della Mirandola a Marsilio Ficino fino a Giordano Bruno, scrissero diversi trattati sull’arte della memoria per aiutare oratori, politici e predicatori a memorizzare senza grande sforzo, tramite vari meccanismi mentali (vedi anche [Yates 1966]). Dove non erano sufficienti gli esercizi di associazione di idee e di allenamento mentale, alcuni poi escogitarono strumenti i quali – secondo gli autori – potevano meccanizzare la memorizzazione di grandi quantità di informazioni, e il richiamo dalla memoria di frammenti di esse quando necessario. Ad esempio, nel 1550 Giulio Camillo Delminio1 descrisse ne L’idea del Theatro il suo Teatro della Memoria2 [Camillo 1550], e Matteo Ricci3 nel 1596 insegnò ai cinesi la costruzione di Palazzi della Memoria. Il teatro di Camillo era una struttura costruita secondo il modello vitruviano del teatro, suddiviso quindi in ordini e gradi in cui erano sistemati i vari luoghi del sapere. Anche se non venne mai realizzato nella sua interezza, ne venne costruito un Matteo Ricci modello in legno – oggi diremmo un prototipo - in scala ridotta ma grande a sufficienza da poterci entrare, costellato di figure dipinte e pieno di scatole contenenti oggetti che richiamavano alla memoria luoghi, situazioni ed idee. Il palazzo della memoria di Matteo Ricci era simile in tecnologia, ma venne adattato alla cultura cinese, la quale, a causa degli ideogrammi usati nella scrittura, già era permeata dell’equazione immagine = idea [Spence 1983]. 1 Giulio Camillo Delminio, letterato e filosofo, nacque a Portogruaro attorno al 1484 e, dopo una vita errabonda che attraversò alcune fra le maggiori corti europee (come quella di Francesco I re di Francia, e quella di Alfonso d’Avalos, governatore di Milano), morì a Milano nel 1544. 2 Una più estesa e precedente versione dell’ Idea è il Theatro della sapientia, mai pubblicata ed esistente solo in manoscritto, che completa e dettaglia il teatro di Camillo. 3 Il gesuita Matteo Ricci, nato a Macerata nel 1552, nel 1583 andò missionario in Cina dove fondò la missione cattolica, dove acquisì grande prestigio grazie alla sua profonda cultura, alla sua grande capacità di assimilare quella cinese (compresa la sua difficile lingua e scrittura), ed infine all’abilità nel presentare il sapere occidentale secondo il modo di pensare cinese. Forse più famoso in Cina (dove è conosciuto come Li Madou) che in Italia, scrisse in cinese il Jifa (Trattato dell’arte mnemonica) in cui descrisse il suo Palazzo; morì a Pechino nel 1610. 2 Questi strumenti cercavano di meccanizzare le libere associazioni d’idee che naturalmente la mente umana crea fra concetti e frammenti di informazione. I collegamenti potevano essere creati e percorsi fisicamente tramite una efficace navigazione attraverso tutto lo scibile umano. In quell’epoca feconda furono escogitati anche sistemi che automatizzavano la ricerca e la comparazione delle informazioni presenti nei libri. Curioso è il “leggio a ruota per più libri” di Agostino Ramelli4, che ne pubblica un disegno nella sua opera sui dispositivi meccanici [Ramelli 1588]; permetteva la disposizione di più libri, mantenuti sempre orizzontali da rotismi, e il passaggio dall’uno all’altro tramite la pressione di un pedale. John Wilkins – XVII secolo John Wilkins5, vescovo e letterato inglese del seicento, costruì un complesso e completo sistema per una lingua filosofica universale [Wilkins 1668]. Per la generazione di questa lingua, egli procedette ad una colossale recensione di tutto il sapere6, organizzando Agostino Ramelli le idee in 40 generi maggiori, suddivisi poi in 251 Leggio a ruota per più libri differenze e quindi in 2030 specie, tutti organizzati nella sua opera in complesse tavole gerarchiche. Egli procedette poi a creare una grammatica e una scrittura simbolica che univa le suddette idee in strutture regolari ed ortogonali, che avrebbero dovuto aiutare la memorizzazione della sua lingua. Senza entrare in ulteriori dettagli, Wilkins prevedeva come un concetto potesse fare parte di diversi contesti, e che essi fossero tutti collegati tramite le tabelle e la grammatica peculiari del suo sistema. Egli fu perciò un pioniere della classificazione flessibile e multipla del sapere, un antesignano dell’ipertesto [Eco 1993]. Strutture ipertestuali analogiche Paul Otlet – Anni ‘20-‘30 Lo storico W. Boyd Rayward ha studiato a fondo la vita e le opere di Paul Otlet7 - uno dei fondatori dell’International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID) - e in diversi 4 Agostino Ramelli, nato nel 1531, era un ingegnere militare, che durante la carriera servì GianGiacomo de Medici e il re di Francia Enrico III. Il suo libro Le diverse et artificiose machine del capitano Agostino Ramelli [Ramelli 1588], ricco di 195 superbe incisioni che illustravano le macchine che egli aveva immaginato e inventato, fu un classico dell’ingegneria rinascimentale ed ebbe una significativa influenza sullo sviluppo della meccanica nei decenni successivi. Ramelli inoltre teneva in gran conto la matematica, e nella prefazione al suo libro lodò l’eccellenza della matematica come necessaria anche a coloro che si dedicavano alle arti liberali. 5 Nato nel 1614 a Fawsley, Northamptonshire, John Wilkins crebbe a Oxford dove poi conseguì il Bachelor of Arts. Dopo aver preso gli ordini religiosi, oltre alla carriera ecclesiastica Wilkins curò anche quella accademica (fu Warden del Wadham College di Oxford e poi Master del Trinity College a Cambridge). Grande oppositore della monarchia, si legò alla dittatura cromwelliana; dopo la restaurazione di Carlo II, Wilkins si dedicò agli studi scientifici, filosofici e linguistici (fu uno
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