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(Title of the Thesis)* EXAMINING THE LONG-TERM ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF GOLD MINING OPERATIONS, URBANIZATION, AND CLIMATIC CHANGES ON SUB-ARCTIC LAKES NEAR YELLOWKNIFE (NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, CANADA) USING DIATOMS AS PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS by Branaavan Sivarajah A thesis submitted to the Department of Biology In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (October, 2020) Copyright ©Branaavan Sivarajah, 2020 Abstract The mineral resource potential of Canada’s North has been recognized since the early 20th century with mines operating across all three territories. However, the long-term biological consequences of Northern mining operations and associated anthropogenic activities on surrounding freshwaters have not been investigated extensively. The sub-Arctic lakes around the City of Yellowknife (Northwest Territories) provide an important opportunity to fill this knowledge gap by examining the long-term cumulative impacts of past gold mining operations, land-use changes related to urbanization, and regional climatic changes on aquatic biota. In this thesis, diatom-based (Bacillariophyceae) paleolimnological approaches were used to assess the long-term biological responses to the multiple environmental stressors mentioned above through space and time. A spatial survey of diatom assemblages from the surface sediment of 33 lakes around Yellowknife indicated that assemblage composition was strongly influenced by variables related to lake-water nutrient concentrations and ionic composition in the water column, while metal(loid) contaminants (i.e. antimony, arsenic) associated with gold mining activities played a secondary role. Analyses of diatom assemblages from ten well-dated sediment cores from lakes along a gradient of anthropogenic activities (i.e. mining and urbanization) recorded notable shifts over the last ~200 years. The high species turnover in the lakes closest to the mines and the city were indicative of metal(loid) pollution from past gold mining activities (e.g. roaster stack emissions, accidental spills from tailings pond) and eutrophication from land-use changes (e.g. sewage disposal, developments in the catchment). The impacts of climate-mediated changes were also apparent in both the urban and remote lakes. The synergistic effects of warming and nutrient enrichment led to striking changes at Niven and Jackfish lakes. Recent diatom assemblage composition in all lakes was substantially different from pre-disturbance periods, ii which suggests that the sub-Arctic lakes around Yellowknife have crossed critical limnological thresholds in response to both anthropogenic activities and climatic changes. The long-term perspectives gained from this research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on biological responses to Northern mining contamination and urbanization in a warming world. iii Co-Authorship Chapter 2 was co-authored by Jennifer B. Korosi (York University), Jules M. Blais (University of Ottawa), and John P. Smol (Queen’s University). The chapter represents original work that was completed as part of my PhD thesis. I participated in the study design and field work, analyzed diatom data, conducted all statistical analyses, and was the primary author of the manuscript. This chapter has been published separately in Hydrobiologia. Sivarajah, B., Korosi, J.B., Blais, J.M., and Smol, J.P. 2019. Multiple environmental variables influence diatom assemblages across an arsenic gradient in 33 subarctic lakes near abandoned gold mines. Hydrobiologia 841:133-151. Chapter 3 was co-authored by Cynthia L. Cheney (University of Ottawa), Madi Perrett (Queen’s University), Linda E. Kimpe (University of Ottawa), Jules M. Blais (University of Ottawa), and John P. Smol. This chapter represents original work that was completed as part of my PhD thesis. I designed the study, collected the diatom and sedimentary chlorophyll-a data from Alexie Lake, conducted all statistical analysis, and was the primary author of the manuscript. This chapter has been published separately in Polar Biology. Sivarajah, B., Cheney, C.L., Perrett, M., Kimpe, L.E., Blais, J.M., and Smol, J.P. 2020. Regional gold mining activities and recent climate warming alter diatom assemblages in deep sub-Arctic lakes. Polar Biology 43:305-317. Chapter 4 was co-authored by Brigitte Simmatis (Queen’s University), Elizabeth J. Favot (Queen’s University), Michael J. Palmer (Aurora Research Institute), and John P. Smol (Queen’s University). This chapter represents original work that was completed as part of my PhD thesis. I designed the study, conducted the field work, completed the sedimentary diatom and cladoceran analyses, and was the primary author of the manuscript. This chapter has been submitted for publication. Sivarajah, B., Simmatis, B., Favot, E.J., Palmer, M.J., and Smol, J.P. (In Review) Eutrophication and climate warming lead to unprecedented cyanobacterial blooms in a Canadian sub-Arctic lake. Chapter 5 was co-authored by John Smol (Queen’s University). This chapter represents original work that was completed as part of my PhD thesis. I designed the study, participated in the field work, collected the diatom data from seven lakes (Alexie, BC-02, BC-17, BC-43, Jackfish, Niven, and Vee), conducted all statistical analyses, and was the primary author of the manuscript. Appendix A was co-authored by Jesse C. Vermaire (Carleton University), and John P. Smol (Queen’s University). This study was an extension of my PhD thesis and this research was conducted during my PhD. I designed the study, collected the cladoceran data, performed statistical analyses, and was the primary author of the manuscript. This manuscript has been submitted for publication. iv Sivarajah, B., Vermaire, J.C., and Smol, J.P. (In Review) Assessing the potential environmental factors affecting Cladocera assemblage composition in arsenic- contaminated lakes near abandoned silver mines. Appendix B was co-authored by Neal Michelutti (Queen’s University), Xiaowa Wang (Environment and Climate Change Canada), Christopher Grooms (Queen’s University), and John P. Smol (Queen’s University). This study was an extension of my PhD thesis and this research was conducted during my PhD. I co-designed the study with John P. Smol, participated in the field work, analyzed the water chemistry data, and was the primary author of the manuscript. This manuscript has been submitted for publication. Sivarajah, B., Michelutti, N., Wang, X., Grooms, C., and Smol, J.P. (In Review) Limnology of lakes near Canada’s northernmost mine in Little Cornwallis Island, Nunavut. v Acknowledgements Science is a team effort, and I have had the absolute pleasure of being a part of several wonderful teams over the last 4 years and learn from a diverse group of people! First, I would like to thank John Smol and my fellow PEARLites (past and present) for creating a fun, supportive, and productive environment to do science! John, thanks for accepting me as an undergraduate student and then guiding me throughout my graduate degrees, it is “legendary supervision” indeed! I am grateful for the opportunities and mentorship you have provided me to pursue Arctic research, and your passion to communicate science inspires all of us to be more engaging scientists. This diatom-based thesis would not have been possible if I didn’t know what diatoms were, and for that reason I am forever thankful to Kat Rühland, who introduced me to the microscopic world of diatoms! Kat, your excitement and willingness to share the breadth of knowledge about diatoms and paleolimnology have been so important to my research training. I would also like to thank Jenny Korosi and Neal Michelutti for giving me excellent advice on scientific writing and reading many drafts of my funding applications. Many thanks to my committee members Drs. Shelley Arnott and Melissa Lafrenière for providing constructive feedback and encouragement throughout my degree. I am also grateful to Dr. Brian Cumming for always saying yes to use his office computer software and sharing important insights regarding numerical approaches in paleolimnology. PEARL is a very special place to do research, because of the people, both past and present. I am extremely thankful for the excellent guidance and mentorship provided by the research associates (Kat Rühland, Neal Michelutti, Josh Kurek, Adam Jeziorski, Carsten Meyer-Jacob, Kate Laird) and technical staff (Chris Grooms and John Glew) throughout my time at PEARL, especially when I started as a 3rd year undergraduate student! Many thanks to the past and present graduate students (and visiting students) at PEARL with whom I have had the privilege of doing science, attending conferences around the world, go on exciting adventures in the field, celebrate accomplishments, getting through challenging days, and, most importantly, sharing numerous laughs around the Secchi table. Thank you for making my time at PEARL an exciting one! Specifically, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to Andrew Labaj, Emily Stewart, Jamie Summers, Clare Nelligan, Liz Favot, Moumita Karmakar, Joeline Lim, Brigitte Simmatis, Cale Gushulak, Robin Valleau, Kathryn Hargan, Katie Griffiths, Rachel Melnik-Proud, Cécilia Barouillet, Nell Libera, Katherine Moir, Mackenzie Waller, Max Boreux, Matt Duda, Madi Perrett, Graham Mushet, Kristen Coleman, Guy Thierry Tenkouano, Monica Garvie Fisher, and Janae Rampone for their friendship, encouragement, and advice. This thesis became a possibility because of the
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