YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College
Benjamin Franklin And His English
Seiz6 H6mura ,
Foreword
About five decades ago, when I was a college student I was strongly
attracted by the writing of Benjamin Franklin. It was a 13-page
quotation from American literature. But it was quite a fascinating
piece which spoke of the attractiveness of Franklin's character. Since
then I had some chances of reading Benjamin Franklin's Autobio-
graphy, and I was much pleased with that, but quite recently
I read the book with several teachers of English, translating it into
Japanese, sentence by sentence with the object of familiarizing ourselves with American literature. At the same time we did not neglect to pay
attention to linguistic features of his English. As it is the English of
the eighteenth century, it has features different from those of the
present day English. Ireached, therefore, to the conclusion that
it would be very useful to the beginners of English and American
literature to have some coherent exposition on the English of Benjamin
Franklin, if they are interested in Franldin. So I decided to write an
article on the character and English of Benjamin Franklin. For this
purpose I used Franklin's Autobiogrophy of Kenkyusha British &
American Classics and side by side with the book of Kenkyusha pocke-
English Series, with notes by Professor Masami Nishikawa, which are
of very excel!ent scholarship. It is entirely thanks to the professor's
erudition if there be anything deserving attention in this article.
To write this article I had the chance of reading- Ripers of Benjumin
Franklin consisting of four volumes edited by Lebnard W. Labaree
and Whitefield J. Bell, by the courtesy cf Professor Kenzo Marumo
of Yamanashi University.
It is in 1868 that the complete text of his Autobiographbl was
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published. Thanks to that edition we are able to read the book just as
was written by Franklin himself. After that some editions of the book
have been published, but the authentic edition of Autobiography is found in The Writings oi Benjamin Franklin (10 volumes) edited by
Albert Henry Srnyth. But Professor Nishikawa took up the edition by
Carl Doren for his text I also followed him
P. S. i. The figures in my article refer to the number of the page of the Kenkyusha C]assics text, besides years which are of four figures.
11 Abbreviations :
O. E. D. = Oxford English Dictionary
S. O. D. == Shorter Oxford English Dictienary
C. O. D. =- Concise Oxferd Dictionary
P. O. D. == Poeket Oxford Dictionary
W. D. ::= Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary
U. S. = United States Wording
I
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franldin was indeed a versatile man. His biographer ealls
him an American printer, author, publisher, inventor, scientist, public servant and diplomat. He liveda many-sided life: but he was not dis- heartened at all, and stood up again and again. The story of his discovery
of the identity ef lightning and eleetricity interested me in my boy-
hood Thus his attraetion was moralisti-c and scientific one. Later genera- .tions
have known him most directly through posthumous book Auto-
bilograPhyand IJVcry to Weulth and Iloor Ric/iard's Abnanacfe (both
were published under the name of Richard Saunders), Benjamin Franklin is characterized as the representative character of
the eighteenth century, and was looked up to as the mouthpiece of the
eighteenth century Ainerica. His view of life was the very opposite of
Calvinism, which Jenathan Edwards tried to retrieve through desperate ' struggle agamst its decline. Bein.ff- born in a Puritan city, Beston,
Mass., on Jan. 17, 1706 (new style; Jan. 6, old stylc),of a maker of
soap and candles, he reeeived no education worthy of mentioning
exeept that of a grammar school. His father Josiah hud seventeen
children (four by his first wife and ten more by a second wife;
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seventeen in all) and Benjamin was the youngest of them. (8) His
AuLobiogr(iphy is the account of his life from his birth up to 1757
(hediedin 1790), and itwas written at wide intervalsbetween 1771
and 1788 and some say that it is often inaccurate in some details.
But it gives 1'rank ideas about everyday events and human relations,
sometimes giving moral interpretations upon human relationship. Natur-
ally he preaches to his son "Jilliam Franklin the gospel of getting
ahead in the world by virtue of thrift, industry and shrewd use of the
lessons got out of experiences.
`CGod helps those who help thernselves," one of Poor Richrd's max-
ims, is quite typical of one fact of Franklin's belief. This is one of
his favorite maxims up to which he tried to live in his life. Yet he was
not a timid or self-centered man by any means. He was often
passionate or extravagant as his AutobiograPhy tells us. While working
as an apprentice of his elder brotlier John, he read for his self-educa-
tion many wellknown books, such as the books by Plutarch (Liwes),
Bunyan (Pilgriin's Pi"ogress) , Defoe (Essay on Project and Robinson Cru-
soe),Addison and Burton(Hisiorical Collections). He also read Locke's
.E]ssa), (l]onee?-ning Human Unt;tei'standing and the books by Deists,
which, without high standard of education, would not have been
understood to his great advantages. After being taken out of the grammar
"sent shcool, he was to a school for xvriting and arithmetic kept by a
then famous man, Mr. George' Brownell-･･under him I acquired fair
writing pretty soon, but I failed in the arithmetic and no progress in
it." (11) He received no other education, But his booliish inclination
led his father to determine to malce him a printer, in which trade he
remained engag-ed along time. In 1723 he ran away to Philadelphia
where he purchased Ptrnnsvvlt,ania GaN"･'ette after he had spent two years in London and kept on publishing it in 1729. It seems that this was
the example of his brother James Franklin, who printed the tTVbxv
England Coura;vt. He then thought of eneouraging the public to
cultivate common sense among them and published Poor Richard's
Almanac]{ under the name of Richard Saunders. He was the first man
and about to establish the public library in Philadelphia (1742) , the
same period he established Philadelphia University. It was also about
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this time that Frank}in began experiments in electricity. But we can
trace his curiosity about electricity to his boyhood but not until 1740
did it become more than desultory. In that year he invented the
Philadelphia fireplace, which is better known by the name ef Franl{lin
stove. He wrote a pamphlet about this stove in 1744. By this time he was reading all the scientific literature he cou}d put his hand to, ttnd
he carefully read articles on electricity, In April 1751 a ¢ ollection was
printecl as Ea:Periments and Observt'uions oiz Electricit:y. The experi-
ment suggested by Benjamin Franl{lin to prove the identity of lighln-
ing and electricity was carried on in France, which is said to have
been done on a simple experiment of flying a kite in the thunder
storm. This is what I learned from our textbook of English for the
middle school. By 1752 he had made the most important contribution
to science, including his observation that came apparently from the
northeast actually moved from the southwest, which was his desert outside
electricity. For the rest of his life he conclucted many vaiuable
experiments and theorized a great deal. He was as interested in
heat, light, souncl and magnetism, as he was interested in hydrody-
namics, hydrostatics, chemistry, geology, physiology, psychology and
eceanography. How can you imagine that such a man of little educationa
background as Benjarnin Franklin could be versed in $o many branchesl
of science? But he dicl that. We cannot but be impressed by his deep
and profound intellec:t and his researching spirit.
This is his inteliectual field of science, and new we have to deal
with his aetivities as a public servant, From 1753, when he took
charge of the mails in all the northern colonies, he was prone to think
in termg of the bond of commmon interest which tied the separate
commonwealths together. He was also elected burgess for･ Pennsy}vania
in I75t'). Next year he was appointed envoy to France and there he
stayed for nine years. In 1785 he was elected govemor of Pennsyl-
vania. For about 20 yeurs Franklin was America's chief spokesman, so
far as an America to speak for. He became an American and a
revolutionary almost in spite of himself. He worked until the last
moment to reconcile inflicting interest to interpret America to
Englishmen and British politlcs to Americans. But contrary to his
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wish, he failed in reconciliating the two. Like most politicians he
made mistakes and suffered because of them, but he also had some
"Plan success. One of them was the adoption of the of Union" by
the Albany congres$ which met in 1754 to make common cause against
the French and Indians. His political activities nearly ruined Franklin in 1755,when he promised Pennsylvania farmers to stand good for any
losses they might suffer, should they use horses and wagons to supply General Edward Braddoek's army in its expedition against Ft. Duqeusne. It seemed that he might have to pay almost 20,OOO out of his own pocket. The government eventually paid, but Franklin was more cautious about his commitment The latter was one of his errata, to .
use his own words After that Franklin was in London most of the
time between July 1757 and August 1762. He wrote The Interest of
Great Britain Considered xvith Ragard to "er Colonies, and the Acguisitions of amadu and GuaduIPhia (1760) in London. By that time he went back to Philadelhia, where the confliet between legislature and prorietors continued. A petition to make Philadelphia
a crown colony was agreed upon and by December 1764 Franklin was
also in London, just in time to testify that the proposed Stamp Act
was the very wrong way to raise additional money in America. But
the act was passed. Franklin so greatly underestlmated the probable opposition that he nearly ended his political usefulness. As he was
determined to make the best of the worst condition, he meekly ordered
stamps for the use of Franklin and Hall and nominateda fr iend for
the post of stamp officer in Philadelphia. The feeling against him was
so streng that his wife Deborah brought guns and male relatives into
the house to defend it. Franklin was shoeked very much by the report
of violence in America, he devoted himself to the campaign for repeal
and regained his prestige by answering 174 questions before the House
of Commons in February 1766. The examination, during which he
clearly and briefly answered both his friends and enemies, gave Britons
some understanding of how Americans felt. His real mission, nego-
tiation of a new charter, was successful, but failure was forgotten in
the exictement.
Pennsylvania kept hirn on as agent, and he was employed by the
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other colonies-Georgia (1768), New Jersey(1768)and Massachusetts (1766). With the support of these colonies and also that British Whigs,
he got away through the succession oJ crises and ended with the armed clashes at Lexington and Concord. He was gradually forced to
realize that there could be no reconciliation and that his dream of a
British empire of self-governing nations would not come true. He did
his best to present the American view to his friends, and through many
newspaper articles (l27 articles between 1765 and 1775) ,to the British
pubic. In January 1774, because of his writing and his share in the
publication of letters to Thornas Hutchingson, governor of Massachu- setts, to his British superiors, Franklin was dismissed from the post office.
In March 1775, being aware of the possibility of there breaking out of
a war he left England, which was three days before his friend Edmund
Burke delivered his eloquent but futile speech to the Commons on
reconciliation with America
A day after his arrival in Philadelphia he was a delegate to the second Continental Congress, There he served on committees for the
erganization of a postal sytsem and for the drafting of the Declaration
of Independence, and on a commissien which vainly attempted to bring
Canada into the war as an ally. He also found time to be presiding
officer of the constitutional convention of Pennsylvania.
In September 1776 Congress agreed to send a commission consisting of Silas Deane, Arthur Lee (as a substitute for Thorns Jeffersen) and
Franklin to France, hoping to secure economic and military help. As
a diplomat, Franklln had a great advantage of French friends and
disciples. Franklin rose to the occasion magnificiently, displaying
such wit and social grace as to endear him to the French for genera- tions.Such supreme capacity and grace, I believe, came from his
daily moral daimoral training and natural gifts. .'lutobiograPhy tells us how he planned to attain moral perfection.
"Tho' I se]dom attended any public worship, 1 had still an opinion of its propriety, and of its utility w}ien rightly conducted, and I
regularly paid my annual subscription for the support of the only
Presbyterian minister or meeting we had in Philadelphia-･･･-･Had he
been in my opinion a good preacher, perhaps I might have continued
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notwithstanding the occasion I had for the Sunday's leisure in my
course of study; but his discourses were chiefly either polemic
arguments, or explications of our sect, and were all to me very dry, uninte-
resting, and unedyfying, since not a single moral principle was･ inculcated or enforc'd, their aim seeming to be rather to make us pres- byterians than good citizens" (108 & 109)
"It was about this time I conceiv'd the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wish'd to live without committing any
fault at any time;I would conquer all that either natural inclination,
custom, or company might lead me into." (110) Thus thinking he made up a table of thirteen virtues to be aimed at "to or to use his own words, acquire the habitude of all these virtues."
(112) He is to be said not a man of ecclesiastical turn but of moral' one. He being a man of moral inclination he could do such a great deal of public services.
The treaties which were hoped for were signed in 1778, after General
Burgoyne and 6,OOO men had surrendered at Saratoga and it was
clear that Britain was not going to crush the rebellion easily. A large
lot of loans were obtained for the United States and without French
military and naval aid the final victory at Yorktown in 1781 might
not have been achieved
Prior to the end of the year 1783 Franklin asked the congress to be replaced, but he was retaind for two more years to help make trade .treatles .
During his "Maritime last five years he wrote two scientific papers : "The Observations" and Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys."
In Philadelphiahewas elected to the executive council of the state., and a few days later he was chosen president governor and served three years.
IIe livedas quietly as possible, interested himself in improving his but was property, still active in the American philosophical society and
in the new Society for Enquiries Political (1787), of which he was the first president. In 1783 he signed the definite treaty of peace,and in 1785 he returned to America, where he was chosen president of the Supreme Council. He died in 1790 in his 84th year of age.
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these were to His principles that he lived up to faithfully 84 years de helped, live as pleasantly as pos'sible, not regretting what could not an intel- and to live a diligent, hard working, thrifty life. He was ligent, practicai, self-confident and resourceful man. He was tactful
and full of eommonsense. He was not a religionist, but he sought the
society with high priests of Quakers or presbyterian churches,
"It will be remarked that, tho' my scheme was not wholly without tenets of religion, there was in it no mark of any of the distinguishing them;for, being fully any particular sect. I liad purposely avoided that it persuaded of the utility and exeellency of my method, and not have might be serviceable to people in all re}igions, I would
against it." anything in it that should prejudice any one, of any sect, "to (120) This is his attitude toward religion and he tried attain moral to acquire ideal. Franklin worked out 13 virtues as I said above and to dis- the habitude of ail these virtues, I judged it would bewell not to on tract my attention, by attempting the whole at once, but fix it
･one at a time." (112) Charac- I will make a rather long quotation from Lord Jefferson's
`;Edingburgh terization of Franklin adapted from Review; vol, xxviii."
'`In Franklin must be considered as one point of view, the name" of standing higher than any of the other which illumined the eighteenth
was equally as a century. Distinguished as a state:.man, he great inlbothof philosopher, thus uniting in himself a rare degree of excellence highest these pursuits, to excel in either ef which is deemed the praise. that doubtful kind Nor was his pre-eminence in the one pursuit of uncommon conjunctlon. His whieh derives its value from such an
made famous had efforts in each "iere b'ufficient to have him greatly
･･･But weuld have been entitled he done nething in the other, Franldin vitJho a discoverer in science--one had largely to the .a.lory of first-rate he had not stood extended the bounds of human knowledge-although the r[iest second to Washington alone in gaining for human liberty ･･･ The distinguishingfeatureof splendid and guiltiess of its triumphs combined with his understanding was great soundness and sagacity, He alsc} a strong extraordinary quicl{ness of penetration. possessed as well as his and lively imagination, which gave his speculations,
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conduct, a singularly original turn. The peculiar charm of his writings,
and his great merit, also, in action, eonsisted in the clearness with
which he saw his object, and the bold and steady pursuit of it by the
surest and the shortest road. He never suffered himself in conduct to turned be aside by the seductions of interest or vanity, or to be
scared by hesitation and fear, or to be misled by the arts of his adversaries. Neither did he, in discussion, ever go out of his way in
search of ornament, or stop short from dread of the consequences.
never could He be caught, in short, acting absurdly or writing non-
sensically. At all times, and in every thing he undertook, the vigor of an understanding at once original and practical was distinctly perceivable."
E
Benjamin Franklin's English as observed in his Autobiagcipdy the Since very distant past languages have existed for the convenient
communication of the people. And as the days went by they were handed on for ages, from parents to children and then on to grandchildren
and so on. Languages existed of course in early days only in the form
of speech, and writing has been invented very late to represent the
sounds of speech. Even in England and other highly civilized eountries
there are still few old people who never learned in their youth either to
speak, mueh less to write. For such people as those it is clear that
a Ianguage exists on]y as something that is spoken.
In the process of the handing on of languages, there take place many changes due to many causes; e. g. mishearing, misstatement,
imperfect audio abilities, hasty cenclusion and others. Languages are
liable to change. Hence many dialects and changes of languages from
age to age. In the past we have seen such great changes of languages, regarding sounds, spelling and grammar, not from day to day but
from decade to decade
If we look up into a book of old English, we meet with such words
as has,stan, god, brothor, cild, scip,b6k, sellan, wyrean, teon, swilc
and others, which are house, stone, good, brother, child, ship,
book, sell, work, draw, in modern English. Between old English and
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Modern English, there are great resemblances, but all are not se;
1took those resembling. exarnples. But it is true Old English and
Modern English are very much alike. Foreign elements came into
English very much and so there came a great disturbance. Such being
the case, no language ever remains unchan.(J,ed at ul}, but undergoes a
"The constant process of tr.ansformation. sounds of many vowels and
consonants are slowly shifted; the old wercls becomeL outworn er changed
their meaning, and new terms are iieeded to replace them; and with the
passing of time, fresh experiences are acquired, a'nd new vvFays of thought and fee]ing become popular, k'nd the.e a!sc) demand and find
their appropriate terminology. CJrammar al･so become[･:･ more simple:
but on the whole the chan.u.e Gf En.giisl] since Chaucer':s :･.{･me has been 'J'he a change in vocabulary." CL. P. Si･nith : English Languas,e) The sounds of vvrords change's most, the xrocabulary does more, and graTninar changes }ittle by little, ! wish to discuss in this order, viz,
spelling, voet',bulary and grammar. This is not, h()wever, a systematic discussion.
A) Notabie points of FrankliR's spell,iilg wiil be tal won't, shan:t, inayn't brother's, a:A'ik')r's coat, o'c:loc:k, (47), chaprr}un's everyinan's (.166), there's, that)s, books (lt')), it"s,he's, king's !noney (185), ariny's sake (186), etc. ii) IE.n the past and past participle of regulc"'Lr vei-bs, the endmg is '-'d. written as The boc･k is full of such al:breviations throgh- ' out bLit not many in former, part o ± the book ami so I shall give some of them. requir'd impr.ison'd tho' surpriz:d , e, g. (25), (,,) (,,). (:33) 11L, l41, i69, 199) encourag'd , thro' (32,68, 77,88, , (14:5) acquir'd rep]i'd lodg'd 6:3, 169) , (35) , poisc)n'di (138), (58, (61, zi,-5, afik'd il･v･'d t')8, 64) resolv'd , 65,75)', (4:･, 6･O , (47, , (45) 122) showk'1 (45),impr.c)v'd(67,75,112, 154) , pr()pos'd (104, , it44) l22) observ'd deserv'd , fix'd(10[), , (105, , (107) quarrel' referr'd mduc'd 126) increa$'d d (90)` (93), (108, , (108), money'd amir'd , (181), ur,g'd (214), preferr'd (175), (179) - 10- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College forc'd compos'd , tir'd wip'd (179), pass'd (175), (177), (109) interr'd (177), plac'd (171,179), judg'd(171), plann'd (199), occasion'd alter'd tho', 41, 56, 68, 76, (199), (217), (218)' (36, wonder'd 91, 93, 120 94, 133, 137,219) , (219), derang'd(219), appear'd etc, distress'd(,,), (221), dy'd (193), By the way I shall give some examples from the RiPaers of Benjumin Franlin, Bk.1 and Bk. 2 : sign'd tho' 187, 338) , di'd , Bk. 1 ; liv'd(33), (,,), (34, (36) endeavor'd recover'd altho' 357) , forc'd(36), (37), (37), (142, censur'd (194),contain'd, (195),determin'd (195),natur'd (247), pleas'd (Bk.2, 272) answered (187), answer'd (190), arrive'd abolish'd on't rous'd ,hop'd (343) , (260), (260), (338), (338) wou'd (356), etc. observ'd Bk. 2; thro' (116), propos'd (116), declar'd(117), resolv'd allow'd lock'd (124), (125), prefix'd (130), (131), confin'd suppress'd (,,), (,,), belong'd(132), (132), gain'd chnac'd etc. However, the (136), (137),bestow'd (138), following seem not to be abbreviated in the book. accomodated (37), wanted(40), fortified (190), crowded (191) wounded exalted killed(.), (191), (192),plundered (192), stripped close-covered(172), intended (192), remonstrated (228), adopted verified de- (151,213) ,reported (171), (177), (211), neglected cided (150), started (176), defended(210), (189), appointed damned (214),presented (212), printed (211,215), etc. (214,229, 74,175) , founded (213,217) , We find that the same words are at one time abbreviated and at other time not; e. g. (,gg),,, (,9gl {::k::p,d {I2g21･gg,d l9gl lggl {k::gg:P,d ,(,9,7,2,,,, ((IZZ)i3s,iss) {:Rgy,g?s,Si,S6,)) {g:$;l･gg,d E,'g'7) {:B:i:\9dd (i39) {:..n,c,r.e.a,ge,d E,i,4,5?,,,) {gc.g:;;p,d {gl.:g:ug;e,,d ,(3,i8, ,,,) (i72) {::gwsr,g,d((,7,9,･,2iO) {gLo.s.e,-p,ov(eie,d) {g:llg,d((,2,171,,) (,IZZI {:,S9,d E,igl･,E98,),,, {i2ggl･u9,d ,(i,8,7;,Z2,F),,, {:igBg:F,d -11-- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College ((31gj (811･s2i2) {ggl:l･:g,d {::gB.og･e,d E,iZ9),,,) {:gggmg::l･g,d opened (172) {open'd (88) There are interesting cases: 'ad9g2,l {gl:;･･UdESir'g) {Si2::?,Eg9,?,,, {g::･:?Y ",' {g:??,l]･hd ,(,;,),,,, {:sBlr･･hd Elggi lge,), iii)Just like modern Americans, Franklin used strong type of abbreviation;e. g. tho' (given before) (36, 41, 51, 68, 76, 91, 93, v,t.&n. sometimes abbreviaited, 94･,133,137), though't (201, not (38, 217, 176), gov'r (==governor, 43, 157, 228),br. Holmes Holmes) bro't andPhilad'a (=brother (39), (-::brought)(13) (Philadelphia) ( (104) (N. B, Here by strong abbreviation I mean the abbreviaton of more than two letters.) iv) Old spellings are used, e.g. musick (203), publicl{ (83, 84, 90, l58,161) Almanack 127; In mediaeval Latin it was , (:=:Almanac spelt as almanach) mathematicks setts , (41), paniek (191), stile 149) chuse (-set,groupi159) , (-style)(130, , (-choose; compleat 46,82,l59,204, 215) ,chusing (172,181) , (='complete; l9, 114, 146, 262), compleatly(123), extream(-extreme; 75,119), extreamly(29), sweat(=sweet; 30), cpyer (==copier; 80),travestie traxresty; 31), plaid, played; 51,132), cabbin (-=cabin; 142), stopt (=stopped; 225, this is not uncommon with verbs), comptroller( = controller; off 173) kegg (=keg;188) , jobb(=-job;88) , (=of; meer 124) chappel 74) , forbad (--forbade;l62) , (-mere; , (=chapel; 62'), enquiry (230) . burthen (==zburden; 60: The spelling burthen is from O. E. by･rthen, however, burthen is used today in the meaningof the capaeity of a ship, and also poetically. (The parallel example being murther=murder.) risque (=risk; 92), sope-boiler (=soap-boiler; 11), chearful dullness(111). (=-cheerful;64) , dulness (u2), v) Some verbs have two forms of past or past participle; e. g, sing -sang or sung sung. Franklin used one form or other. forget-forgot forgot (7) or forgotten (9) -l2- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College drink drank drunk, or drunken Franklin has drank for p. p. forbid forbad (162),or forbade forbidden stay staid (30) or stayed staid or stayed stop stopped stopped or stopt (225) laugh laughed laughed or laught (55) spring sprang or sprung (39) sprung Vi) Examples of peculiar spelling: matras=mattress (64) matrass in a glass vessel to-day, but matras ls not so. shew=show (101) (But this is an old spelling which we come across in the writings of modern writers.) blameable==blamable (110) bodys-bodies (199) Franklin dropped the final e sometimes, e. g. Cruso==Crusoe(29)･ B) Vocabulary There are many words which are already archaic, obsolete and rare in his AutobiograPhy. Besides he used many words in his own way, and that may be the reason why his, writing has its own attraction. i) Rare, archaic and obsolete words are given with their equivalent in modern forms. conducing (3) ==that tends to an end, contributing, conducive. mentioned (4) =before mentioned. Today we say, mentioned above. ingenious (6, 13, 49, 64) -intelligent, having high intellectual capaclty. Esquire (6) =squire, i. e, the owner of landed estate on liking (15) =on trial, a probationer nurse. presently (20) ==quickly concession (21) = admission of a point claimed in argument (Rhetorical term) discover (25) preveal, make known ==wicked, D,) naughty (27) morally bad (1699 S.O. font (35) == fount,a complete set of type U. S. reasonable creature(47) =man; reasonable=endowed with reason" (Here it is used in a joking way, meaning that since a man -13- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College is endowedwith reason, he is aptto give arbitrary reason for anything he isn't in favour of.) Wherewith (50) =means by which, the stock. cf. wherewithal take up with (t)3) -put up with, forbear burthen (60) =burden, O. E. byrthen bur=bear beforehand (60) ==have something in hand for future contin- gencles 'ventt bien (61) =r- (Fr. welcome) a fee extracted from a new worl{man, (1793 S. O. D.) engage (62) =to make (a per$on) security for payment (a debt) (1652 S. O. D.) riggite (rigit) (62) =one who makes game or fun of other; one who jokes (W. D) backwards (62) ==at the back, ordinarily to the back, and in this sense it is obsolate and archaic. gettings (66) =earnings This is an M. E. word, now archaic. gratify (67) =to reward, recompense; from Fr. gratifer or L. gratificari, gratus=pleasing. footed it (71) ==walked on foot. Colloquial expression. trust (73) pto supply geods to a person on credit, credit transactlon. bills (74) =-pieces of paper money as a five-dollar bill (W. D.) distinguishing upon (80) =making scholastic or subt]e distineti- ons with regard to (O. E. E.) debauch'd (89) =turned away. Today it is used in the meaning ef perverting from virtue or morality. snug (89) -private, secret: used as an interjection asking for or commanding secrecy snug's the zvord 1700 (S. O. D.) correspondence (92) ='relation, intercourse. take our party (98) =make our decision or choiee countenance (100) =credit or repute in the world glory (100) :･L-boastful spirit subscribe oneself (103) ::=:to put oncself as so and so, at the foot of a letter or other doeument administration (109) =religious services, originally it means te - - 1･1 NII-Electronic LibraryMbrary Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College serve, service, but in M. E. it was used as administration of sacrament (S. O. D.) miss of having (109) =fail to obtain, have not habitude (112) -habit M. E. from O. F. from L. habitudinem -haber, have. (C. O. D.) overlook (116) =look over, examine exceeding (118) =exceedingly sensibly (119) =acutely, intensely employs (120) =employments 1829 (S. O. D.) excellency (120) -excellence 1783 (S. O. D.) in a manner (134) =considerably Archaic, in a manner of speaking, so to speak. (C. O. D.) an assortment (134) =a set 'action city watch (137) ==thg of keeping guard and maintaining order in the streets, especially during the night, performed by a picked body of the community. emolument (142) =advantage, benefit. From Latin emolimen- tum= grind out, and today it means salary. miss of (143, 109) ===fail to receive. out of employ (146) -unemployment cf. 120. hands (148) =signitures. Today it means the handwriting, and others. IIe writes a good hand. fill (149) -be filled up (said of a list, etc.) divulg'd (149) =published abroad, today it means let out, reveal. present stock (151) ==immediately availabe fund. great gun (154) ==cannon society (155) == a body of persons assembled for religious worship. Originally it meant a company or a small party, but once it meant a number of persons associated together by some common interest or purpose, united by a common vow, holding the same belief or opinion, following the same trade or profession, and so on, association, 1548. (S.O. D.) orator (163) :-:spokesman. enlighting (169) -lighting. (S. O. D.) gentlefolkses (170) == gentlemen, persons of good position or -15- NII-Electronic LibraryMbrary Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College family. (S. O. D) vested (181) == invested. indifferent (184) =impartial, nentral. occasionally (185) ==by chance, now it means on occasion, incidentally, now and then scrupulous of (197) ==reluctant to (bear arms) . connoisseurs (208) =:those who are versed in a subject, today it means the critical judge of matters of taste. copy-rnoney (209) =money paid to an author for his manuscript, or for copyright. Today it is called royalty, to this purpose (213) ==to this effect; purpose--the meaning of words. resolves (214) ==formal resolution. now U, S. in company (218) =:altogether, in all. part (218) =depart, sct out ii) "･Tords and phrases to be specially attended to: give it fair quarter (4) ='rmto be generous to vanity. Here quarter means to save the life of those who surrendered, S. O. D. says that it means exernption from being immediately put to death, granted to a vanquished opponent in a battle or fight, clemency shown in sparing the life of one who surrenders. ef. to ask for, cry, quarter (s) . appropriate (8) -one who executes the orders, especially in serving summons, in an ecclesiastical court, from Latin aprer== to appear as an attendant. spiritual court (8) =a court having jurisdiction in matters of religion or ecc}esiastical affairs. emmet (11) =ant O, E. ee mete M. E. amete, weak feminine gender, chiefly dia}ectal, stand out (16) =to refuse to come in or join others, now it meuns to take part in a match, game er dance. (S, O. D.) the Grub-street-ba]]ad (17) =-ballad of low grade Grub-street 1630 It is the name of a street near "･{oorfields in London(now `much Milton Street) inhabited by writers of small histeries, , dictionaries and temporary poems.' (S. O. D.) cf. Nezv GiAztb 16 - NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College Street (1891) by George Gissing. figure (21) ==arithmetic, comrnonly in pl. so or so (22) ==this or that dress (of a book) (29) = book-binding; external covering, outward form, cf. a French book appearing in English dress. (C. O. D.) unlikely (32) = unpromising, unseemly. sophister (35. 178) = sophist L. sophista:=sophists. Generally a student in his second or third year at Cambridge. (S. O. D.) At Trinity College, Dublin, a student in his third or fourth year. a pretty poet (35) =a good, fine, excellent poet. diet (36) ==board (with aperson, at, in a house) O. E. D. accommodate to my mind (37) =settle to my liking. To accom- modate it is to settle or compromise matters. (O. E. D.) accommodation (41) =reconciliation. waited upon (43) =call upon with the intention of showing respect, asking a favour, or the like. (S. O. D.) waited on (55) -follow. work (47) =manage (a business or proceeding) 1667 (S. O. D.) trepann'd (47) ==entrapped. trepan, trapan=to catch in a trap, to entrap, ensnare. beguile. 1656 Tripan, originaily trapan probably formed in some way from trap. (S. O. D.) appointed (52) =designate, to determine authoritatively, to fix (a time, later a place) for any act. (S. O. D.) (leave her) on thelr hands (53) =leave her te their charge on foot (55) =going on, in progress, generally means walking. inscribe (57) =dedicate to a person by a short inscription less formal than an ordinary dedication 1645 (S. O. D.) pale (58) =dim, faint, feeble, lacking intensity, vigour or ro- bustness. (S. O. D.) the soul (58) ===the moving spirit. chapel ghost (62) =master of a printing house, chapel,a printing house, an association of the journeymen in a printing house . -17- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College (S. O. D.) journeymen printers held association or meeting. (C. O. D.) This has to do with William Caxton, (1422-92), the first printer in England who had a printing office at a chapel in the precinct of "Jest Misster Abbey in about 1475. high words (73) ==angry speeches. IIigh means emotionally exaJted, hence angry. first--fruits (78) =the fruits first gathered in a season; here it is used figuratively as meaning the first results of a man's endeavour. reduced to pi (82) ==reduced to complete disorder. pi=pie; pr- inting types all mixed up;pie is also pye (U. S,) 16tj9 per- haps transferred use of pie. A mass of type mingled indiscrimi- nately, sueh as results from the breaking down of a form of type (S. O. D.) strengthened the hands of our friends (84) == enabled our friend ta act with greater effect. Originally it is a Hebraism. -nv-be be sunk (87) called in struck (87) ==issued. Originally it meant to mint money. go behindhand (90) =:=be in debt, behindhand in arrear (with payments,etc.) (C. O. D.) make a stand (90) =='contribute to the stand table (97) ==a very concise information, a statement' ef particu- lars or detail}s in a concise form, so as to be exhibited at one view as in a broad side; a synopticai statement, (O. E. D.) lights (98) =pieces of informatiun or instruction under your hand (99) =if you write your account of yourself, under one's action, charge, care, er treatment. (O. E. D,) persuasion (108) ==religious belief, sect. (C. O, D.) keep one in countenance (119) =to save him from embarrassment by doing the s"me as he. (p. O. D.) professor (125) one who makes open profession of religion, (O. E. D.) -statement state (129) (Partly from state,v.t, O. E. D. now obsolete. upwttrd(s) of (139, 148) -m=more than (C. O. D.) -- L8 - NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College silver dollars (142> =:Spanish money, used in settlement days, peso of today. civil friendship (143)-:non-religious friendship. cf. civil mar riage which means the marriage not held at a church but repor- ted at the registral office) auditory (144) =Taudience, an assembly of hearers. assume (157) =appropriate, usurp, burgess (161) ==one elected to represent his fellow citizens in the Assembly. Franklin was elected member of the House of Burgesses. Burgess was originally the inhabitant of borough with full municipal rights, citizen. Member of parliament for borough. M. E. burgensis from burgus, from Germanic burgs ='borough. clear revenue (174) =='net income; clear==net draw on (176) :=make demads on . pay in hand (184) ==pay in advance. Iay in (187) =provide themselves with reduction en (206) =conquest forward (207) ===ready, prompt (often to do) (C. O. D.) cf. backwardness (186). manacling (214) ==restraining, hampering; manacle means hand- fetters,so manacling means fettering with manacles hence , restralnlng. sea-stores (215) =stores used at sea. heaving the log (212) =hauling in the log in order to take speed of a ship by the log. Iog=:apparatus used to measure and record the speed of a ship through the water, originally a piece of floatin.cr. wood attached to a knotted cord thrown out and reeled in at intervals. Grammar C. Grammar does net make so remarkable a change, as mentioned before, because, the structure of a language is rather statica], and not dynamic, and so there is not great changes different from the grammar of English of the previous days. However from very distant past days down to the present there is a great diffe- rence between the grammar of ancient days and that of the present -19- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College day. The days of Benjamin Franklin are not so distant from today, there is not much to be discussed as to grammar. Only a few points will be discussed below. i) Unnecessary the, In page 133, there is such an express{on as the Lcttin, the Greek, the French, but the here is not needed, unless in spe- `hana' cial case, for instance, What is the Japanese in Engiish? "Says C`I ii) Grammatical anomalies I," in pages 44, 150, 179, and weeps and hopes,'' in page 170 are really grammatical anomalies, and the illeterate or the foreign beginners of English use such anomalies but we often meet this kind of grammatical anomalies in the speech of English or American people, and it is said to be colloquical style. "Dey's a cullud man s4iorks in de hotel where I stops, what comes from Mobilc." O, Henry's Stories : The Duplicity of IIargraves. (The above passage means. There is a colored man who is working in the hotel where I stop, who comes from Mobile.) . In this connection I "Syntax." ``The wish to remind you of what Curme says in ]iis principle that the verb should agree with the subject is very often recognized in popular speech. Here in the present indicative the third person singular is used for all persons and both numbers, in accordance with the ten- dency to level away the inequalities within a category, provided disti- nctive form is not absolutei'y necessary to the thought: I says, you says, he says, we says." Syntax by Curme p, 52. iii) The verbs and others with thou, thy, and thee, "if "thee C`thec In thee wi]t" will not delay" (34,), (95), seems" "NVhy and thee not?': the (142) did (153), use of verbs and others is not consistent, These thee's are all to be thou, and the verbs or auxiHary verbs that follw them should all of them, be wilt, seemest, and didst, as our school graminar teaches us. In this connection Curme "In says, dialect thou likewise has a verb in the third person after it: `Thou's not acting right' (Stanley Houghton, Hindle Wakes, Act II.) This usage is eommon also in tlne language of Qual{ers." Syntax by Curme, ib, but Franklin was not a 9uaker. Curme then gives some quotaions. I think this is also the grammatical anmalies of those days. "The iV) The agrecmcnt of subject and verb different contrary rea- sons of dislike to my plan makes me suspect that it was really the -20- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College true medium. (176) This makes is the verb of reasons, and so it should be make but it may be an instance of attraction (attracted by `plan'.) the preceding noun v) prepositions. Going of errands (176) should be going on er- rands, purchase of (130) should be purchase -lf)'om, it is to bless to us even our affliction(5) should be it is to bless xvith us, exact on should be exact q.lr, contract a friendship for (54) should be contract a friendship with, vi) Flat adverb: near=nearly; scarce=scarcely. near, adv. Now nearly) D.) In near forty near 300 usu. expressed by , (S.O. (160), ten thousand near ferty (28),nearfifty(60),near (127), years near thousand near is similar to nearly. Franklin (160), twenty (197), scarecely uses nearly. In as near as might be done (64),near is "And equal to nearly. An example from another work. I related the scene in the ceurt, and as near as I dared, the whole subsequent dispute7' (Wuthering Heights p. 128, Kenkyusha Text.) We very often meet with flat adverbs in the works of modern writers. Here we have two examples of scarce whieh is really scarcely, together "Indeed, with another example of near as touched upon above. I scarce `Without ever heard or saw the introductory words, vanity I may say,' etc. but some vain thing immediately followed". (4) Besides, it scarce ever happens that a ship is form'd, fitted for the sea, and sailed by the same person." (223) "It vii) . Examples of needless conjunctions. was in allusion to this fact that, when in our fire company we forced the success of our proposal in favor of the lottery, and I had said to rny friend Mr. "when-E･-･･" Syng, one of our members,･･-･･} (154) In this sentence is "I a dependent clause, and the independent elause is had said-･･J･-", therefore the and before I had said is not necessary. The House approv'd the nomination, and provided the goods for the present, and tho they did not much like treating out of the pro- vinces; and we met the other commissioners at Albany about the middle of June. (175) Here the second and is not necessary, since tho they ･･････is a dependent clause and (the House) provided･--･･･is an inde- pendent clause. -21- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College "Among these, the principal was Mr Kinnersley, an ingenious neigh- bor, who, being out of business, I encouraged to undertake l'showing the experiments for money, and drew up for him two lectures, in which the experiments were rang"d in such order, and accompanied with such explanations in such method as that the foregoing should assist in comprehending the following." (203) Here as that is to be that. viii) No sooner･-････but (=than) . The ord{nary type of this phrase is, no sooner･--･･･than, but it is customary that after the negative bztt is used, and so the phrase, no sooner･-･J･･ but is to be looked upon as the combination of the two constructions, as fol]ews. I don't know for certain, but I suppose he is mistaken. No sooner had I reached home than it began raining, `C-･･the building of a house to meet in was no sooner propos'd, and persons appointed to receive contributions, but sufficient seems were soon receiv'd to procure the ground and errect the building, which was one hundred feet long and seventy broad, about the size of Westminster Hall." (140) ix) The object of a verb. The object of a verb is anoun ora noun equivalent, but some verbs do not take a gerund as its object. "promise" The verb is one instance of it. But Franklin has an example "promise `[-･･and of maklng" and others. seemd to promise making a good figure" (43) "Knowing I had money of Vernon's, he was continually borrowing of me, still promising payment as soon as he should be in business;' (44) "He left me then, promising to remit me the first money he should receive in order to discharge the debt; but I never heard of him after. (45) Here pTomising remitting would be absurd. x) An example of colloquia} expression, thi.'s m3, surprise. It is a colloquial style to say this my surprise. Franklin uses this "this form and at another plaee he uses its literary style purpose of "In his." conversation witli the bishop, Spangenberg, I mentioned this my purpose." (197) "･･･that I should certainly make a good scholar, encouraged him in this purpose of hisS' (10) -22- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College xi) False subjunctive form. Where subjunctive form is not needed,. it sometimes is used. The following is its example. "Imagining then a semicircle, of which my distance ' should be the radius, and that it were filled with auditors, each of whom I allow'd two square feet, I computed that he might well be heard by more than thirty thousand." (144) Here were should be was, a mere indicative verb. m B. Franklin and the Bible Being a moralist, and not a religionist, he has a few referenees to･ the Bible, which is rather a rare thing with a great man that he was. As he was a great reader and agreat self-made man he may well more references have to the Bible. But he does not. This may not be agreat thing but as it seemed to me strange, Imention it here- "It He says, will be remarked that, tho' my scheme was not wholly withoutt "I religion,･-･･･t" (120) and was put to the grammar schoor ･･t･･･,my intending father me to devote me, as the tithe of his sons ' to the service of the Church." (10) i)."Keimer wore his beard at full length, because somewhere in the "Thou Mosaic law it is said, shalt not nzar the corners of thy beard." "Ye .･･---･ Leviticusxix. (48) 27. shall not round the corners of your heads, neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard." "Keimer･･････long'd ii) . for the fleshpots of EgyptJ' (ib.) ････-･Exodus, xvi, "And 3. the children of Israel said unto them, Would to God we the had died by hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the fleshpots, and when we did eat bread to the full; for ye have brought us forth into this wilderness, to kill this whole assembly with hunger." "As iii) . Ianguage and expression what we had in view, we excludecl all considerations of invention by agreeing that the task should be a version of the eighteenth psalm, which describes the descent of a Deity." ･-･･･-Prof. "It (50) . Nishikawa gives the note, consists of a series of triumphant thanksgiving to God, with which the writer con- nects a highly figurative account of his deliverance from danger, an - 23 -- NII-Electronic Library Service YamanashiYamanashiEiwaCollege Eiwa College a of the victories he assertion of hisown uprightness, and des'cription 18 To the has won by God's assistanc:e, The Bible says thus, Psalm Lord, who spake chief NIusician, A Ps.lcwn of David, the servant of the the Lord deli- unto the Lord the words of the song in the day that and the hand of Saul: vered him from the hand of all hisenemies, from 50J･････" And he said, 1. I WILL love thee, O Lord,my strength････-･v. "it 'vain -･･･-- ''Oh," said she, is impossible to avoid thoecghts." iv) , "I do I love," psalm cxix, 113. hate vain thoughts: but thy law "･･････ ･･･J･･" ･+･･-･Mark, xii, 41. v) . my mite fer $Lich purpose, (108) `CAnd threw in two mites, there came a certain poor widow, and she which make a farthing.'' of the ehapter vi) ."At length he took for his text that verse fourth "I}"inallLy. bi'ethren, zvhatsoewer things ai-c trzte, honest, of philippians, , 't,irtue, be any oi` any j'ttst, Pure, lo･veL:yi, o7- of good raport, zf theinye Praise, think in these things.'' (109) frem the text of the As Professor Nishikaw'a says, this is different was the Authorized Versien of the Bible, and it is not clear what what text of the Bible Benjumin origin of this quotation. I c;annot tell Franklin used. "Another wisdom or vii) frorn the proverbs of Solornon, speaking of CLength hand riches virtue: of days is in right hand, and in her left and all are and honor". Her ways are aiways of pleasantness, her paths Versionof peace'" iii, 16, 17. This quotation is from the Authorized the Bible, only there is a difference of the punctuation. `f･･･the is to be referred to viii) apostle's man of verbal charity,･･････" L`If ancl destituteof James,ii, 15 and 16. a brother or sister be naked, Depart in be dailv food. And one of you say unto them, peace, yc them not those things war"med and fmed; iiotwithstanding ye give which are needful to the body; whfit doth it profit?"' (# ifi,･lvall-g･JeN#) -- - 24 NII-Electronic Library Service