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The Effect of Game-Day Promotions on Increasing Game Attendance and Fan Engagement for Major League Baseball Teams

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The Effect of Game-Day Promotions on Increasing Game Attendance and Fan Engagement for Major League Baseball Teams THE EFFECT OF GAME-DAY PROMOTIONS ON INCREASING GAME ATTENDANCE AND FAN ENGAGEMENT FOR MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL TEAMS _______________________________________________________ A Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts _______________________________________________________ by ANDREA WEED Dr. Cynthia Frisby, Thesis Supervisor DECEMBER 2015 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF GAME-DAY PROMOTIONS ON INCREASING GAME ATTENDANCE AND FAN ENGAGEMENT FOR MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL TEAMS presented by Andrea Weed, a candidate for the degree of master of arts, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor, Dr. Cynthia Frisby Professor, Dr. Nicholas Watanabe Professor, Jim Flink Professor, Jon Stemmle DEDICATION I want to dedicate this thesis to my Boo Dog. She is a constant ray of sunshine and the best friend a girl could ask for. I want to thank my mom and big brother for being the greatest and most loving support system I could ever dream of. Graduate school was a major commitment not only by me, but also by them. I also want to thank my fellow strategic communication women. Your unwavering support and friendship means so much to me. Thank you for making me smile every day, even when things felt like they were crashing down. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a great amount of thanks to my thesis committee. My advisor, Dr. Cynthia Frisby, invariably believed in my academic ability and pushed me to be better. Your constant support and erudition helped make this thesis something of which I can be proud. Jon Stemmle was always available for guidance and support when I needed it and I am very grateful for his input. Thank you, Jim Flink, for reminding me to have some fun and to not take myself too seriously—things that I too often forget to do. And finally, thank you Dr. Nicholas Watanabe for providing academic insight and expertise that was invaluable to this research. I couldn’t have asked for a better committee to guide me through this process. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………...………………………………………………..ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………………..…………………………………………vi ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………..vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 6 Importance of Promotions for Brand Engagement ......................................................... 7 Determinants of Attendance ......................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS .......................................................... 16 Foundations of Contingency Theory ............................................................................ 17 Contingency Theory in Sports ...................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER 4: HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................... 22 CHAPTER 5: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 24 Sample Characteristics/Participants .............................................................................. 24 Instrument ..................................................................................................................... 25 Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 6: RESULTS .................................................................................................. 29 Scale Psychometrics for Identity Antecedents and Motivations ................................... 29 Research Question 1 ..................................................................................................... 29 Hypothesis 1.............................................................................................................. 29 Hypothesis 1a. ........................................................................................................... 32 Research Question 2 ..................................................................................................... 35 iii Hypothesis 2.............................................................................................................. 35 Other Findings .............................................................................................................. 36 Geodemographic Contingencies. .............................................................................. 37 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 38 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research ........................................................ 39 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 42 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 44 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 48 Appendix A: List of variable abbreviations .................................................................. 48 Appendix B: TABLE 1: Demographic profile .............................................................. 52 Appendix C: TABLE 2: Scale Psychometrics for Identity Antecedents and Motivations ....................................................................................... 53 Appendix D: TABLE 3: Means, Standard Deviations (SD), and Ranks for Identity Formation and Spectatorship Motivation Factors ................................... 54 Appendix E: Regression Tables for Scale Psychometrics and External Contingencies…………………...…………….………………………….55 TABLE 4: Media Popularity/Influence and External Contingencies ....... 55 TABLE 5: Geography and External Contingencies ................................. 56 TABLE 6: Family and External Contingencies ....................................... 56 TABLE 7: Athletic Performance and External Contingencies ................ 57 TABLE 8: Casual Spectatorship and External Contingencies ................. 58 TABLE 9: Recreational Value and External Contingencies .................... 59 TABLE 10: Aesthetics and External Contingencies ................................ 60 iv Appendix F: Regression Tables for Scale Psychometrics and Promotions ................. 62 TABLE 11: Media Popularity/Influence and Promotions ....................... 62 TABLE 12: Geography and Promotions .................................................. 63 TABLE 13: Family and Promotions ........................................................ 64 TABLE 14: Athletic Performance and Promotions ................................. 65 TABLE 15: Casual Spectatorship and Promotions .................................. 66 TABLE 16: Recreational Value and Promotions ..................................... 67 TABLE 17: Aesthetics and Promotions ................................................... 68 Appendix G: TABLE 18: Interest in game-day promotions ......................................... 69 Appendix H: Survey questionnaire ............................................................................... 70 v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1: Contingency framework for strategic sports marketing .......................................18 vi THE EFFECT OF GAME-DAY PROMOTIONS ON INCREASING GAME ATTENDANCE AND FAN ENGAGEMENT FOR MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL TEAMS Andrea Weed Dr. Cynthia Frisby, Thesis Supervisor ABSTRACT This study applies contingency theory to analyze how effective promotions are at increasing attendance and facilitating fan engagement. Contingency theory framework assumes there is neither a best way to organize nor is any strategy equally effective (Galbraith, 1973; Shank & Lyberger, 2014). This is consistent with the results from this study, as there were significant findings but no clear or definitive answers. This study utilized an online survey of MLB consumers ages 18 or older that attended a game during 2014 or 2015, within 150 miles of an MLB ballpark, and without season tickets (N = 382). Scale psychometrics for identity antecedents and motivations was used to analyze areas of fan engagement. Multiple linear regression equations were completed, indicating that the effect of external contingencies on willingness to attend games varies within levels of fan engagement, and appeal of game-day promotions varies within levels of fan engagement. A comparison of means also found that effect of promotions on willingness to attend games does not vary within promotional categories. The findings support contingency theory and provide important implications for next-step strategies for scholarship and industry. Keywords: Contingency Theory, Fan Engagement, Major League Baseball, Promotions, Public Relations, Scale Psychometrics for Identity Antecedents and Motivations vii Chapter 1: Introduction Promotions have long been popular marketing activities used by public relations and marketing practitioners. Audiences are able to share experiences and interact with brands in ways that create significant emotional involvement and, if done well, brand engagement. In promotion-reliant industries,
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