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Environmental and Economic Analysis of Liquefied Natural Gas And Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123535 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro Cleaner heavy transports e Environmental and economic analysis of liquefied natural gas and biomethane * Marcus Gustafsson , Niclas Svensson Environmental Technology and Management, Department of Management and Engineering, Linkoping€ University, SE-581 83, Linkoping,€ Sweden article info abstract Article history: Looking to reduce climate change impact and particle emissions, the heavy-duty transport sector is Received 21 April 2020 moving towards a growth within technology and infrastructure for use of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Received in revised form This opens an opportunity for the biogas market to grow as well, especially in the form of liquefied 2 July 2020 biomethane (LBM). However, there is a need to investigate the economic conditions and the possible Accepted 29 July 2020 environmental benefits of using LBM rather than LNG or diesel in heavy transports. This study presents a Available online 9 August 2020 comparison of well-to-wheel scenarios for production, distribution and use of LBM, LNG and diesel, Handling editor: Yutao Wang assessing both environmental and economic aspects in a life cycle perspective. The results show that while LNG can increase the climate change impact compared to diesel by up to 10%, LBM can greatly Keywords: reduce the environmental impact compared to both LNG and diesel. With a German electricity mix, the Biomethane climate change impact can be reduced by 45e70% compared to diesel with LBM from manure, and by 50 Natural gas e75% with LBM from food waste. If digestate is used to replace mineral fertilizer, the impact of LBM can Heavy transport even be less than 0. However, the results vary a lot depending on the type of feedstock, the electricity Liquefaction system and whether the calculations are done according to RED or ISO guidelines. Economically, it can be Life cycle assessment hard for LBM to compete with LNG, due to relatively high production costs, and some form of economic Life cycle cost incentives are likely required. © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 1. Introduction and bus manufacturers, including Daimler (2018), Isuzu (2018), Iveco (2015), Scania (2017) and Volvo Trucks (2017). At the same Transportation of people and goods requires vast amounts of time, efforts to build up an LNG fueling infrastructure take place e.g. energy and is a major source of air pollution and greenhouse gas within the LNG Blue Corridors project (LNG BC, 2013) and through (GHG) emissions. Within the European Union (EU), there is a goal to current fueling station expansion in the Nordic countries (Gasum, reduce GHG emissions from transports by at least 60% by 2050 2019). Smajla et al. (2019) stated that LNG in heavy transports is compared to 1990, without impairing mobility (European more economic than diesel in a long perspective and that switching Commission, 2016). Around 25% of the GHG emissions from road to LNG is crucial for meeting environmental goals. transports in the EU are accounted for by commercial heavy-duty Compared to diesel, compressed or liquefied natural gas is often vehicles such as buses and trucks (EEA, 2018). Alternative propul- shown to give a certain reduction of GHG emissions from vehicles. sion technologies to reduce pollution and climate change impact Considering the whole production-to-use pathway of fuelsdu- are broadly investigated in research, including batteries, fuel cells sually referred to as well-to-wheel (WTW) analysisdSpeirs et al. and gas. When it comes to gas, liquefied natural gas (LNG) has the (2020) showed a reduction of GHG emissions with natural gas advantage of a higher volumetric energy density than compressed compared to diesel of up to 16%, Arteconi et al. (2010) reported a gas (Benjaminsson and Nilsson, 2009), which makes it feasible to GHG emission reduction with LNG of up to 10%, Borjesson€ et al. use in heavy and long-distance transports. Engines designed for (2016) showed a reduction of 2e12% for heavy-duty vehicles and methane propulsion are currently being produced by several truck Ou and Zhang (2013) found a GHG reduction of 5e10%. However, the GHG savings are limited by a lower efficiency of gas engines compared to diesel engines, by methane leakage and by the fact * Corresponding author. that natural gas is a fossil fuel. Arteconi et al. (2010) found that E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Gustafsson), niclas.svensson@ small-scale LNG production resulted in GHG emissions in line with liu.se (N. Svensson). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123535 0959-6526/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 2 M. Gustafsson, N. Svensson / Journal of Cleaner Production 278 (2021) 123535 Nomenclature WS water scrubbing WTW well-to-wheel Abbreviations Symbols AD anaerobic digestion B0 maximum methane potential AF annuity factor CH₄ methane AS amine scrubbing CO carbon monoxide LBM liquefied biomethane CO₂ carbon dioxide C3MR propane/mixed refrigerant i interest rate GHG greenhouse gas mCH4 mass of methane emitted during storage LCA life cycle assessment mmanure mass of manure LCC life cycle cost N depreciation period LNG liquefied natural gas N₂ nitrogen MCF methane conversion factor NH₃ ammonia MR mixed refrigerant NH₄-N ammonium nitrogen PM particulate matters N₂O dinitrogen monoxide RED renewable energy directive NOₓ nitrogen oxides SI spark ignition SO₂ sulfur oxides TTW tank-to-wheel rCH4 density of methane VOC volatile organic compounds s2 variance VS volatile solids diesel, and Stettler et al. (2019) found that the GHG emissions of reductions of environmental impact compared to fossil fuels, while heavy-duty vehicles running on natural gas were equal to or up to also avoiding a competition of land between food and fuel pro- 8% higher than the emissions of equivalent diesel vehicles. Speirs duction. While large producers of biogas like Germany and Italy et al. (2020) also found that the GHG emissions could in fact in- currently use a lot of energy crops in their supply chains (EBA, crease by replacing diesel with natural gas, and Cooper et al. (2019) 2020), many EU countries even exclude energy crops in national found that the benefits of reduced climate change impact with regulations on biogas production (EurObserv’ER, 2017). natural gas could be lost if the methane emissions exceed 1.5e3.5%. The environmental impact of biomethane as a transport fuel has From a technical point of view, fossil natural gas can easily be been assessed in several studies. Shanmugam et al. (2018) exchanged for renewable biomethane, either as compressed or compared the environmental impact of LBM and diesel for heavy liquefied biomethane (LBM, also known as bio-LNG). Biomethane is trucks in Sweden, concluding that LBM is superior in 7 out of 10 produced from organic materials through fermentation (biogas) or investigated impact categories. Hagos and Ahlgren (2018) thermal processes and is treated to have a similar properties as compared the energy balance and GHG emissions of natural gas natural gas, and can therefore be regarded as one possible way and biomethane in road and maritime transports, showing that towards a more renewable gas network (Speirs et al., 2018). While biomethane can greatly reduce the WTW emissions despite a the EU market for natural gas is largely dependent on imports higher energy input. Lyng and Brekke (2019) performed a well-to- (Eurostat, 2019a; IGU, 2017), biogas and biomethane are often wheel analysis of fuels for buses and found that biomethane from produced and used domestically or even locally (Kampman et al., food waste or manure is among the vehicle fuels with the lowest 2016). Currently, the practice of using biomethane in road trans- environmental impacts on the market. Further, Natividad Perez- ports is very limited, with Sweden being the leader in Europe Camacho et al. (2019) found that biomethane can reduce the GHG (EurObserv’ER, 2017), although there is a growing interest and emissions by around 500 kg CO₂-equivalents per MWh in a life cycle policy support in many countries (Gustafsson and Anderberg, perspective compared to petrol or diesel. In addition to the envi- 2020). On average, the share of biomethane in European vehicle ronmental aspects of biomethane as a vehicle fuel, biogas and gas is about 17%, with some countries reaching close to 100% biomethane production systems typically include environmental (Hormann,€ 2020). Estimates suggest a potential steep increase in and other benefits that are not strictly tied to the production of an LBM production in Europe (Agelbratt and Berggren, 2015). energy carrier (Hagman and Eklund, 2016). For example, produc- Pa€akk€ onen€ et al. (2019) concluded that half the heavy-duty trans- tion of biogas through anaerobic digestion generates a by-product port sector in Finland could rely on biomethane by 2030. The total that can be used as a fertilizer, thus displacing an equivalent biogas production in the EU-28 has increased by a factor 10 since amount of conventional mineral fertilizer. The technical reports by the turn of the millennium, from around 70 PJ/year to over 700 PJ/ Edwards et al. (2014) and Borjesson€ et al. (2016) both note that not year (Eurostat, 2019b). While the biogas production from landfill only is the possible GHG reduction compared to diesel substantially gas and sewage sludge have been rather static in the last 15 years, larger with biomethane than with natural gas, but the climate most of this change is due to a growth in other anaerobic digestion, change impact of biomethane can even become negative if external such as energy crops, manure and food waste (Eurostat, 2019b).
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