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Università Degli Studi Di Pisa Università degli Studi di Pisa Dottorato di Ricerca in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Programma in Geopolitica - XXVI Ciclo - 2011-2013 (Settore Scientifico-Disciplinare SPS/13) Dottor Andrea Chieffallo La rivoluzione imperfetta: l’Egitto e il Mediterraneo in trasformazione Tesi di Dottorato Tutor: chiar.ma Prof.ssa Enrica Lemmi La rivoluzione imperfetta: l’Egitto e il Mediterraneo in trasformazione INDICE Introduzione pag. 3 Prima parte: La Regione mediterranea 1.1 Il Mar Mediterraneo e la sua Regione, caratteri geo-storici pag. 9 1.2 La Regione mediterranea: i fattori unificanti e quelli di frammentazione pag.14 1.3 Il divario territoriale e demografico pag.24 1.4 Il divario socio economico pag.34 1.5 Il concetto di democrazia nel mondo arabo e il gap con l'occidente pag.41 Seconda parte: Le rivolte nel mondo arabo 2.1 Il significato della Primavera araba pag.61 2.2 Il ruolo dei giovani e delle nuove tecnologie di comunicazione pag.66 2.3 L’atteggiamento dell’Europa: il fallimento del Processo di Barcellona, lo pag.71 scetticismo di fronte alle rivolte arabe e la Nuova PEV 2.4 L'ambiguità di Francia e Italia di fronte alla rivoluzione tunisina pag.77 2.5 La reazione dell'America di Obama e l'ombra di WikiLeaks sulle Primavere pag.81 arabe 2.6 La Primavera araba come l'89 europeo? pag.85 2.7 L'esempio tunisino: il mondo arabo si infiamma pag.88 Terza parte: L'Egitto dal dopoguerra alle rivoluzioni del 2011/2013 3.1 L'Egitto di Nasser pag.93 3.2 Sadat e la pace con Israele pag.97 3.3 La controversa figura di Hosni Mubarak pag.100 3.4 L’associazionismo religioso: i Fratelli musulmani e i Salafiti pag.106 1 3.5 Le Forze Armate e lo SCAF pag.112 3.6 L’attivismo politico di opposizione in Egitto: Kifaya, 6 aprile e We are all pag.114 Khaled Said 3.7 L’Egitto si ribella: dai primi tumulti alla caduta di Mubarak (25 gennaio pag.121 2011-11 febbraio 2011) 3.8 La fase post-rivoluzionaria: dalla fine del regime all’elezione di Mohamed pag.129 Morsi (11 febbraio 2011-30 giugno 2012) 3.9 La presidenza Morsi e il golpe militare (30 giugno 2012 - 3 luglio 2013) pag.137 3.10 L’Egitto del dopo Morsi: i militari riprendono il potere pag.149 Conclusioni pag.158 Appendice cartografica pag.165 Bibliografia pag.183 Siti web pag.190 2 Introduzione Il presente lavoro vuole fornire un contributo allo studio dello spazio mediterraneo e delle numerose fratture sociali, economiche e dei livelli di democrazia esistenti fra le diverse realtà nazionali che lo compongono. In seguito verranno analizzati gli avvenimenti che hanno caratterizzato la stagione della cosiddetta Primavera araba, che dal dicembre 2010 ha sconvolto gli assetti geopolitici della macroregione nordafricana e mediorientale, con un particolare approfondimento dedicato alla complessa situazione che si è andata delineando in Egitto. La prima parte è dunque dedicata al Mar Mediterraneo, alla delimitazione della sua Regione - che per praticità è stata divisa in due parti, una settentrionale e una sud orientale, seguendo la demarcazione proposta a suo tempo dalla Linea di Brandt – e all’analisi delle profonde differenze economiche e socio-culturali che la caratterizzano, oltre a quelle inerenti la diffusione della democrazia fra i Paesi rivieraschi. Il Mediterraneo e la sua Regione sono stati oggetto di studi approfonditi sin dai tempi più remoti, destando l’interesse di molti autori che ci hanno spesso proposto la rappresentazione di un ambiente condiviso, all’interno del quale sono in passato avvenuti innumerevoli incontri tra culture e Civiltà differenti, soprattutto quella europeo-cristiana a settentrione e quella arabo-ottomana a mezzogiorno. Come la storia ci ha indicato, il destino del nostro continente è quindi indissolubilmente legato a quello del suo mare meridionale, per cui anche gli Stati europei non propriamente rivieraschi dovrebbero farsi carico delle eventuali problematiche future, le quali possono presentasi nel momento in cui le diverse anime del Mediterraneo vengono in contatto. Il nostro Mare è infatti da molti avvertito esclusivamente come una frontiera da controllare, al fine di impedire lo sbarco sulle nostre coste dei migranti clandestini, quando invece sarebbe auspicabile riproporlo come una risorsa strategica e un luogo di collaborazione privilegiato, come lo è stato per lungo tempo in passato. Negli ultimi anni l’Europa ha in verità ripreso a mostrare un certo interesse per il suo orizzonte meridionale. In questa direzione è andata, almeno nelle intenzioni dei promotori, la Conferenza di Barcellona (1995), la quale, con alterne fortune, avrebbe dovuto creare un mercato di libero scambio fra tutti gli Stati mediterranei. Al fine di ristabilire, almeno parzialmente, una situazione di maggior equilibrio fra le varie entità territoriali e con il preciso obiettivo di rafforzare il quadro di cooperazione fra nord e sud, sono state recentemente proposte altre soluzioni, dall’Unione per il Mediterraneo, voluta dall’ex presidente francese Nicolas Sarkozy, alla Nuova PEV (Politica Europea di Vicinato). In 3 attesa di sapere quali saranno gli esiti di queste iniziative, è possibile osservare che molte delle opzioni strategiche attuate dall’Unione Europea a partire dai primi anni ’90 del Novecento, sono state rivolte a quei Paesi dell’Europa orientale che si erano appena emancipati dalla pesante ingerenza attuata dall’Unione Sovietica per un quarantennio, e questo atteggiamento non ha sicuramente contribuito ad evitare un ulteriore marginalizzazione dei Paesi della riva meridionale. Certamente, se alle buone intenzioni non dovessero seguire progetti concreti, il mancato raggiungimento degli obiettivi prefissati rinfrancherebbe i convincimenti di coloro che ritengono gli elementi di frattura fra le due sponde del nostro Mare, ampiamente preponderanti rispetto a quelli di coesione. Scorrendo le pagine di questa ricerca, avremo modo di appurare come questo divario riguardi soprattutto l’aspetto demografico, con i Paesi meridionali popolati da una moltitudine di giovani. Vedremo in che modo molti di essi siano diventati i coraggiosi protagonisti delle rivolte del 2011, durante le quali hanno richiesto a gran voce democrazia e libertà. A questo proposito, la mancanza di forme democratiche di governo in molti dei Paesi protagonisti della Primavera araba è confermata da alcune indagini effettuate da accreditate ONG internazionali. Esse comprovano la lontananza, in termini di applicazione dei diritti umani e dei livelli di libertà, fra le rive opposte del nostro Mare, anche se è da osservare che il divario si è leggermente ridotto rispetto al periodo pre-rivoluzionario. Anche l’analisi dell’aspetto socio-economico, basata sull’osservazione dei dati relativi al PIL pro capite PPA e all’Indice di Sviluppo Umano dei singoli Stati mediterranei, ci restituisce l’immagine di una Regione che procede a doppia velocità, con i Paesi della sponda nord molto più ricchi e sviluppati di quelli meridionali. Analizzare e comprendere le motivazioni che hanno portato alla formazione di questa frattura, non significa peraltro sminuire le tante similitudini che pur contraddistinguono la nostra Regione, né debbono interferire sull'auspicabile processo di cooperazione, da intendersi nella più ampia accezione del termine. Esso deve essere finalizzato alla condivisione di problematiche comuni, come quelle connesse alla salvaguardia ambientale o alla regolarizzazione del flusso incontrollato di migranti, o ancora all’avvio di una crescita economica condivisa, che produca le condizioni idonee per fare della Regione mediterranea uno spazio di effettivo sviluppo diffuso. L’Europa sembra dunque trovarsi a un bivio: o prodigarsi per trovare la giusta direzione che conduca alla stabilità e allo sviluppo della Macroregione mediterranea, o rassegnarsi al proprio immobilismo, con il rischio concreto di dover sopportare, nel breve-medio periodo, i possibili esiti negativi che possono derivare dalla situazione di instabilità politica e 4 sociale che caratterizza alcuni Stati meridionali e orientali, tuttora impegnati nel difficile percorso post-rivoluzionario. La formazione di nuovi orizzonti socioeconomici che si stanno profilando all’indomani delle rivolte arabe, devono rappresentare per l’Europa uno stimolo per riacquistare un ruolo di primo piano all’interno dello spazio mediterraneo, auspicabilmente privo di quelle barriere economiche e culturali che hanno limitato per molti decenni il percorso di cooperazione con i Paesi economicamente meno sviluppati. Sarebbe altresì augurabile la costituzione di un sistema europeo di tipo multicentrico, in cui tutta l'Europa meridionale possa riacquisire quella centralità già raggiunta in un passato ormai lontano, dove l’Italia sia disposta a rivestire una funzione prioritaria all’interno delle dinamiche economiche e culturali inframediterranee, in linea con la sua posizione geografica e soprattutto con il suo prestigio internazionale. La seconda e la terza parte del presente elaborato sono dedicate agli eventi della Primavera araba, espressione con la quale si fa riferimento a quell’ondata di proteste che ha coinvolto molti Paesi del Nordafrica e del Medio Oriente dalla fine del 2010, finalizzate all’allontanamento dei governanti locali. Come accennato in precedenza, uno specifico focus sarà dedicato alla rivoluzione che ha interessato l’Egitto e al suo complicato percorso socio-politico che dovrebbe portarlo all’affermazione della democrazia. Tutte le sommosse arabe che hanno insanguinato molti Paesi dell'area sono state caratterizzate da un unico obiettivo condiviso, ovvero
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