religions Article “Not Your Grandmother’s Bible”—A Comparative Study of the Biblical Deluge Myth in Film Marianna Ruah-Midbar Shapiro * and Lila Moore Department of Mysticism and Spirituality, Zefat Academic College, Safed 1320611, Israel; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 13 August 2019; Accepted: 11 September 2019; Published: 21 September 2019 Abstract: The biblical story of the Flood, which portrays a humanity worthy of annihilation, is the fundamental myth used by generations of interpreters as they radically criticized the society and culture in which they lived. Accordingly, the Deluge myth’s various versions and interpretations over the years mirror ever-changing cultural dilemmas and values. Our comparative–historic study observes this mirror and how changes in modern Western culture are reflected in it through the analysis of selected films. It exemplifies the representation and evolution of the Deluge myth in cinema from its inception to the present day, and demonstrates that the myth’s cinematic adaptation and its infusion with current interpretations turn it into an imminent apocalyptic threat. Apparently, the Flood becomes a relevant concern involving a wide scope of cultural, theological, and ethical issues, e.g., the problem of evil, ecology, the treatment of animals, family values, feminism, the Other, and deification of science and technology. Keywords: popular culture; deluge; flood; apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic films; bible films; ecology; theodicy; ecofeminism; science-fiction; feminism; comparative study 1. “The Myth as Consisting of All Its Versions” (Lévi-Strauss) Several ancient books mention the “Book of Noah”, which fiercely criticizes humanity. However, since this criticism is expressed in varied and contradictory ways, some scholars believe that this book never truly existed, but was rather an imaginary object used to make religious–social criticism (Werman 1999). In fact, the biblical story of the Flood, which portrays a humanity worthy of complete annihilation, is the fundamental myth used by generations of interpreters as they radically criticized the society and culture in which they lived. Accordingly, the Deluge myth and its various versions and interpretations over the years mirror ever-changing cultural dilemmas and values. In our study, we observe this mirror and how modern Western (mainly American) culture is reflected in it. For this purpose, we shall trace the cinematic representation of the Deluge myth and its development: how is this myth appropriated by mainstream American films? What associations does it evoke? How is the myth used toward the promotion of values, in criticizing the ailments of contemporary society so much to warrant its destruction? What are the contexts that portray the need to destroy humanity? How is the religious aspect of the story perceived: and does it undergo secularization and how? Does the film criticize God? How is nature perceived? What role do women play in the plot? These questions and more will be discussed via selected cinematic Midrashim (Moore and Ruah-Midbar Shapiro 2018). A “Midrash” is a Jewish Rabbinic literary genre, an exegesis to the Bible in a highly creative manner. Naturally, one of the characteristics of Midrashim (plural of midrash in Hebrew) is a multiplicity of views and stories that contradict one another (Neusner 1990). The term “midrash” is often borrowed by other historical and cultural contexts, and by creative interpretations or variations thereof, including cinematic ones. Religions 2019, 10, 542; doi:10.3390/rel10100542 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 542 2 of 17 Every mention and retelling of a myth is, in effect, more than a reinterpretation: it is a reappearance of the myth itself, a part of its multidimensional picture.L évi-Strauss(1955, p. 435) puts it beautifully: “the myth as Consisting of all its versions”. The historic–cultural context changes, and with it—the way in which the ancient myth is formulized. The original biblical story of the Flood consists of different stories/sources with contradicting messages. It is interlaced with ancient sources which reflect fundamentally different views—e.g., in one of the original stories animals entered the Ark two by two, while another story mentions seven specimens of each pure species; one ends with the rising smell of sacrificial animals, while the other—with a symbolic rainbow; one views Earth and all living things as sinners, while another mentions the evil of man alone (Knohl 2010, chps. 2–3). Alongside the biblical story, this myth appeared in various versions throughout the ancient East (Collins 2017; Kramer 1967) and other cultures. They carry a plethora of messages, local and universal alike—from the problem of overpopulation, to appeasing the gods, etc. As mentioned, the representation of the Flood in films is more than innocent recreation of the biblical story, or, in the words of director Darren Aronofsky, “it’s not your grandmother’s Bible” (Collins 2014). Rather, this is a new statement, to be analyzed and uncovered for the moral—sometimes even unconscious—content filmmakers express through it. Accordingly, in this article, we shall delve into the meanings of the Deluge myth in film, so it may teach us about Western culture over the past century, and the values and dilemmas of the current emerging culture. After presenting the rationale to our study, along with our research question, Section2 will review 13 main films which exemplify the development of the representation of the Deluge myth in film from its inception to the present day: The Deluge (1911), Noah’s Ark (1928), The Deluge (1933), The Bible: In the Beginning (1966), Deep Impact (1998), Sky Captain (2004), Evan Almighty (2007), The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008), 2012 (2009), 40 Days and Nights (2012), The Humanity Bureau (2014), Noah (2014), The 100—Netflix Series (2014—ongoing). Section3 will explore the central filmic elements and conceptual and moral/ideological characteristics which we have identified in these films, and sort them into five categories. Section4 shall summarize our conclusions regarding the picture that arises from the cultural mirror of these films. 2. The Cinematic Flood from 1911 to 2018—A Review Kozlovic(2016) divided the films into genres and types, e.g., cinematic re-creations of the Flood as historic or fictional events; sci-fi; disaster; comedy; animation; etc. In our attempt to discern the ways in which the Flood was cinematically adapted, we survey those films that constitute meaningful cornerstones in the evolution of the Flood’s cinematic versions, and which address cultural trends, prevalent public concerns, and gender views. 2.1. The Deluge (1911) The Flood appeared in films close to the inception of cinema. The Deluge (director’s name unknown; Kozlovic 2016, p. 35), an American silent film, starts with opening titles about the Flood in ancient cultures, and George Smith’s discovery of the Chaldean Account of The Deluge, which connected the Gilgamesh Flood mythos to the Abrahamic traditions. The film was produced by the Vitagraph Company of America. 2.2. Noah’s Ark (1928) Michael Curtiz’s Noah’s Ark (Kozlovic 2016, pp. 35–36; Shepherd 2017, pp. 87–89), was released when biblical epics followed a formula which paralleled the biblical story with actual events (Mitchell and Plate 2007). Accordingly, this film is an epic melodrama which equates the biblical Flood with the blood of WWI victims flooding the world. This analogy between the war and the Flood criticizes human cruelty, and hints at the danger posed to humanity’s survival in light of its violence. As the character of a modern-day priest passionately exclaims in the film: Religions 2019, 10, 542 3 of 17 Above this deluge of blood, and the graves of ten million men, shall not the rainbow of a new covenant appear—the covenant of peace? This statement may have given the film the religious context its makers desired, as it does not address the biblical story apart from the depiction of a global flood. 2.3. The Deluge (1933) Felix E. Feist’s The Deluge (Kozlovic 2016, pp. 38–39), opens with text stating the “tale of fantasy” is intended for “entertainment” and “remembering God’s covenant with Noah”. The quote from Genesis 9:11 emphasizes that Earth will never again be destroyed. This statement may frame the film in a religious context as it does not address the biblical story apart from depiction of a flood. The plot begins with a state of emergency preceding powerful storms but with unclear reasons. The military is requested to clear the air and seas; a solar eclipse occurs; an earthquake leads to the collapse of New York skyscrapers; the US West Coast collapses into the ocean; newspapers announce the end of the world; clergymen declare God’s intention to destroy humanity. Panicking people are seen running through the streets, while massive waves pass the Statue of Liberty and flood New York. A couple, Helen and Martin, and their two children, try to find cover near their collapsing house. When Martin wakes alone on a beach, the world around him appears primordial. He finds Claire, who is on the run from men who fought over her after one tried to rape her, and the two fall in love. When Martin finds out his family survived, he confesses he loves both women. Helen accepts it, but Claire is enraged and runs to the beach, strips naked, and swims toward the horizon. This film, which is based on Sydney Fowler Wright’s 1928 novel of the same name, has become a prototype of both flood films and disaster movies. It demonstrates the earliest depiction in cinema of the now compulsory apocalyptic imagery of tidal waves overcoming the Statue of Liberty, which appears in many of the subsequent Flood films. 2.4. The Bible: In the Beginning (1966) John Houston’s The Bible: In the Beginning (Bachmann 1965, pp.