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Download (6MB) STUDY OF RADON AND RADIUM IN THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT USING PLASTIC TRACK DETECTORS TTTHESISTHESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN APPLIED PHYSICS BYBYBY MOHD. SHAKIR KHAN Under the supervision of Dr. Mohd. Mohisin Khan (Assistant Professor) DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH ––– 202 002 (INDIA) 2012 Wxw|vtàxw gÉ `ç _Éä|Çz ctÜxÇàá DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH – 202002 (INDIA) Dr. M. Mohisin Khan Off. : +91 0571 -2703 176 Ext. 30 35 ({Mobile. : +91 9634367427 (Assistant Professor) University Fax : +91 (0571) 2700042 E-mail : [email protected]; : [email protected] CCeerrttiiffiiccaattee Certified that the work incorporated in this thesis entitled, “ “StudyStudy of Radon and Radium in the Natural Environment Using Plastic Track Detectors” is the original contribution of MR. MOHD. SHAKIR KHAN, carried out under my supervision, and is suitable for submission for the award of Ph.D. degree in Applied Physics. (M. Mohisin Khan) Supervisor Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of ALLAH , the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. All the praises and thanks to the ALLAH , the Lord of the whole universe, who bestowed upon me enough guidance and benevolence to carry out this work. It’s only due to His mercy that the work is being produced in this form of thesis. I have great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor, DR. MM.. MOHMOHIIIISINSIN KHAN , Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Z.H. College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India for his kind support, valuable suggestions and to get complete my research work. It is a matter of great pleasure for me to avail the opportunity to work with DR. AMEER AZAM , Associate Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Z.H. College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. So first of all, I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my M. Phil. supervisor, Dr. Ameer Azam for his valuable guidance, encouragement, moral support and helpful suggestions throughout the course of this work. I am indebted to him for numerous motivating discussion, critical comments and encouragement during the entire course of this work. I would like to extend my gratitude and heartiest regards to PROF. S. ALIM H. NAQVI , former Chairman, and PROF. ALIMUDDIN , Chairman, Department of Applied Physics, and for providing me all the research Acknowledgements Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh facilities available in the department and encouragement during entire period of this work. I take this opportunity to thank Prof. D.S. Srivastava, Prof. Javed Husain, Prof. Afzal Ahmad, Dr. M.K. Bhardwaj, and Dr. Shakeel Khan and all other faculty members of the department of Applied Physics with whom I had the opportunity to discuss the academics at various stages. My special thanks to Prof. Ali Mohammad, Prof. Asif Ali Khan, Dr. M. Khalid, Dr. Jameel Ahmad, Mr. Nisar Ahamad Khan, Mr. Akhtar , Department of Applied Chemistry, Dr. Farman-Ur-Rehman Khan , Department of Zoology, Dr. Abdul Hafeez , Department of Arabic and Dr. M. Azam , Department of Chemistry A.M.U., Aligarh for their encouragement, sympathetic behavior and moral support whenever I needed. I have great passion to record my thanks and acknowledge to Dr. K.P. Eappan, Dr. T.V. Ramachandran, Dr. P.C. Kalsi , scientists, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai for discussions and encouragement at time to time regarding my research work. I also express my sincere thanks to Dr. R.G. Sonkawade for providing the spark counter facility and fruitful discussions, Inter University Accelerator Centre (formally N.S.C.) New Delhi. I gratefully acknowledge the financial support by UGC [Ministry of Minority Affairs (MOMA) Scholar] in the form of Junior Research Fellow (J.R.F.). I am also extremely thankful to my colleagues, Dr. Ajay Kumar Mahur, Dr. Khalid M. Batoo , Dr. Parvez Ahmad Alvi, Dr. S. Asad Ali, Mr. P.M. Ziaul Hasasn, Deepak Verma, Arham S. Ahmad and all research Scholar in Acknowledgements Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh the department and my friends Mr. Wilson Kumar, Mr. R.P. Singh , for all the brotherly helps they extend to me during the course of this study. I am greatly indebted to my parents, Mr. Mohd. Sher and Mrs. Sharifan , who never deprived me of the freedom for exploration; their mute affection always encouraged me. Their prayers, love and care always help me in getting enthusiastic at every stage of my study. My most affectionate thanks to my family members and especially for my elder sister Mrs. Ruksana, who has been a source of strength for me. I gratefully acknowledge to Mr. Mohd. Rafique (S.T.A.), Mr. Ali Yaar Khan (S.T.A.), Mr. Shamsul Hasasn (T.A.), Mr. Kamal Garg (T.A.), Mr. Danish Ali (T.A.), Mr. Shahabuddin (L.D.C.), Mr. Wehzad Khan (T.A.) and all the member of the non teaching staff in the department. I would be failing in my sincerity if I do not acknowledge and thank to the residents, who permitted me to install the detectors in their dwellings. At last but not least I greatly thankful to my wife and daughter for their patience, emotional support, kind love and cooperation during the persuasion of this work. This is not just the words in these pages but each word acknowledges my deep gratitude to all those who played a pivotal role in the same and without whom this thesis would not have been possible. (MOHD. SHAKIR KHAN) Acknowledgements Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh CONTENTS S. NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 1. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS I–VIII 2. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS IX–XV 3. LIST OF TABLES XVI–XIX 4. LIST OF FIGURES XX–XXI CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW S. NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 1.1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.2 OVERVIEW OF RADIUM 3 1.3 RADON: AN OVERVIEW 5 1.3.1 SOURCES OF RADON 7 1.3.2 PROPERTIES OF RADON 8 1.3.3 RELEASE MECHANISM OF RADON 11 1.4 RADON EMANATION 12 1.5 PERMEATION OR PREVENTION OF RADON 13 INDOORS 1.6 FORMATION AND EMANATION OF RADON 14 1.7 TRANSPORT OF RADIONUCLIDES 16 1.8 RADON TRANSPORT 16 1.8.1 DIFFUSIVE TRANSPORT IN SOIL AND ROCKS 20 1.8.2 FORCED TRANSPORT IN THE EARTH 21 1.9 RADON DIFFUSION 21 1.10 RANGES OF ALPHA-PARTICLES AND RECOIL 23 NUCLEI Contents i Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh 1.11 INDOOR RADON 24 1.11.1 GENERAL ENTRY ROUTES OF INDOOR RADON 26 1.11.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE INDOOR RADON 28 1.12 SOIL GAS RADON 28 1.13 APPLICATIONS OF RADON STUDY 28 1.13.1 EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION 29 1.13.2 STUDY OF ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT 31 1.13.3 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS 32 1.13.4 RADON: A MESSENGER 32 1.14 HEALTH RISK OF RADON 33 1.15 RADON AND LUNG CANCER 33 1.16 RADON CONCENTRATION AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS 35 1.17 SIGNIFICANCE OF RADON STUDY 36 REFERENCES 38 CHACHAPTERPTER 222:2: SSNTDS, TECHNIQUES AND MEASUREMENTS S. NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 2.1 INTRODUCTION 81 2.2 OVERVIEW OF SOLID STATE NUCLEAR TRACK 81 DETECTORS (SSNTDs) 2.2.1 CR-39 DETECTOR 82 2.2.2 LR-115 DETECTOR 83 2.2.3 THE FUNCTIONING OF SSNTDS 86 2.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF SSNTDS 86 2.2.5 APPLICATIONS OF SSNTDS 87 2.2.6 APPLICATIONS RELATED TO RADON 87 MEASUREMENTS Contents ii Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh 2.2.7 APPLICATIONS OTHER THAN RADON 88 MEASUREMENTS 2.3 RELATIVE THRESHOLDS FOR DETECTION 90 2.4 BEGINNING OF SSNTD RESEARCH IN INDIA 92 2.5 RADON MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 93 2.5.1 GRAB SAMPLING 95 2.5.2 SCINTILLATION DETECTOR 95 2.5.3 PULSE IONIZATION CHAMBER 96 2.5.4 ELECTRET DETECTOR 97 2.5.5 ADSORPTION TECHNIQUE 98 2.5.6 THERMO-LUMINESCENCE DETECTOR 98 2.5.7 ALPHA GUARD 98 2.5.8 SOLID STATE SEMI-CONDUCTOR DETECTOR 99 2.5.9 NUCLEAR EMULSION 100 2.5.10 CHARCOAL CANISTER 100 2.5.11 GAMMA SPECTROSCOPY 101 2.5.12 SSNTD TECHNIQUE OR TRACK ETCH TECHNIQUE 103 2.6 TECHNIQUES USED IN THIS STUDY 104 2.6.1 CAN TECHNIQUE 104 2.6.2 BARE MODE TECHNIQUE 105 2.6.3 TWIN CUP DOSIMETRIC TECHNIQUE 105 REFERENCES 107 CHAPTER 3: TTRACKRACK ETCHING METHODOLOGY, GEOMEGEOMETRYTRY AND COUNTING TECHNIQUES S. NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 3.1 INTRODUCTION 131 Contents iii Mohd. Shakir Khan, Ph.D. Thesis A.M.U., Aligarh 3.2 FORMATION OF PARTICLE TRACKS IN 133 CRYSTALLINE AND POLYMERIC SOLIDS 3.3 TRACK FORMATION MECHANISM 134 3.3.1 ION EXPLOSION SPIKE MODEL 135 3.3.2 UNREALISTIC MECHANISM 137 3.4 ETCHING PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY 139 3.4.1 CHEMICAL ETCHING 139 3.4.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL ETCHING 144 3.5 TRACK GEOMETRY 145 3.6 ETCHING EFFICIENCY 148 3.7 TRACK REVELATION METHODS 151 3.8 TRACKS COUNTING TECHNIQUES 151 3.8.1 SPARK COUNTING TECHNIQUE 152 3.8.2 OPTICAL TECHNIQUE 156 REFERENCES 158 CHAPTER 4: MEASUREMENTS OF RADIUM CONTENT AND RADON EXHALATION RATES S. NO. TITLE PAGE NO. 4.1 INTRODUCTION 166 4.2 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DETAILS 167 4.2.1 GEOLOGY OF STUDY AREA 167 4.2.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PROCESSING 168 4.2.3 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 169 4.2.4 EFFECTIVE RADIUM CONTENT AND RADON 171 EXHALATION RATES 4.2.5 ALPHA INDEX 172 Contents iv Mohd.
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