Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Cedar-Yellow Point/ River Water Region (WR6-CYPNR)

Prepared for: Regional District of Nanaimo’s Drinking Water and Watershed Protection Program

Prepared by: Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region Research Institute

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

Acknowledgments

A special thank you is extended to Julie Pisani, Coordinator of the Drinking Water and Watershed Protection Program (DWWP) at the Regional District of Nanaimo (RDN), for her continual support and guidance throughout this project. We would also like to thank our team of advisors for this project including, University (VIU) Geography Department faculty member and RDN DWWP Technical Advisory Committee board member, Dr. Alan Gilchrist PhD PGeo., as well as VIU Earth Science Department faculty member, Dr. Jerome Lesemann PhD.

Another special thank you to former Project Coordinator of the Mid-Vancouver Island Habitat Enhancement Society (MVIHES) and lifelong active community member and environmental steward, Faye Smith Rosenblatt. Her recent passing has been a great sadness and we are exceedingly grateful for the care and contributions she made to this research project and to the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (MABR) as a whole. We would like to extend further thanks to Bernd Keller, member of MVIHES, for his continual support and collaboration with this project moving forward.

We continue to be thankful to the members of the public and property owners for welcoming our researchers on to their lands to conduct our research, as well as for engaging and showing interest in the purpose and longevity of this project.

Research Project Team

Wetland Project Coordinators Research Assistants Ashley Van Acken Michael Anderson Graham Sakaki Carson Anderson Kayla Harris Roxanne Croxall Jeffrey Fontaine Cassidy Funk Jessica Pyett GIS & Remote Sensing Specialists Curtis Rispin Ryan Frederickson Lauren Shaw Ariel Verhoeks Kidston Short

Brian Timmer

2 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction 7 2.0 Methods 8 – 10 2.1 Preliminary Research Steps 8 2.2 Field Steps 9 3.0 Regional Description 10 – 13 3.1 Physiography 10 3.2 Regional Geology 11 3.2.1 Bedrock Geology 11 3.2.2 Stratigraphic Framework 13 4.0 Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region Study Sites 14 – 23 4.1 Hemer Provincial Park 14 4.1.1 Surficial Materials of Hemer Provincial Park 14 4.1.2 WR6-CYPNR-01 Wetland Observations and Classification 14 4.1.3 WR6-CYPNR-02 Wetland Observations and Classification 16 4.2 Nanaimo River Regional Park 17 4.2.1 Surficial Materials of the Nanaimo River Regional Park 17 4.2.2 WR6-CYPNR-03 Wetland Observations and Classification 17 4.3 Richards Marsh Park 19 4.3.1 Surficial Materials of Richards Marsh Park 19 4.3.2 WR6-CYPNR-04 Wetland Observations and Classification 19 4.3.3 WR6-CYPNR-05 Wetland Observations and Classification 20 4.4 Wildwood Ecoforest 21 4.4.1 Surficial Materials of Wildwood Ecoforest 22 4.4.2 WR6-CYPNR-06 Wetland Observations and Classification 22 5.0 Discussion 23 –29 5.1 Hydrostratigraphy 23 5.2 Wetland Characteristics 25 5.2.1 Surrounding Land Uses and Hydrology 25 of WR6-CYPNR-01 & WR6-CYPNR-02 5.2.2 Surrounding Land Uses and Hydrology 20 of WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05 5.3 Recommendations 27

3 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

5.3.1 Cross-Sectional Analysis 27 5.3.2 Geophysical Surveys 28 5.3.3 Installation of Instrumentation 28 6.0 Conclusion 29 7.0 References 30-25

Appendix A: Summary of Wetland Classification and Aquifer Characteristics 33

Appendix B: Aquifers in the Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region 34-36

Appendix C: Aerial Photographs for WR6-CYPNR-01 & WR6-CYPNR-02 37-39

Appendix D: Aerial Photographs for WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05 40-44

4 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Wetland study site in Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region 8

Figure 2: Simplified Stratigraphic units of the Nanaimo Group 12

Figure 3: Quaternary Stratigraphic Framework for Vancouver Island 13

Figure 4: WR6-CYPNR-01 15

Figure 5: WR6-CYPNR-02 16

Figure 6: WR6-CYPNR-03 18

Figure 7: WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05 21

Figure 8: WR6-CYPNR-06 23

Figure 9: Example distribution of materials and their relationship to stratigraphy and hydrostratigraphy 25

5 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

Abstract Significant data gaps exist within the Regional District of Nanaimo (RDN) in regards to wetland locations, classifications, and the role they play in groundwater recharge. While there has been recent interest in freshwater resources within the RDN’s watersheds, there are relatively few studies that have inventoried wetlands and investigated their localized connection to groundwater systems. Our objectives in this study were to: 1) ground truth predictive mapping that showed the distribution of potential wetland sites in the RDN; 2) create an inventory of wetlands in the Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region based on their classification; 3) evaluate each site’s hydrogeological position to gain a better understanding of water storage, discharge, and potential flow pathways at each site; and 4) identify priority wetland sites for long-term monitoring and installation of instruments to identify potential hydraulic connections to groundwater systems. Researchers found that four of the six mapped wetlands in the region were classified as marsh ecosystems with secondary classifications unique to each site. All of the marsh wetlands were situated under past marine limits and had diffuse or central patches of water. These study sites were not situated near large fluvial systems and mantled Vashon Drift glaciomarine materials. Wetlands proximal to the Nanaimo River were located within Vashon Drift glaciofluvial and modern fluvial deposits. Two study sites were identified as potential priority sites within the Cedar- Yellow Point Water Region based on their size, surrounding land uses, hydrology, and ecology. By monitoring the health of these systems and investigating subsurface conditions through desktop analysis, geophysical surveys, and instrumentation, it should be possible to develop new management practices while also identifying any potential connections between surface water and groundwater systems. It should be noted that wetlands were mapped based on accessibility and proximity to vulnerable aquifer systems and that these findings may not be representative of all wetlands that exist across the entire water region. Overall, results from this study will provide a framework for understanding how localized wetland systems contribute to both local and regional freshwater systems, while also enhancing land use and planning decisions across the RDN.

6 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

1.0 Introduction

The Regional District of Nanaimo is located on the eastern coast of Vancouver Island, . Geographically, the RDN comprises an area that extends from the northern point of Deep Bay to the southern point of Cedar and includes Gabriola, Mudge, and DeCourcy Islands (Figure 1). There are four municipalities within the RDN that are home to over 140,000 people and include the City of Nanaimo, District of Lantzville, City of Parksville, and Town of Qualicum Beach. Seven major water basins divide this area and are referred to as water regions in this report and include: Big Qualicum, Little Qualicum, French Creek, Englishman River, South Wellington to Nanoose, and Cedar-Yellow Point/Nanaimo River (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). This document focuses on the southernmost basin, the Cedar-Yellow Point/Nanaimo River Water Region (WR6 or WR6-CYPNR). WR6 is split into two distinct sections, as it is the largest water region within the RDN. Watershed boundaries extend from the Nanaimo River Estuary to the headwaters of the Nanaimo River catchment. WR6 encompasses an area of 939 km2 and extends south, beyond the RDN boundary to coincide with the watersheds full drainage basin (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). This report will discuss wetlands mapped in WR6 and connect field observations with literature to better understand the impacts of surrounding land uses and potential connections between surface water and groundwater flow systems. To accomplish this, our report will highlight mapping methodology, physical geography, ecology, and regional geology of each wetland with a focus on hydrology and surrounding land uses. Developing baseline data on the ecological and geological relationships within wetlands will be crucial when trying to understand local impacts on ecology, as well as hydrological processes associated with groundwater recharge.

7 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

Figure 1: Wetland Study Sites in Cedar-Yellow Point Water Region Sources: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; water region boundaries obtained by the Regional District of Nanaimo; wetland site data collected in the field; map developed by MABRRI.

2.0 Methods 2.1 Preliminary Research Steps Prior to mapping a wetland in the field, the following preliminary research steps were taken: 1. Review predictive wetland maps that were created using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing based on existing data from Ducks Unlimited Workflow that combines the Government of British Columbia’s Sensitive Ecosystem Inventory (SEI), Pacific Estuary Conservation Program (PECP) polygons, and the Fresh Water Atlas (FWA) to determine the location and predictive classification of each site.

2. Determine which water region each wetland is located in using GIS software, specifically ArcMap 10.5, and associated RDN Water Region layers (RDN, 2018).

3. Determine proximal aquifers, including their classification number, type, level of demand, productivity, and vulnerability. This was completed using GIS software and

8 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

associated groundwater layers provided by the Government of British Columbia’s Ministry of Environment (n.d.).

4. Review topographic maps, surficial deposit maps, well drilling data, satellite imagery, and GIS data to establish drainage basins, as well as localized inflows and outflows at wetland sites to provide an aerial perspective of the physical traits of each wetland.

5. Review satellite imagery to determine adjacent land uses to each wetland site.

6. Review parcel identification numbers provided by the RDN to determine property ownership in order to determine accessibility to wetland sites.

7. Create field maps of each wetland site with a determined scale and Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system.

8. Determine points of access on field map and potential wetland boundaries prior to visiting each site.

Once the preliminary research was completed and permission had been granted from property owners allowing researchers access to their land, the team would conduct sfieldwork to map and classify each site. Field methods and standards were adopted from the British Columbian Wildlife Federation’s (BCWF) WetlandKeeper’s long form survey.

2.2 Field Steps When entering the field, the following steps were taken to ensure data was accurately recorded:

1. Data recorded on the BCWF wetland long form survey includes: current weather, wetland coordinates, wetland size and dimensions, site classification, functionality, dominant adjacent land use, hydrology, surrounding vegetation, surficial deposit composition, impacts or disturbances, wetland management, photographs, wetland sketches, vegetation transect surveys with quadrats, and soil observations taken from samples that were collected using a 30 cm auger. The number of transects completed at each site varied based on the complexity of vegetation at each system; the more complicated sites had an increased number of transect lines to ensure vegetation data was representative. Along transect lines, quadrats were placed in the middle of each wetland zone to identify shrubs, herbs, and tree cover.

9 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

2. Identify sites where bedrock or surficial deposits are exposed and record compositional characteristics to understand how water may infiltrate groundwater. Researchers would also attempt to conceptualize if and where seepage may be occurring at localized sites. This was done using surficial geology maps created by Jan Bednarski (2015).

3. Ground truth where inflows and outflows may be at each wetland site and record waypoints at these locations using GPS units.

4. Record a GPS track of the wetland’s perimeter, which can be compared to Ducks Unlimited data and predictive mapping (2016) to interpret any observable changes in wetland shape and size. In some cases, the lines of the perimeter were later smoothed in the office using GIS software to allow for a more representative track that follows the wetland boundary between vegetation zones. The wetland dimensions were also measured by using both the perimeter data and GIS software.

3.0 Regional Description

3.1 Physiography

The Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region is a low relief coastal plain bound by the Vancouver Island Range to the west and the (Georgia Depression) to the east (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). The area is characterized by hummocky and hilly topography that reflects past geologic processes. WR6 contains a total of 10 watersheds and sub-watersheds, with the Nanaimo River being the largest (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). As previously discussed, the southern edge of the water region extends south into the Cowichan Valley Regional District, to include Haslam Creek (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). Upland areas of the water region are made up of private forest lands, whereas the lower sections consist of rural development and agricultural land. The region extends from the Nanaimo River Estuary at sea level up to the summits of Mount El Capitan (1,537 m) (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). The BC River Forecast Centre operates a snow pillow in Jump Creek at an elevation of 1,134 m and has recorded significant snowpack accumulations within these higher elevation areas of the water region (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). One Environment Canada weather station is located at the Nanaimo airport and had recorded an average total annual precipitation of 1,162.7 mm from 1971-2000 (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). As a result of the variable climate conditions, there are four different biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification (BEC) zones present within WR6, including: Coastal Douglas-fir (subzone: moist maritime [CDF mm]), Coastal Western Hemlock (subzones: very dry

10 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

maritime [CWH xm1] and moist maritime [CWH mm2]), Mountain Hemlock (subzone: moist maritime [MH mm]), and Coastal Mountain-Heather Alpine (CMH) (Meidinger & Pojar, 1991). These BEC zones encompass ecosystems with uniform microclimates, vegetation, and soils (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004). These environmental characteristics often control how surface and groundwater systems are able to interact. Furthermore, understanding these interactions is critical as the communities of Cassidy, Cedar, and Yellow Point rely predominantly on groundwater resources to meet their consumptive demands (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013).

3.2 Regional Geology

3.2.1 Bedrock Geology

Vancouver Island is a crustal segment of the Wrangellia Terrane, part of the larger Insular Belt that accreted onto the east coast of British Columbia in the Cretaceous Period (~100 Ma) (Bednarski, 2015). The formation of Vancouver Island began in the Devonian Period (~380 Ma) with deep oceanic volcanism forming the oldest Sicker Group rock formation (Yorath, 2005). Layers of limestone accumulated overtop during the Carboniferous/Permian Periods (~245 Ma). The most prominent formation, Karmutsen basalt, intruded through these basement layers in the Triassic Period (~230 Ma) and was once again covered by shallow marine limestone formations. Volcanism governed the Jurassic Period (~200 Ma) and was followed by the intrusion of granitic plutons that account for much of Vancouver Island’s large mountain ranges today (Yorath, 2005). Following the accretion event, high rates of weathering and sedimentation caused the formation of the Nanaimo Group sedimentary rocks (~85-65 Ma). The units of the Nanaimo Group were deformed by post depositional strike-slip and thrust compression (Yorath, 2005). These deformation events made it possible for the east/northeast dipping beds of lower stratigraphic position to outcrop at the surface within the WR6 (Hamblin & McCartney, 2014). The Nanaimo Group rocks are subdivided into 11 formations that were deposited between North America and Wrangellia (Bednarski, 2015). They were formed by fluvial processes and deposited as a sedimentary gradation of conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and coal (Bednarski, 2015). Within our study area, exposed Nanaimo Group bedrock units are conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and coal (Figure 2). The

11 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report:

Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region

Nanaimo Group predominantly underlies the area under study and is pertinent to the study of wetlands in these water regions.

Figure 2: Simplified Stratigraphic units of the Nanaimo Group (Hamblin & McCartney, 2014)

12 | P a g e

3.2.2 Stratigraphic Framework

Low lying areas of eastern Vancouver Island are covered in unconsolidated materials that reflect past environmental conditions. These sediments vary in their lithology, thickness, and extent (Bednarski, 2015). Depth varies locally, from thick blankets of unconsolidated material to sparse, discontinuous packages that expose bedrock at the surface (Bednarski, 2015). Stratigraphic packages were deposited by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet (CIS) and are characteristic of glacial processes including reworking and erosion (Bednarski, 2015). Any prior unconsolidated materials were generally eroded by the last glaciation, marking a discontinuity in the geological record. Many of the medium-course grained sand and gravel layers act as productive aquifers for this region of Vancouver Island (Bednarski, 2015). In WR6, the majority of water is stored in bedrock aquifers, with smaller pockets found in sand and gravel sediments (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013). Understanding the extent and thickness of unconsolidated materials is essential for mapping potential groundwater recharge zones. The lithostratigraphic deposits found in the Nanaimo lowlands include Salish Sediments, Capilano Sediments, Vashon Drift, Quadra Sand, Cowichan Head Formation, and Dashwood drift (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Quaternary stratigraphic framework for Vancouver Island (Bednarski, 2015)

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

4.0 Cedar-Yellow Point & Nanaimo River Water Region Study Sites

4.1 Hemer Provincial Park

Hemer Provincial Park is located within the Cassidy Electoral Area ‘A’ and contains two wetlands study sites. The wetlands are located within an area of gentle to moderately rolling slopes and depressions. Hemer Provincial Park consists of 93 ha of forests and cultivated lands in the southeast region of Nanaimo (Government of BC, n.d.). Study sites within Hemer Provincial Park are located in the CDF mm BEC subzone and are situated above bedrock aquifer 162 (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004); (GW Solutions, 2017). Aquifer 162 is considered to be highly vulnerable due to an unknown level of confinement within the region (GW Solutions, 2017). Further concerns pertain to increased groundwater withdrawals from residential and industrial users (GW Solutions, 2017). Data collected from GW Solutions (2017) suggests aquifer 162 experiences moderate to high demands and has low productivity. There have been multiple cases of wells running dry in the late summer to early fall and as a result, several wells have been drilled to a further depth (Waterline Resources Inc., 2013).

4.1.1 Surficial Materials of Hemer Provincial Park

Surficial materials surrounding the Provincial Park consist largely of glaciomarine deposits that are made up of silt, sand, and minor gravel (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). In other regions similar to WR6, glaciomarine deposits are recorded to range in thickness from 0 to 10 m (Bednarski, 2015). Data collected from wells 55465, 110347, and 14298 illustrate a similar distribution of materials and support the findings of Bednarski (2015). Well 55465, located proximal to study site WR6-CYPNR-01, penetrated a 0.45m layer of clay before contacting sandstone bedrock that was recorded to be water bearing (Government of BC, n.d.). Similarly, well 110347 contacted bedrock 2 m below surficial deposits whereas well 14298 encountered bedrock at the surface with no recorded sediment layer (Government of BC, n.d.) During field visits to Hemer Provincial Park, researchers observed minor amounts of sand and gravel but did not identify any bedrock outcrops.

4.1.2 WR6-CYPNR-01 Wetland Observations & Classification

WR6-CYPNR-01 was mapped on May 17th, 2018 and is situated approximately 13 m above sea level within the boundaries of Hemer Provincial Park. The Provincial Park has an extensive recreational trail network within, while residential development and agricultural activities occur outside of its boundaries. The 2.8 ha wetland is 190 m long and 148 m wide on average, which was approximated using GIS software (Figure 4). The study site appeared to be functioning and was situated on the edge of a shallow water body. Researchers classified the system as a dominant marsh with two secondary

14 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

classifications including forested swamp along the outer edges and low bench flood in areas closest to the tributary. The dominant flora species observed within the wetland were dense Baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa) and common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) that transitioned into a zone of dense common reed (Phragmites australis) and invasive yellow flag-iris (Iris pseudacorus). The edges of the shallow water wetland contained both common reed and yellow flag-iris as the area was shallowly flooded. Forested swamp sections contained hardhack (Spiraea douglasii), western red-cedar (Thuja plicata), and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). The transition zones within the wetland and surrounding areas were distinguished by changes in soil, water availability, and vegetation. Adjacent to the wetland study site is a fish-bearing stream that flows northward through into the central body of water. The stream was clear and colourless; it had a pH of 5.5 and a temperature of 18° C. Researchers collected two soil samples at the study site to better understand the distribution of sediments. The first sample taken at the edge of the wetland and contained moderately decomposed organics mixed with silt, sand, and clay. The second sample was taken adjacent to the streambed, and contained coarse sand and silt. Soils from the second sample had moderate to strong decomposition with plant structures becoming indistinct. Other parameters and data from the study site can be viewed in Appendix A (Table 1).

Figure 4: WR6-CYPNR-01 Sources: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; wetland perimeter data obtained from Ducks Unlimited Workflow; map developed by MABRRI.

15 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

4.1.3 WR6-CYPNR-02 Wetland Observations & Classification

The second site at Hemer Provincial Park, WR6-CYPNR-02, was mapped on May 25th, 2018 and is situated approximately 28 m above sea level. The site is adjacent to recreational trails within the Provincial Park. Rural residential development and agricultural lands were identified through air photo analysis and are situated outside park boundaries. The wetland area is approximately 1.6 ha, with a length of 331 m and a width of 49 m, which was approximated using ArcMap software (Figure 5). The study site appeared to be functioning and was situated in a shallow basin. Researchers classified the system as a dominant marsh with a secondary forested swamp classification. Dominant species observed within the marsh zone of the wetland included common duckweed (Lemna minor), simple-stemmed bur-reed (Sparganium emersum), and common waterweed (Persicaria amphibia). The forested swamp area consisted of ferns, herbs, and mosses. Major tree species in the forested swamp section included western red-cedar and red alder (Alnus rubra). During the site visit there was no evidence of inflows or outflows; however, it appeared that the southernmost end of the wetland was connected topographically to an old streambed. The pH and water temperature were collected within water patches and was measured to be 5.7 and 17°C, respectively. Two soil samples were collected along transect lines, one on the outer edge of the wetland and the other in the forested swamp. Soils in the forested swamp consisted of clay and silt that had dark brown organics at the surface. The second soil sample consisted of dark silty organic materials with some visible plant matter.

Figure 5: WR6-CYPNR-02 Sources: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; wetland perimeter data obtained from Ducks Unlimited Workflow; map developed by MABRRI.

16 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

4.2 Nanaimo River Regional Park

Nanaimo River Regional Park (NRRP) is located in Cedar, BC and contains one wetland site of interest. The study area is leased and managed as a nature park by the RDN but is owned by the Land Conservancy of British Columbia (RDN, 2018). The park is used for passive or light recreation such as horseback riding, hiking, swimming, and trail walking. Other dominant surrounding land uses include agriculture, rural residential lands, and industry. The NRRP is located within the CDF mm BEC subzone and was chosen due to its unique location along the Nanaimo River. It should be noted that NRRP is located above sand and gravel aquifer 161 and bedrock aquifer 165 (Appendix B, Figures 10 and 12). Aquifer 161 is considered to be unconfined and at risk to surface contamination (GW Solutions, 2017). In contrast, aquifer 165 is situated within bedrock of the Nanaimo Group and has moderate demand, low productivity, and moderate vulnerability to contamination from surface sources (GW Solutions, 2017).

4.2.1 Surficial Materials of Nanaimo River Regional Park

The Nanaimo River Regional Park has varying unconsolidated materials that were deposited by glaciation and deglaciation processes (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). Sediments proximal to the Nanaimo River are significantly different than other areas in WR6 because they consist of modified glaciofluvial materials that have been redistributed by active fluvial processes. Drilling data from four nearby wells (3373, 3374, 3368, and 49921) show fairly consistent distribution of materials from the surface into the subsurface. Sand and gravel units are present anywhere from 0 m to 27 m, followed by alternating layers of clay between 27 m to 38 m, and cemented gravel from 38 m to 40 m (Ministry of Environment, n.d). Areas further away from the river have materials that reflect old flood plain environments, as sediments largely consist of fine sand, clay, and silt (Ministry of Environment, n.d.). Field observations were similar to data that was collected through literature analysis. Although no bedrock outcrops were observed at the study site, extensive gravel and boulders were seen when entering the area.

4.2.2 WR6-CYPNR-03 Wetland Observations & Classification

WR6-CYPNR-03 was mapped on May 22nd, 2018 and is situated approximately 15 m above sea level within the NRRP. On average, the wetland was 212 m long and 45 m wide, which was estimated using GIS software (Figure 6). Researchers classified the wetland as a dominant low bench flood in a fluvial hydrogeomorphic position. Low bench ecosystems occur on sites that are flooded for moderate periods of the growing season. As a result, conditions limit the canopy to tall shrubs, such as willow and alder species, which were observed in the outer areas of the site. Dominant flora species within the wetland included Sitka willow (Salix sitchensis), dunegrass (Elymus mollis), slough sedge (Carex

17 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

obnupta), hardhack, and sweetgale (Myrica gale). The outer edges of the wetland, on the stream bank, were dominated by woody shrub species while grasses and sedges dominated the shallow water zone of the wetland. Notably, invasive Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) and common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) were identified adjacent to the study site. Surficial materials observed on site consisted of course boulders and gravel with interstitial medium-grained sand. Due to the dominant presence of boulders and gravel, a soil sample was not collected at this wetland. On-site clarity of water was clear within the wetland and was yellow-brown in colour. Central water sections had a pH of 6 and a temperature of 23°C. Overall, the wetland appeared to be functioning with some risks associated to invasive species.

Figure 6: WR6-CYPNR-03 Sources: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; wetland perimeter data obtained from Ducks Unlimited Workflow; map developed by MABRRI.

18 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

4.3 Richards Marsh Park Richards Marsh Park is located in the City of Nanaimo and is surrounded by dense suburban residential development, recreation and agriculture. The property is jointly owned by private land owners and the City of Nanaimo. Wetland surveys were conducted in two different sections of the study site to ensure data collected was representative of the entire system (Figure 7). Wetland study sites were situated at the base of a shallow valley, in a low-lying depression that was observed to receive water from several municipal storm drains. In general, the area is characterized by hummocky and hilly topography that is a reflection of localized geologic processes. Study sites were located within the CDF mm BEC subzone (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004) and are not situated above any mapped aquifers. It should be noted that the system is situated adjacent to aquifer 165 therefore proximal aquifer characteristics should still be considered. Aquifer 165 is situated in bedrock of the Nanaimo Group and experienced moderate demand from local users (GW Solutions, 2017). Currently, there is not enough data to distinguish whether the system is confined or unconfined, as unconsolidated materials in the region have variable thickness and extent (GW Solutions, 2017).

4.3.1 Surficial Materials of Richards Marsh Park

Similar to the NRRP, the study site has varying unconsolidated materials that were deposited by glaciation and deglaciation processes (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). Richards Marsh Park is not located proximal to the Nanaimo River, therefore sediments that overlay bedrock units significantly vary in terms of their lithology. The area has undergone a series of glacial advancement and retreat, and during those intervals sea level has significantly fluctuated. Episodes of high sea level contributed to deposition of glaciomarine sediments that include silt, sand, and minor gravel (Bednarski, 2015). These units have variable thickness and distribution, ranging from 0 m to 10 m (Bednarski, 2015). Drilling data from two nearby wells, 57913 and 96586, illustrate that overburden thickness and extent varies significantly within the study area (Government of BC, n.d.). Drilling data collected from well 57913 recorded 11 m of overlying sediments prior to contacting bedrock (Government of BC, n.d.). In contrast, drilling records from well 96586 only contained 0.5 m of overburden prior to contacting sandstone bedrock (Government of BC, n.d.). Although no bedrock or sediment outcrops were observed at the study site, researchers identified sand, silt and clay upon along wetland edges. Further in field research would need to be conducted to better understand localized sediment distribution.

4.3.2 WR6-CYPNR-04 Wetland Observations & Classification Wetland WR6-CYPNR-04 was mapped on June 8th, 2018 and was situated approximately 20 m above sea level. The wetland system is approximately 16 ha in size, 1,417 m long and 114 m wide on

19 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

average, as was approximated using GIS software. Researchers classified the wetland was a dominant marsh with secondary swamp and shallow water zones. Outer sections of the site were densely populated with red alder, western red-cedar, and woody shrub species like hardhack. The dominant species within the marsh area included sedges, grasses, red fescue (Festuca rubra), cattail (Typha latifolia), buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), and common horsetail. The central area of the wetland held deep water with various floating aquatic species, such a yellow pond lily (Naphar lutea). Water levels in central water sections were too deep for researchers to access, therefore additional vegetation observations were taken from the wetland shoreline. The marsh regions contained diffuse shallow water pockets filled with clear, yellow-brown water. Water temperatures were recorded as 16°C and pH was 7.1. Two soil samples were collected and contained fibrous organics that transitioned into a layer of sand, silt and clay. Marine shells were also observed with sediment samples, which support literature suggesting past interglacial conditions (Bednarski, 2015). The wetland appears to be a natural system, however it appears that the site has undergone modifications for construction and flood control. The system had multiple culvert inflows running into the site from surrounding developments. Further data would need to be obtained from the City of Nanaimo in order to determine all inflows and outflows within the study site. Overall, the system appeared to be a functioning wetland that may be at risk of pollution due to surrounding land uses.

4.3.3 WR6-CYPNR-05 Wetland Observations & Classification WR6-CYPNR-05 was mapped on June 27th, 2018 along the eastern park boundary of Richards Marsh Park. The wetland was mapped in a second location for the purpose of ensuring thorough representation of vegetation species and wetland characteristics. Further observation and mapping of the southeast border (Figure 7) confirmed the site classification of WR6-CYPNR-04. Researchers classified the system as a dominant marsh with secondary swamp and shallow water characteristics. Dominant species observed along transects included cattail, common velvet grass (Holcus lanatus), red alder, common duckweed, reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), hardhack, and common mare’s tail (Hippuris vulgris). Along the outer banks of the wetland, invasive Himalayan blackberry dominated the understory while common tansy was observed around trail edges. Two hydrological tests were conducted to quantify the pH and overall temperature, which were 6.2 and 14°C, respectively. The on-site clarity of the water was clear and yellow-brown in colour. Two soil samples were taken at the wetland and consisted of 0.5 cm of red organic soil, followed by a 7 cm layer of brown rich organic mud that contained sand, clay and silt. The second soil sample had a similar profile with organics from 0 cm to 3 cm followed by a layer of silty sand. The system appeared to be functioning but at risk from pollution from surrounding land uses.

20 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 7: WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05

Sources: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; wetland perimeter data obtained from Ducks Unlimited Workflow; map developed by MABRRI.

4.4 Wildwood Ecoforest

Wildwood Ecoforest is located in Cassidy, BC along the banks of Quennell Lake. The 31 ha parcel is owned and managed by the Ecoforestry Institute Society (EIS) that sustainably manages the forests on the property by preserving complete ecosystems while harvesting forest products (Ecoforestry Institute Society, 2016). Wildwood is located within the CDF mm BEC subzone and contained one wetland of interest, WR6-CYPNR-06. Wildwood had several wetlands on the property, all of which differ significantly based on their location and species composition.

4.4.1 Surficial Materials of Wildwood Ecoforest

Surficial materials surrounding Quennell Lake were interpreted to be similar to the rest of the region as there was limited literature available for review. Based on studies conducted by Bednarski

21 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

(2015) the majority of the region has undergone similar environmental processes during the last 10,000 years (see section 4.1). Drilling records from wells surrounding the wetland study site at Wildwood Ecoforest (wells 114660, 65255, 67383, 96320, and 63576) encounter bedrock at or near the surface, with surface till depths ranging from just 0 m to 1.8 m (Government of BC, n.d.). Bedrock was identified as both shale and sandstone units that extend over 73 m into the subsurface (Government of BC, n.d.). Further surficial geology mapping would need to occur to better quantify the distribution of sediments in the Wildwood Ecoforest.

4.4.2 WR6-CYPNR-06 Wetland Observations & Classification

WR6-CYPNR-06 was approximately 0.55 ha in size and situated 37 m above sea level (Figure 8). Wetland dimensions are 71 m long and 59 m wide, on average as approximated using GIS software. The dominant surrounding land uses of the site include forestry, recreation, agriculture, and rural residential development. Researchers classified the study site as a dominant swamp wetland as it contained dense sections of hardhack. WR6-CYPNR-06 was also classified as a secondary marsh due to its abundance of red alder, bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), common rush (Juncus effuses), creeping buttercup (Ranunculus repens), and menzies’ tree moss (Leucolepis acanhoneuron). Soil samples contained well- decomposed organic soils that transitioned into a layer of sand, silt and clay. Water parameters were measured along the edge of the lake, which had a temperature of 14°C and a pH of 5.5. The on-site clarity of the water was clear and yellow-brown in colour. The wetland was observed to be functioning but at risk from increased spread of invasive yellow flag-iris that is present along the shoreline of the lake.

22 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 8: WR6-CYPNR-06

Source: Imagery obtained from Esri’s online basemap database; wetland perimeter data obtained from Ducks Unlimited Workflow; map developed by MABRRI.

5.0 Discussion 5.1 Hydrostratigraphy

Hydrostratigraphy is the identification of mappable bedrock or unconsolidated materials on the basis that they have a set of hydraulic properties that allow them to behave like an aquifer or aquitard (University of Saskatchewan, 2014). These units have considerable lateral extent and also form a geologic framework for a distinct hydrogeologic system (University of Saskatchewan, 2014). Understanding the distribution of surficial materials and local bedrock units is critical when trying to understand the flow of surface water and groundwater systems.

As discussed in Section 3.2, WR6 has undergone a series of climatic changes. As a result, environmental shifts have created complex local hydrologic and hydrogeologic systems across the RDN. Surficial deposits in WR6 reflect the glacial and postglacial processes that took place during the Quaternary period (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). In most places, glaciers that overrode the area contributed to eroding rock surfaces and development of longitudinal valleys (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). However, much of the area was mantled with unconsolidated materials during glacial retreat, as sea level was significantly higher than present levels (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963).

23 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Areas below the marine limit, situated further away from active fluvial systems, were mantled with marine and glaciomarine deposits that are known to act as local aquitards as they have reduced porosity, permeability, and hydraulic conductivity (Bednarski, 2015); (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Glaciomarine deposits have been known to vary in extent and thickness regionally, allowing bedrock to be exposed at the surface in many areas (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963). Sediments proximal to active fluvial systems were significantly different than the rest of the study area. The fluvial and glaciofluvial sediments that dominated areas adjacent to major river courses are known to have high porosity, permeability, and hydraulic conductivity properties which will be discussed in section 5.2.1 (Geological Survey of Canada, 1963); (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Figure 9 illustrates a simplified distribution of sediments and how their stratigraphy, lithology, and hydrostratigraphy are related; Nanaimo Group bedrock units are labeled as aquitard units based on the understanding that lithified bedrock typically has low permeability and porosity (Freeze & Cherry, 1979).

The main bedrock formations (Fm) observed in the area are of Nanaimo Group origin as discussed in section 3.2. These units have been exposed at the surface as a result of tilting, faulting, and folding from accretionary processes (Hamblin & McCartnery, 2014). These deformation events have led to extensive fracturing of all major bedrock units allowing for a dramatic increase in fracture porosity, permeability, aperture size, hydraulic conductivity, and transmissivity (Hamblin & McCartnery, 2014). These fractures have allowed relatively impermeable bedrock units to have moderate to high aquifer potential (Hamblin & McCartnery, 2014); (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Overall, bedrock and sediment outcrops were not prominent at localized wetland study sites but both play an integral role in controlling localized surface and groundwater interactions. In many regions of WR6, the connection between bedrock and unconsolidated aquifers units is not well understood, including in the area of this study. Moving forward, further investigations will need to be pursued at a localized scale.

24 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 9: Example distribution of materials and their relationship to stratigraphy and hydrostratigraphy

5.2 Wetland Characteristics Marshes, swamps and low bench flood wetlands were the distinct systems identified within WR6. Four of the six study sites were classified as dominant marsh systems with secondary classifications that were specific to each site. MacKenzie and Moran (2004) characterize marshes as shallowly flooded areas that have extensive emergent grass-like vegetation. These wetland systems typically experience fluctuating water table levels throughout the year (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004). Substrate within marsh systems becomes exposed late in the season or during dry seasons (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004). Wetland study sites WR6-CYPNR-01, WR6-CYPNR-02, WR6-CYPNR-04, and WR6-CYPNR-05 were classified as dominant marsh wetland systems, with emergent vegetation present in shallowly flooded areas. In contrast, study site WR6-CYPNR-06 was classified as a dominant swamp with secondary forested swamp characteristics systems based on MacKenzie and Moran’s (2004) definition which suggests that there are two types of swamps: one that is characterized by a tall shrub physiognomy and the other forested with indicator species (MacKenzie & Moran, 2004). Lastly, study site WR6-CYPNR-03 was classified as a low bench flood wetland system based on MacKenzie and Moran’s (2004) definition that was discussed in section 4.2.1.

25 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

5.2.1 Surrounding Land Uses and Hydrology of WR6-CYPNR-01 & WR6-CYPNR-02

During field visits to Hemer Provincial Park, it was observed that study sites WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02 had unique ecological and hydrological characteristics. These sites were identified as potential priority sites based on their observed ecology (flora and fauna), abundance of invasive species, as well as size, and surrounding land uses. Both WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02 were adjacent to open bodies of water as well as active stream systems. During the field visit, researchers observed juvenile fish within the stream of study site WR6-CYPNR-01, suggesting the wetland and central water body may be critical fish bearing habitat. Although fish were not observed within WR6- CYPNR-02, researchers believe both systems may play a role in providing critical habitat to juvenile fish species.

Based on the distribution of water in each wetland, researchers conducted air photo analyses to better understand how water levels behave seasonally. Water within each system appeared to be present year-round, with limited water level fluctuations (Appendix C, Figures 13-18). Reduced water fluctuations likely reflect the existing composition of unconsolidated materials within the study area. Soil samples collected during fieldwork contained extensive amounts of clay and silt. These materials have distinct properties that control how water is able to flow between multiple systems, which is called hydraulic conductivity (K). Glaciomarine (clay and silt) sediments are known to have poor hydraulic conductivity therefore act as impermeable layers that limit water’s ability to flow through different units (Figure 9) (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). Although water levels appear stable throughout the year, it is not well understood if this is a result of surficial materials present or water table levels. In order to identify any relationship between surface water and groundwater complexes, these two sites should be prioritized and additional subsurface investigations will need to be conducted to better understand local hydrology.

5.2.2 Surrounding Land Uses and Hydrology of WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05

During field visits to Richards Marsh Park, WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, it was observed that the site had unique ecological and hydrological characteristics that may be indicative of local and regional land uses, hydrology, and management. Richards Marsh Park was classified as a potential priority site due its hydrology, location, and size (16 ha) within a highly developed area of Nanaimo. Water was concentrated within central sections of Richards Marsh as well as in diffuse patches along the edges of the system, proximal to culverts. Based on in field observations of the study site, researchers conducted air photo analyses to better understand how the system has changed through time. Air photos from 1975 to 2017 show significant changes in wetland size, water availability, and vegetation following residential development (Appendix D, Figures 19-27). The study site likely experiences

26 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

seasonal water deficits as a result of reduced runoff and low water table levels. In order to quantify the relationship between surface water and culvert inflows, additional data must be obtained from the City of Nanaimo in order to determine all inflows and outflows within the study site. Pollution from runoff and illegal dumping appeared to be a significant threat to the wetland as well as the presence of invasive species (red fescue, Himalayan blackberry, and common tansy).

5.3 Recommendations

The purpose of the study was to map and classify wetland systems across the Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region, while highlighting various parameters that can affect the relationship between surface and groundwater systems. In order to move forward with developing an accurate understanding of wetlands and their connection to groundwater systems, it will be necessary to conduct further desktop analysis and field research. Further research may include, but is not limited to, further data compilation to understand culvert locations, cross-sectional analysis, well observation analysis, geophysical surveys, and installation of data loggers. Data collected through these methods would enhance our understanding of localized water level fluctuations. Further research and analysis will also need to be conducted to understand the functionality of particular wetlands and how surrounding land uses affect these systems.

5.3.1 Cross-Sectional Analysis

To date, field visits have been undertaken to gain an initial understanding of wetland classifications, potential sediment and bedrock types, and local topography within the Cedar-Yellow Point Water Region. In order to determine subsurface geology at a local scale, further research will need to be conducted using well locations and tag numbers in the area. By using well tag numbers, researchers will be able to retrieve detailed descriptions of the selected wells from the Government of BC’s (n.d.) WELLs database. Well records show the distribution of materials that were encountered during drilling. Moving forward, researchers will need to draw multiple cross-section lines across each prioritized study site to best capture the subsurface variability. By using wells located proximal to cross-section lines, researchers will be able to draw both stratigraphic and hydrostratigraphic cross-sections of the area, which would capture a snapshot of the geologic setting. More specifically, cross section would show surficial deposits, bedrock, as well as aquifer, aquiclude, and aquitard potential. Qualitative findings will make it possible for researchers to develop a working stratigraphic and hydrostratigraphic interpretation of each study site that can be used to hypothesize where water may be infiltrating the subsurface. It is these qualitative findings and hypotheses that will lead to further investigations to quantify groundwater recharge.

27 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

5.3.2 Geophysical Surveys

Geophysics is an interdisciplinary physical science that applies the knowledge and techniques of physics, mathematics, and chemistry to understand the structure, subsurface, and dynamic behavior of the earth and environment (Reddy, 2017). Geophysical techniques will be a tool that researchers can use to better understand the distribution of surficial materials within specific study sites in WR1. There are three potential geophysical techniques that can be used to understand subsurface materials: ground-penetrating radar (GPR), seismic refraction, and electrical resistivity (RSK, n.d.). Each of these methods require the establishment of survey lines. Survey line locations will be determined based on surficial deposits, proximity to surface water, and the ability to run a straight line in a safe manner. GPR data can be used to determine the location of the water table within upper unconfined aquifer units that may be present. These techniques can be used to determine aquifer saturated thickness and extent. In contrast, seismic refraction can be used to determine the structure of the subsurface, including the location and extent of sediment aquifers, clay aquicludes, and any present bedrock aquitards (Zelt et al., 2006). Furthermore, electrical resistivity can be used to determine the presence of water in sediment aquifers and is beneficial when assessing any regions that have confining layers situated above and below stacked aquifers (Collins et al., 2013). Although subsurface geophysical techniques cannot replace test drilling to understand surficial deposit distributions, they may lead to a better interpretation of stratigraphic units within a localized context. This knowledge can contribute to understanding how water is able to flow from the surface into the subsurface. It should be mentioned that test drilling is not a current recommendation due to budget constraints.

5.3.3 Installation of Instrumentation

The study of groundwater involves many complex disciplines and principles and is considered to be a quantitative science (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). For this reason, it is critical to install instrumentation to better understand qualitative data that has been collected by researchers. Wetland sites have been prioritized based on their geologic frameworks, proximity to vulnerable aquifers, potential for surficial deposits to have high hydraulic conductivity values, and overall position within regional groundwater flow systems. In order to understand the amount of water entering and exiting each study site, researchers will need to create a localized water budget. Water budgets account for the inputs, outputs, and changes in the amount of water by breaking the water cycle down into components (USGS, 2007). Researchers will need to start by installing simplistic weather stations to gather basic information regarding annual precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, wind speed, wind direction, and elevation. It will also be necessary to install level loggers at these sites to monitor water level fluctuations over time. Data collected from level loggers will be compared against water table fluctuations from nearby observation

28 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

wells in order to identify any correlations between the systems. Installing low cost instrumentation as discussed will be the first step towards understanding the local hydrology of each site.

Although mapping and classification of wetlands in WR6 has been completed, further investigations will also need to be conducted to better understand the functionality of particular wetlands and how surrounding land uses can affect these systems. Funding will also need to be secured to ensure that groundwater analysis discussed above can occur.

6.0 Conclusion

Two methods of interpretation were used to better understand wetland systems within WR6: preliminary desktop analysis and in-field analysis. These methods were established early in the development of the project and guided researchers through the mapping and classifying of wetland systems. Based on predictive mapping, six wetlands were mapped and classified for WR6. Wetlands were classified based on their soil, hydrology, and vegetation characteristics. One important implication of using predictive mapping to identify wetland sites is the lack of accuracy that can be associated with remote sensing. Many of the wetland sites could not simply be classified as one dominant wetland system as they had various transition zones associated with secondary classifications. Moving forward, it should be noted that predictive mapping is only a tool that can be used to guide researchers in identifying potential wetland sites. During in-field ground truthing of the predictive mapping, researchers analyzed each site’s local physiography and hydrogeologic position. Through this process, it was determined that many of the wetlands were marsh ecosystems, with secondary classifications specific to each site. Researchers identified two marshes of particular interest and suggest further investigations should be conducted at WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-06, as the surrounding land uses, size, and hydrology of the area is quite unique. It will be essential to further investigate the locations of municipal culverts, as well as subsurface conditions at these two sites, using data gathered from instrumentation, cross-sectional analysis, and geophysical surveys to better understand existing hydraulic connections.

29 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

7.0 References

Bednarski, J.M. (2015). Surficial Geology and Pleistocene stratigraphy from Deep Bay to Nanoose Harbour, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Retrieved from Geological Survey of Canada website: http://geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca/starweb/geoscan/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan/fulle.web&search1=R= 295609

Collins, M., Igherighe, C., & Eseka, K. (2013). Analysis of Electrical Resistivity Data for the Determination of Aquifer Depth at Sapele RD in Benin City. Advances in Applied Science Research. 4, 268-276. Retrieved from: http://www.imedpub.com/articles/analysis-of-electrical- resistivity-data-for-the-determination-of-aquifer-depth-atsapele-rd-in-benin-city.pdf

Freeze, A. & Cherry, J. (1979). Groundwater. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Ecoforestry Institute Society. (2016). Ecoforestry Institute Society [Website]. https://ecoforestry.ca/our- mission/

Geologic Survey of Canada. (1963). Surficial Geology, Nanaimo, British Columbia. Retrieved from Geological Survey of Canada website: https://geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca/starweb/geoscan/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan/fulle.web&search1=R =108682

Government of British Columbia. (n.d.). Hemer Provincial Park. Retrieved from Government of BC, Parks website: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/explore/parkpgs/hemer/

Government of British Columbia. (n.d.). BC Wells Database. Retrieved from the Government of British Columbia’s Ministry of Environment website: https://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/wells/public/indexreports.jsp

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 57913 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 96586 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 114660 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

30 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 65255 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 67383 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 96320 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 55465 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 3373 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 3374 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 63576 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 110347 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 14298 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 3368 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

Government of BC. (n.d.). Well tag 49921 summary. Retrieved from Groundwater Wells and Aquifer Database website: https://apps.nrs.gov.bc.ca/gwells/well/54245

GW Solutions. (2017). State of Our Aquifers: Aquifers. Retrieved from Regional District of Nanaimo website: https://www.rdn.bc.ca/dms/documents/dwwp-reports/Cedar-yellow-point-nanaimo-river- water-region/ state_of_our_aquifers_report_-_2017.pdf

Hamblin, A.P., & McCartney, T. (2014). The hydrogeological characteristics of the Upper Cretaceous De Courcy Formation (Nanaimo Group), from a subsurface core, groundwater observation well, Cedar, British Columbia. Retrieved from Geological Survey of Canada website: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/rncan-nrcan/M183-2-7628-eng.pdf

31 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

MacKenzie, W. H., & Moran, J.R. (2004). Wetlands of British Columbia: A Guide to Identification. Victoria, BC. Government of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests Lands and Natural Resource Operations.

Meidinger, D., & Pojar, J. (1991). Ecosystems of British Columbia. Retrieved from Government of British Columbia website: https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Srs/Srs06.pdf

Reddy, S. (2017). Geophysics: An Overture. Contemporary Research in India. 7, 327-330. Retrieved from: https://www.contemporaryresearchindia.net/Pdf/CRI%20June%202017/60.pdf

Regional District of Nanaimo. (2018). Nanaimo River Management Plan. Retrieved from the Regional District of Nanaimo website: https://www.rdn.bc.ca/cms.asp?wpID=2713

Regional District of Nanaimo. (2018). GIS Interactive Mapping [Supplemental material]. Retrieved from https://www.rdn.bc.ca/cms.asp?wpID=3541

RSK Group Plc. (n.d.) A Reference for Geophysical Techniques and Applications. Retrieved from University of Edinburgh, Scotland, School of Geosciences website: https://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/~whaler/environmental_geophysics_handbook_lowres.pdf

United States Geological Survey. (2007). Water Budgets: Foundations for Effective Water-Resources and Environmental Management. Retrieved from United States Geological Survey website: https://water.usgs.gov/watercensus/AdHocComm/Background/WaterBudgets- FoundationsforEffectiveWater-ResourcesandEnvironmentalManagement.pdf

Waterline Resources Incorporated. (2013). Water Region 6 – Nanaimo River. In Water Budget Project: RDN phase one. Retrieved from Regional District of Nanaimo website: https://www.rdn.bc.ca/dms/documents/dwwp-reports/nanaimo-river-water- region/phase_1_water_budget_study_-_rdn_water_region_1_-_2013.pdf

Yorath, C. (2005). The geology of Southern Vancouver Island. Pender Harbour, BC. Harbour Publishing.

Zelt, A., Azaria, A., & Levander, A. (2006). 3D Seismic Refraction Traveltime Tomography at a Groundwater Contamination Site. Journal of Geophysics, 71, 68-78. doi: 10.1190/1.2258094

32 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Appendix A

Table 1: Summary of Wetland Classification and Aquifer Characteristics

Wetland Wetland Aquifer Wetland Dominant Plant Wetland Wetland Water Wetland Aquifer Wetland Name Classificatio Elevation Wetland Soils Classification Aquifer Type Location Species Size (ha) Temperature (°C) Water pH Confinement n (masl) Code Marsh; secondary Baldhip rose, low bench 49°05’24”N common horsetail, Distinct plant structures, WR6-CYPNR-01 flood; 2.8 13 18 5.5 Bedrock Limited data 123°49’54"W common reed, coarse sand and silt 162 secondary available yellow iris forested

swamp

Common duck Marsh; Clay and silt, poor 49°05'57"N weed, simple-stem secondary 1.6 28 17 5.7 decomposition of 162 Bedrock Limited data WR6-CYPNR-02 123°50'14"W bur-reed, western swamp organics in forest soils available red cedar

Sitka willow, Course gravel and Aquifer 161 Sand and 49°04’56”N Low Bench dunegrass, slough boulders; interstitial unconfined, WR6-CYPNR-03 0.95 15 23 6.0 gravel (161); 123°52’24"W Flood sedge, hardhack, materials composed of 161 & 165 aquifer 165 bedrock (165) sweet gale sand and silt limited data

available

Marsh; Red Fescue, 49°06’53”N secondary Organic mud with sandy, WR6-CYPNR-04 Yellow Pond Lily, 16 165 Limited data 123°55’07"W swamp; 20 16 7.1 clay and silt at the bottom Bedrock Buckbean available secondary

shallow water Cattail, reed canary grass, Marsh; common velvet secondary 49°06’44”N grass, common 14 Organic mud with sandy, WR6-CYPNR-05 swamp; 16 20 165 Limited data 123°55’14"W duckweed, 6.2 clay and silt at the bottom Bedrock secondary available common mare's shallow water tail, red alder &

hardhack

Red alder, Swamp; 49°03'52"N bluejoint, creeping WR6-CYPNR-06 secondary 0.55 ha 37 14 5.5 162 Limited data 123°48'02" W buttercup, yellow Sand, silt, and clay Bedrock marsh available flag-iris, hardhack

33 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Appendix B Aquifers in the Cedar-Yellow Point and Nanaimo River Water Region

Figure 10: Location of mapped aquifer 161 and observation wells (GW Solutions, 2017)

34 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 11: Location of mapped aquifer 162 and observation wells (GW Solutions, 2017)

35 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 12: Location of mapped aquifer 165 and observation wells (GW Solutions, 2017)

36 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Appendix C Aerial Photographs for WR6-CYPNR-01 & WR6-CYPNR-02 (Hemer Provincial Park)

Figure 13: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2002 (RDN, 2018) Figure 14: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2005 (RDN, 2018)

37 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 15: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2007 (RDN, 2018) Figure 16: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2009 (RDN, 2018)

38 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 17: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2014 (RDN, 2018) Figure 18: WR6-CYPNR-01 and WR6-CYPNR-02, 2016 (RDN, 2018)

39 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Appendix D Aerial Photographs for WR6-CYPNR-04 & WR6-CYPNR-05 (Richards Marsh Park)

Figure 19: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, July 22, 1975 Figure 20: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2002 (RDN, 2018) (Vancouver Island University Geography Department, 2018)

40 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 21: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2005 (RDN, 2018) Figure 22: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2007 (RDN, 2018)

41 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 23: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2009(RDN, 2018) Figure 24: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2011 (RDN, 2018)

42 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 25: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2012 (RDN, 2018) Figure 26: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2014 (RDN, 2018)

43 | P a g e

Wetland Classification and Geologic Assessment Report: Big Qualicum Water Region

Figure 27: WR6-CYPNR-04 and WR6-CYPNR-05, 2016 (RDN, 2018)

44 | P a g e