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Download/?Id=92} Accessed on 26 July 2013 INTERNATIONAL ORDER IN THE OCEANS: TERRITORIALITY, SECURITY AND THE POLITICAL CONSTRUCTION OF JURISDICTION OVER RESOURCES AT SEA by James Stephen Baker M.A. (hons), The University of St Andrews, 2004 M.A., The University of British Columbia, 2006 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Political Science) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) October 2013 © James Stephen Baker Abstract The desire for territory has been a frequent cause of conflict. Latterly, a territorial integrity norm has emerged, rendering conquest illegitimate and contributing to peace. Studies of this development have not examined the politics of maritime space, despite the construction of a territorial-like order at sea last century. The oceans are materially, legally and politically distinct to land, making the extrapolation of a norm of territorial integrity to the oceans problematic. Nevertheless, this thesis concludes that the history of, and standards relating to land have conditioned the practices of states at sea. In particular, it has been assumed that the forceful acquisition of offshore zones and resources belonging to other states would breach an important international standard. I demonstrate this through a study of the changing practices of states towards marine space and by analysing the perspectives of decision-makers as they constructed the contemporary maritime property rights order. In contrast to the past, today states almost exclusively do not seek to expand beyond those offshore areas to which they are entitled. Concerns about the possibility for territorial conflict to take place at sea drove the creation of the present-day marine property rights order. In doing so, states took for granted the illegitimacy of conquest within ocean space. As they created the present-day maritime regime, states agreed that each coastal state would be allocated exclusive rights to maritime resources proximate to their coasts in a spatially fair manner. Both the illegitimacy of conquest and the legitimacy of this maritime order are necessary – and mutually reinforcing – conditions for its stability. Case studies of maritime disputes in the Arctic Ocean and South China Sea suggest states mostly make boundary claims based on the vocabulary of international law. Despite popular concerns, neither China nor Russia can be understood to have breached the prohibition on conquest. However, concern about their intentions has led to serious politicization of their perceived claims, suggesting the international community would react robustly to cases of forceful maritime expansionism. Though a norm proscribing conquest cannot assure the absence of conflict over offshore resources, it should dampen it. ii Preface This dissertation is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, James Stephen Baker. iii Table of Contents Abstract........................................................................................................................................................ ii Preface.......................................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents........................................................................................................................................ iv List of tables................................................................................................................................................. vii List of figures............................................................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................................... ix Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 1 The Oceans: A Political Realm........................................................................................................ 3 International Relations Theory and the Oceans............................................................................... 7 Existing Maritime Political and Legal Studies................................................................................ 13 Summary and Outline of the Thesis................................................................................................. 20 Part I: Territoriality and Security in the Oceans Chapter 1: Maritime Territorial Integrity: Theory and Methodology.................................................. 26 Land and Sea: Legally Different...................................................................................................... 27 Flag State Jurisdiction...................................................................................................................... 28 Port State Jurisdiction...................................................................................................................... 30 Coastal State Jurisdiction................................................................................................................. 31 Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 38 The Land and the Sea in the Changing Laws of Force.................................................................... 39 Land and Sea: Socially and Politically Distinct............................................................................... 49 Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 52 Explaining States' Territorial Practices at Sea: Power and Security................................................ 53 Explaining States' Territorial Practices at Sea: Interests and Material Capacity.............................. 58 Explaining States' Territorial Practices at Sea: Ideas and Appropriateness..................................... 61 Methodology and Case Studies........................................................................................................ 66 Data.................................................................................................................................................. 70 Chapter 2: Territoriality and Security in the Oceans: Past and Present............................................... 72 The Oceans in the Ancient World.................................................................................................... 73 The Medieval and Early Modern Period.......................................................................................... 74 The Sovereignty of the British Seas................................................................................................ 76 Dominium Maris Baltici.................................................................................................................. 84 The Oceans Beyond Europe............................................................................................................ 89 Summary and Assessment: Sovereignty, Power and Marine Space................................................ 96 The Freedom of the Seas..................................................................................................................101 The Construction of the Contemporary Marine Property Rights Order........................................... 106 Contemporary Ocean Politics.......................................................................................................... 110 A Note on Baselines.........................................................................................................................113 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter 3: Territoriality and Security at the UN Law of the Sea Conferences.................................... 117 iv The Territorial Sea, Security and the State.......................................................................................118 Security and the Zones Beyond the Territorial Sea.......................................................................... 123 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 133 Part II: The Political Construction of Jurisdiction over Resources at Sea Chapter 4: Early Moves: Defining the Consensus................................................................................... 139 The Social Construction of Marine Resource Jurisdictions............................................................. 140 Common Property, The Freedom of the Seas and Ocean Enclosure............................................... 143 Defining the Continental Shelf........................................................................................................ 154 The Breadth of the Territorial Sea....................................................................................................159 Defining Maritime Boundaries........................................................................................................ 163 The Land Dominates the Sea..........................................................................................................
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