The media and Hillary Rodham Clinton: Similarities and differences in 1993 coverage

Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)

Authors DeCamp, Mary Helen, 1957-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author.

Download date 01/10/2021 05:50:25

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/291573 INFORMATION TO USERS

This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletioiL

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book.

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-':346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600

Order Number 1358973

The media and Hillary Rodham Clinton: Similarities and differences in 1993 coverage

DeCamp, Mary Helen, M.A.

The University of Arizona, 1994

UMI 300 N. ZeebRd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

THE MEDIA & HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON:

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN 1993 COVERAGE

by

Mary Helen DeCamp

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 9 4 2

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended (potation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

•-/i • • ' /-C

Henry C. Kenski Date Associate Professor of Communication 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the help and guidance given to me by my committee members, Dr. Henry Kenski, Dr. Henry

Ewbank, and Dr. Thomas Volgy. I hope one day to follow in their footsteps, providing instruction and encouragement to another generation of students. Barbara Walkosz generously served as my big sister/graduate student advisor and I am indebted for the well-rounded support she provided. In seeking to expand my intellectual horizons, I am thankful for the mentoring role provided by those who have trod the path before me, smoothing the way and guiding my direction.

Special thanks to degreed co-workers who gave me an example to follow: Tom Abens, Elise Calmus, Brenda Casey,

Diane Foray, Jon Harvey, Dick King, Jhan Kold, Tom Ofe, Jim

Rusk, and Mercy Valencia. Inspiration is a wonderful gift to impart.

But life is the ultimate gift, and lastly I want to thank my parents and my brothers for giving me life, for teaching me about life, and for sharing my life. 4

DEDICATION

"it is of great Importance to fix the

Taste of our Country properly...your

Example will go very far...everything

about you should be substantially good

and majestically plain."

Mr. Morris' advice to Martha Washington

(Anthony, 1990, p. 45)

I dedicate this work to the memory of Eleanor Roosevelt and all other strong women. 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES 7

ABSTRACT 8

THE MEDIA 10 Agenda-Setting, Framing, and Priming 10 Functions: Entertainment Versus Education ...... 13 Gathering the News 14

THE ROLE OF FIRST LADY 16 Historical Aspects 16 Role Model 17 Helpmate 19 Policy Partner 20 Ceremonial & Substantive Aspects of the Role . . . .21

STUDYING MEDIA COVERAGE OF THE FIRST LADY 23 Hillary Rodham Clinton 23 Research Problems 27

RESEARCH DESIGN 30 Questions of Interest 31 Methodology 32 Story Selection 33 Analysis 35

RESULTS 39 Proposition 1 - Content 39 Hypothesis 1 - Content 39 Test Method 1 - Content 39 Findings 1 - Content 40

Proposition 2 - Quantity Within Channels 46 Hypothesis 2 - Quantity Within Channels 47 Test Method 2 - Quantity Within Channels 47 Findings 2 - Quantity Within Channels 47

Proposition 3 - Quantity Between Channels 51 Hypothesis 3 - Quantity Between Channels 52 Test Method 3 - Quantity Between Channels 52 Findings 3 - Quantity Between Channels 52

Proposition 4 - Prominence Within Channels 55 Hypothesis 4 - Prominence Within Channels 56 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Test Method 4 - Prominence Within Channels 56 Findings 4 - Prominence Within Channels 57

Proposition 5 - Balanced Coverage 63 Hypothesis 5 - Balanced Coverage 63 Test Method 5 - Balanced Coverage 63 Findings 5 - Balanced Coverage 64

Proposition 6 - Unbiased Coverage 66 Hypothesis 6 - Unbiased Coverage 66 Test Method 6 - Unbiased Coverage 66 Findings 6 - Unbiased Coverage 67

Proposition 7 - Framing 77 Hypothesis 7 - Framing 78 Test Method 7 - Framing 78 Findings 7 - Framing 78

Proposition 8 - Visuals 80 Hypothesis 8 - Visuals 80 Test Method 8 - Visuals 80 Findings 8 - Visuals 80

Proposition 9 - Beat Reporters 82 Hypothesis 9 - Beat Reporters 82 Test Method 9 - Beat Reporters 82 Findings 9 - Beat Reporters 83

Proposition 10 - Congruence 85 Hypothesis 10 = Congruence 85 Test Method 10 - Congruence 85 Findings 10 - Congruence 86

DISCUSSION 87

A - SYNOPSIS OF H. CLINTON'S LIFE 91

B - CODING SHEET AND INSTRUCTIONS 112

C - LIST OF TELEVISION STORIES 117

D - OVERSIZED CALENDAR OF STORIES 12 6

REFERENCES 138 7

LIST OF TABLES

1. Gallup Poll - Most Admired Women 18

2. Overview 37

3. Summary Table - Content 41

4. Summary Table - Role 45

5. Summary Table - Quantity 47

6. Number of All Stories - Overview 48

7. Number of Prominent Stories - Overview 49

8. Number of All Stories - Monthly 54

9. Newscasts - Story Placement 57

10. Newscasts - Story Length 58

11. Newspapers - Story Length 59

12. Weekly Magazines - Story Placement 60

13. Weekly Magazines - Story Length 61

14. Summary Table - Balance 64

15. Summary Table - Bias/Slant 68

16. Newscasts - Bias/Slant 69

17. Newspapers - Bias/Slant 73

18. Weekly Magazines - Bias/Slant 76

19. Summary Table - Framing 79

20. Summary Table - Visuals 81

21. Summary Table - Beat Reporters 83

22. Summary Table - Congruence 86 8

ABSTRACT

Media choose words and pictures to tell stories. Opinion formation is influenced when audiences do not have direct personal involvement, if the source is credible, and where the information conforms to preconceived stereotypes - conditions present when news focuses on First Ladies. This seminal work evaluates similarities and differences in media portrayals of a new type of First Lady. Data from 1993 news are collected from nine mass media news sources (three television, three newspapers, and three magazines) to analyze the content of stories, number of stories, placement of stories, portrayals of Hillary Clinton's role, whether balanced sources are cited, if bias is evident, what type of framing is used, how many reporters contribute to coverage, presence of visuals, and conaruitv among elements.

Prominently placed news stories feature Hillary Clinton's policy role more than ceremonial functions or character issues. Numbers of stories vary significantly within newspaper and weekly magazine channels, and differences exist in percentages of prominent stories in television and newspaper channels, but not in magazines. Stories generally present balanced points of view and employ neutral reporting styles. Episodic framing is more prevalent than thematic approaches. Reliance on "beat" reporters varies by channel 9 and by outlet within channels. Newspapers contain fewer visual images and television presents the most congruent coverage. 10

THE MEDIA & HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON:

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN 1993 COVERAGE

THE MEDIA

Acrenda-Setting. Framing, and Priming

When George Washington was elected America's first

President, the news spread through newspapers, handbills, and by word of mouth. In those days there were not a lot of ways to get a message disseminated to the mass public. Today broadcast options abound: word of mouth, books, newspapers, weekly magazines, telephone, mail, radio, billboards, blimps, videotapes, e-mail, fax, and America's most used and trusted source of information - television (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987).

News about the world is perceived by the mass public today not through direct personal experience, but through filters applied by the news-gathering sources (Jamieson,

1988). A small band of elites determiners which of the many competing stories available for publication will fill preciously small news holes (Mills, 1993). Decisions are made not only about the content of the news, but also about the quantity of information, the placement of the stories, the degree of attention provided to opposing sides of an issue

(balance), the bias or slant of the stories, the amount of background information provided (episodic or thematic), if 11 visuals will accompany the stories, who will report the news, and whether there is congruence between the various elements

(i.e., text/verbals, visuals, headlines/opening statements, concluding remarks).

With so many competing stories to choose among, there is surprising conformity in the selection of stories the different news sources present to their audiences (Bennett,

1988). By opting to cover certain stories while ignoring others, the media effectively set the Aiaerican agenda

(Ansolabehere, Behr & Iyengar, 1993; Lippman, 1922; McCombs,

1981; McCombs & Shaw, 1972; Rogers, Dearing & Bergman, 1993;

Weimann, 1987; and Zhu, Watt, Snyder, Yan, & Jiang, 1993).

Not only do the media clue the public regarding what to think about, they also guide opinion formation by framing those chosen issues. Adjectives used to describe events or people serve to frame the receiver's thought patterns (Iyengar,

1991). Calling attention to some matters while ignoring others primes a response (Fazio, 1990). If the media focus on the character of a newsmaker instead of reporting on his/her past record or policy position, the audience is cued to adopt that frame of reference when thinking about the person. The frame of reference can have a significant impact on the receiver's evaluation of the subject/object, especially if individual involvement is low, if the source is considered 12 credible, and if the frame fits with pre-existing expectations or stereotypes (Fiske & Taylor, 1991).

The filtering role played by the media, then, can be a powerful force in shaping public opinion about First Ladies.

Lacking first-hand experience, the public relies on the media to help them form perceptions of the events and people presented on the news. By setting the agenda, framing issues, and priming responses, the media act as public gatekeepers and teachers. Public perception is shaped by what is on the news.

And, as the renowned sociologist and political scientist

Seymour Lipset points out, "Perception is more important than reality" (1993, p. 7).

The American public relies on the media to determine what is most important in the realm of current events (Bennett,

1988; Brody, 1991; Iyengar & Kinder, 1987; McCombs & Shaw,

1972). Some opinions are more difficult to shake than others.

Door-step issues, or those matters that directly affect an individual, are less susceptible to perceptual manipulation by external influences than more remote issues (Popkin, 1991).

For instance, an unemployed person may remain unconvinced the economy is getting better if he/she reads an article on the improved performance of leading economic indicators while turning to the help wanted section in the newspaper - personal real life experience overwhelms more general and overarching 13 information. For the majority of news stories, direct life experience is lacking and the media are seen as objective and trustworthy sources of information (Behr & Iyengar, 1993). A basic assumption for this study is that the role of First Lady is a remote issue for most Americans and, as such, the public relies heavily on news sources to shape opinion about her performance.

Functions; Entertainment Versus Education

The various news sources serve to educate the public about current events, but there is intense pressure to increase the audience share in order to make the enterprise financially viable (Iyengar, 1991, p. 13). In order to appeal to a broad audience, news must entertain and capture interest as well as convey information. Drama, conflict, protagonists and antagonists, and a sense of urgency are more captivating than sterile facts and increasingly the stories that appear in the news cater to the genre's need for an overarching drama of urgent public danger and salvation (Weaver, 1994).

Much has been written about "substance versus style"

(Gerr & Kahn, 1993; Jamieson, 1988; Graber, 1989; Lichter,

Amundson, & Noyes, 1988; Meyer, 1993; and Patterson, 1989 &

1991). Choosing the nature of coverage - whether it will cater to entertainment or education or some mixture of both - 14 is left in the hands of media decision makers.

Iyengar (1991) illustrates how televised news coverage can be "episodic" or "thematic." An episodic news frame, according to Iyengar, "focuses on specific events or particular cases, while the thematic news frame places political issues and events in some general context" (p. 2).

Episodic stories are generally more interesting, but less thought-provoking than thematic stories. Although stories are rarely presented as entirely episodic or thematic, the distinction is useful when judging style (the manner of presentation - roughly equivalent to episodic framing and entertainment value) versus substance (the content of news material - roughly equivalent to thematic framing or the educational aspect of news reporting).

Gathering the News

The media use certain "beats" as dependable sources of news. Government officials constitute one such beat (Graber,

1989; Hale, 1993; Smith, 1988; et. al.). It is standard practice for different news gathering agencies to assign a reporter to a specific beat (i.e., the police department, the courthouse, the hospital, sports teams, society functions, financial institutions, etc.). The likelihood of uncovering noteworthy events or activities from these sources is very 15 high, and reporters are able to establish a working relationship with their sources (Smith, 1988).

A symbiotic relationship exists between the press and government officials. The officials need the press to generate the publicity for them that enhances their name recognition and boosts their popularity. The press need the officials to generate stories they can write about to secure the press' position as news reporters. But the interaction between media and politician can be classified as a love/hate relationship most of the time. The press are interested in securing the most interesting story they possibly can: scandal, corruption, wrong-doing, sex, and money generate more interest than voting records, community involvement, policy stands, and other laudable but dull stories. The politicians would like to control the content and placement of the stories, but failing that, they would like to influence the nature of the story to reflect positively on themselves.

Jack DeVore, press secretary for the Treasury Secretary

Lloyd Bentsen, said his job was to "manufacture a steady stream of doggie biscuits for the press, who would gleefully lick the hand that fed them, thumping their tails as long as there was news," but he went on to add "if you ran out of treats or news, the press would eat your arm and try for more"

(Woodward, 1994, p. 101). 16

THE ROLE OF FIRST LADY

Historical Aspects

The First Lady occupies an interesting position in our society: she is not elected, she is not paid, there is no oath of office for her to uphold, and she has no job description to guide her activities. It was not until March, 1965 that The

Congressional Directory (first distributed in 1834) bothered to include her name when listing all the people working in official Washington (Gutin, 1989, p. 2). Nonetheless, she occupies a highly visible spot on the American agenda and most citizens can tell you something about her. What she does and what she says are considered noteworthy and are duly reported to the public. This has been the case since Martha Washington first travelled from Mount Vernon to New York to join her already-inaugurated husband, George (Anthony, 1990).

The First Lady occupies her position only through marriage. There have been stand-in chatelaines during periods when the President was unmarried, as was the case for Andrew

Jackson (a widower), Martin Van Buren (a widower), and James

Buchanan (a suspected homosexual) (Anthony, 1990; and Caroli,

1987). The stand-ins may have performed some of the social functions associated with a First Lady's role, but they were not the married partner of the President of the United States. 17

Role Model

As one of the most visible women on the national scene, the First Lady is expected to act as a role model for the rest of the nation. Her deportment is constantly evaluated and critiqued. She can influence fashions, hairstyles, entertain­ ment styles, and even (in the case of Dolley Madison) dessert choices. The spotlight of attention trained on her by the national media illuminates preferences and/or options that are adopted by many women in the rest of society. Jacqueline

Kennedy wore designer dresses and pillbox hats which quickly caught on with the rest of the country. Mamie Eisenhower's bangs were copied in beauty salons from coast to coast. To illustrate the degree of recognition and respect conferred upon First Ladies, one need only review past entries on the list of most admired women in Gallup polls (see Table 1 on the next page). Regularly the names of past First Ladies appear on the list, indicating that these women serve as role models.

When the most admired woman in America is not a First

Lady, the likelihood is that she is the head of state for another country (Golda Meir or Margaret Thatcher) or a well- known humanitarian (Sister Elizabeth Kenny or Mother Teresa).

The only deviation from this pattern occurred in 1968 when

Ethel Kennedy, the grand dame of a powerful political family besieged by tragedy, was so honored. 18

TABLE 1 HOST ADMIRED WOMAN (1946 -1993)

YEAR NAME First Lady?

1946 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1947 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1948 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1949 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1950 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1951 Sister Elizabeth Kenny No 1952 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1953 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1954 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1955 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1956 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1957 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1958 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1959 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1960 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1961 Eleanor Roosevelt Yes 1962 Jacqueline Kennedy Yes 1963 Jacqueline Kennedy Yes 1964 Jacqueline Kennedy Yes 1965 Jacqueline Kennedy Yes 1966 Jacqueline Kennedy Yes 1967 (Not Asked) 1968 Ethel Kennedy No 1969 Mamie Eisenhower Yes 1970 Mamie Eisenhower Yes 1971 Golda Meir No 1972 Patricia Nixon Yes 1973 Golda Meir No 1974 Golda Meir No 1975 (Not Asked) 1976 (Not Asked) 1977 RosaIyn Carter Yes 1978 Betty Ford Yes 1979 Rosalyn Carter Yes 1980 Rosalyn Carter & Mother Teresa (Tied) Yes & No 1981 Nancy Reagan Yos 1982 Margaret Thatcher No 1983 Margaret Thatcher No 1984 Margaret Thatcher No 1985 Nancy Reagan Yes 1986 Mother Teresa No 1987 Nancy Reagan Yes 1988 Margaret Thatcher No 1989 Margaret Thatcher No 1990 Margaret Thatcher No 1991 Barbara Bush Yes 1992 Barbara Bush Yes 1993 Hi Ilary Clinton Yes

In 48 years of Gallup polling, the question appears 45 times. A First Lady (current or past) heads the list in 33 of the years (or 73% of the entries). 19

Helpmate

Sarah Polk figured prominently in her husband James's rise to power (Caroli, 1987, p. 59). She worked alongside him for many years, serving as his private secretary through his term in Congress and the White House (Paletta, 1990, p. 32).

Sarah was able to offer her invaluable support for a number of reasons: she had no children to distract her attention; she had received an excellent education; she courted powerful members of both political parties by hostessing gracious social events; and "Sahara Sarah" was an ardent Calvinist above moral reproach (Anthony, 1990, pp. 58-67). She disdained housekeeping and buttermaking, preferring instead to involve herself in her husband's career, writing letters and speeches that advanced his cause (Winfield, 1994).

The First Lady is a wife. It is in this capacity that she assumes her very position. This means that she acts as her husband's helpmate, running the household, overseeing the domestic side of the partnership. Although Sarah Polk didn't care much about domestic concerns, some first women have seen this as their primary role - creating an island of privacy and intimacy to which their husbands can retreat from the public stage. Jacqueline Kennedy, for instance, was uninterested in the affairs of state, and remained an intensely private First

Lady (Duffy, 1994; Goodman, 1994; Thomas, 1994). Mrs. Kennedy was not paid to perform services and felt no compunction about 20 reassigning responsibility for attending prearranged social activities to the Second Lady, Lady Bird Johnson, who then stepped in to confer an element of status (Carpenter, 1970).

The press generally inform the public of the relationship that exists between the President and his wife. Images sculpted by reporters, editors, photographers, and producers are the images that are accepted and adopted by the public.

Policy Partner

Rosalyn Carter took a more active and involved interest in state affairs than did Jacqueline Kennedy. She sat in on her husband's cabinet meetings and often discussed international as well as domestic developments (Carter, 1984).

She was not the first woman in that position to be so motivated. Long before the mom-and-pop Presidency of the

Carters were John and Abigail Adams. Abigail's interest and involvement in government decisions earned her the nickname

"Mrs. President" from John's enemies (Anthony, 1990;

Weisberger, 1993). John Adams considered Abigail his full partner and his equal; his letters to her often began "Dear partner of all my joys and sorrows" (Peterson, 1976). Betty

Boyd Caroli, an authority on First Ladies, points out that

John had high regard for the counsel of his spouse and Abigail earned his respect through her wisdom and strength, "never permitting concern with domestic details to shut her off from 21 important issues facing the country" (1987, p. 11).

Edith Wilson, the first incumbent First Lady to travel overseas, was accused of running a "petticoat government" after she stepped in to aid her husband, Woodrow, following his debilitating stroke (Caroli, 1987, p. 117). Myra Gutin

(1989) points to the First Lady's relationship with her husband and access to Presidential decision making as factors that influence her performance as a public communicator. The four women just mentioned, Sarah Polk, Rosalyn Carter, Abigail

Adams, and Edith Wilson, all had the affection and respect of the men to whom they were married. This enabled them to enlarge the scope of their duties beyond the social and ceremonial presence expected of all First Ladies and to play an active role in the more substantive aspects of government.

Hillary Rodham Clinton has the affection and respect of her husband, as well, and expects to be an active policy partner

(Alexander, 1994; Winfield, 1994; Woodward, 1994).

Ceremonial & Substantive Aspects of the Role

Gutin (1989) categorizes the First Ladies of the twentieth century according to their competence as political communicators. She draws a distinction between the ceremonial aspects (hostessing social luncheons, meeting heads of states, visiting schools/hospitals/community sites, attending receptions, and the like) and the more substantive side of the 22 job of First Lady. Substantive endeavors include making speeches to advance legislation and public education, aiding her husband by researching/writing/formulating policy, going on fact-finding trips, and offering advice on tactical and strategic matters outside the purely social realm.

There is plenty of anecdotal evidence about First Ladies, but little hard social science research. Conjecture about these women is much easier than empirical research. The total population is very small (less than 50), and the passage of time, unevenness of coverage, and a host of other intervening variables seriously challenge the validity of any attempt to devise scientific measures to test differences (Singleton,

Straits,- Straits, & McAllister, 1988). Even though these same conditions exist for Presidents, political scientists routinely examine the content of masculine rhetoric issuing from the White House. First Ladies' communication patterns have escaped such systematic scrutiny.

The changing role of women in our society makes investigative research about First Ladies all the more engaging. It is important to start to capture unbiased, quantifiable information about the communication patterns employed by First Ladies so comparative data exist for future use and analysis. If the role of women in society is changing

(which is indicated/advocated in a plethora of books, magazine articles, employment trends, and social statistics), then it 23 is reasonable to assume that the role of First Lady is likely to change as well.

Ample raw data exist on press coverage of the First Lady.

There are new articles, news stories, and television programs produced daily which capture her words and actions. In addition to third party sources, autobiographical information exists. Books have been written by all four of the most recently retired First Ladies. Three of them chose to write about their own experiences in the White House: Nancy Reagan

(Mv Turn), Rosalyn Carter rFirst Lady From Plains), and Betty

Ford (The Times of Mv Life). Barbara Bush authored a book ostensibly about her dog's experiences (Millie's Book, as Told to Barbara Bush). The problem, again, is the uneven treatment provided and the intervening passage of time. A more disciplined approach must be adopted if the results are to be scientifically evaluated.

STUDYING MEDIA COVERAGE OF THE FIRST LADY

Hillarv Rodham Clinton

As a first step towards introducing more structure to the study of the role of First Lady, this paper reports on initial research designed to explore the media's coverage of Hillary

Rodham Clinton during 1993 when she moved from private citizen to First Lady.

This First Lady is definitely different from her recent 24 predecessors. As a Yale-educated attorney she far outearned her Governor husband (King, 1993). While occupying the First

Lady role in the state of Arkansas, she spear-headed an educational reform movement that imposed new standards for all teachers employed by the state (Allen & Portis, 1992).

Earlier she had worked on the House Judiciary Committee investigating Richard Nixon's involvement in the Watergate scandal (Warner, 1993). She is not now confined to the East

Wing (the wing that orchestrates all the social activity), but has also chosen to occupy an office in the West Wing (the business and policy hub) as well (Woodward, 1994, p.103).

In some ways Hillary Clinton is similar to Eleanor

Roosevelt. Both women were first-born daughters with two younger brothers and both received good educations. Each felt the importance of religion and social service in her life.

Both retained their maiden names (in Eleanor s case it was because she married a cousin who shared her family name).

Finally, both women suffered through the emotio'ial turmoil caused by their spouses' rumored infidelities. Dozens of books have been written about Eleanor (Beasley, 1983;

Chadakoff, 1989; Cook, 1992; Lash, 1984; Roosevelt, 1937 &

1949; Roosevelt & Brough, 1977; Roose^/elt & Libby, 1?"=: et. al.). Less is known about Hillary, but a brief synopsis of important events in her life is included on page 91, in

Appendix A. 25

Hillary represents a radical departure from the type of

First Lady we have known in the recent past. She is, in the current vernacular, a policy wonk, with a record for tackling tough social issues like educational reform, children's rights, and health care reform (Allen & Portis, 1992; King,

1993; Warner, 1993). How the media choose to impart information about her is an intriguing topic to political scientists, mass media researchers, feminist scholars, and communication students.

The representation of women in television and advertising is dramatic in its perpetuation of gender stereotypes and expectations. The content of books, newspaper stories, and television programming reveals that males are portrayed in a wide variety of activities and settings, whereas females tend to be restricted to family roles and domestic settings (Crano

& Brewer, 1994). Experimental research has demonstrated that exposure to commercials that depict women in traditional rather than nontraditional roles negatively affects women viewers' self-confidence and independence of judgment in later tasks (Jennings, Gies & Brown, 1980). Media portrayals of the

First Lady, who is often listed as Americans' most admired woman, are apt to affect society's expectation and evaluation of females as well.

Hillary Clinton's remark during the 1992 campaign about adopting an active role in public policy instead of sticking 26 to the more traditional role of staying home baking cookies and holding teas was widely reported (Allen & Portis, 1992;

King, 1993; Warner, 1993). That episode focused Americans' attention on questions about what constitutes the proper role for a government spouse. The media are interested in First

Ladies and have been since Martha Washington first assumed the position in 1776 (Anthony, 1990). Hillary Clinton now finds herself the object of that interest.

Again, people in the media choose what to report, how many stories to deliver, the placement of the stories, the degree of balance, the stories' biases, whether to apply an episodic or thematic frame, whether to include visuals, which reporters to assign to cover the story, and the degree of congruence among all the story elements. If all the stories uniformly report that Hillary is intelligent, hard-working, capable, and sincere, the audience's impression will be influenced positively. If, on the other hand, she is said to be uppity, pushy, brash, and opinionated, the audience will perceive her quite differently. Research has shown that semantic differences influence the favorability of attitudes

(Haddock & Zanna, 1994). The power of the media to influence public opinion is substantial, but little scientific research has been conducted on how they cover the First Lady. A ground-breaking attempt to explore media differences in coverage extended to the First Lady is presented here. 27

Research Problems

Studying the First Lady presents a number of validity problems. Campbell and Stanley (1966) list the following factors that jeopardize internal validity: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection, experimental mortality, and selection-maturation interaction (pp. 5-6). Clearly the topic of the First Lady's communication style is not tailored to social research.

Lasswell (196S) introduced the classic model of communication whereby a source sends a message through a channel to a receiver who produces some sort of feedback.

Studying the First Lady (or source) is difficult to do unless the researcher has direct access to her, and experimental research that attempts to modify her actions is out of the question. Survey research may provide information about how the public (or receiver) tperceives the First Lady, but it would look at the end result of communication instead of the process whereby the communication is disseminated. This study focuses on the channel and potential differences that might exist among and within channels. The information on channel coverage is relatively easy to access. Systematic and objective criteria for transforming raw messages into highly reliable quantitative data can be developed.

Various methods can be used to capture data: experimentation, survey research, field research, and content 28 analysis (Singleton, Straits, Straits & McAllister, 1988).

Experimentation offers the researcher a high degree of control over the variables of interest. Experimentation involves manipulating independent variables in order to test their effects on the dependent variable. As such, experimentation is an excellent method of testing assumptions and refining theory. Much experimentation occurs in laboratory settings where a high degree of experimenter control can be imposed.

Such control is desirable but not practical for the initial stages of research. A better starting place is to examine what currently exists in the real world.

Survey research entails collecting feedback from randomly selected samples in order to assess perceptions from the receivers' perspective that can be applied to the population as a whole. Public opinion polls are a good example of survey research. This method does not examine how opinions are formed, it merely captures information about existing attitudes. Graber (1987b) notes that failure to verify respondents' exposure to media information and failure to assess respondents' knowledge level prior to exposure to media information have plagued most audience studies. Survey research focuses on the outcome of communication from the receivers' view, but does not focus directly on exploring existing differences in the medium used to deliver the messages. 29

Field research attempts to develop an understanding of human behavior as it is defined by the subjects themselves and/or as it is related to the situation in which the behavior occurs. Observation occurs in natural settings and relies on firsthand observation. Though this approach offers less opportunity to control for intervening variables, the setting is more realistic, making the generalizability of findings more valid than results obtained in a controlled laboratory setting. Field research may generate information about the receivers' responses to stimuli, but this study is interested in what similarities and differences already exist among and within channels.

Content analysis captures information about what is actually happening without manipulating variables or involving subjects. A systematic, objective and quantifiable manner of capturing information from existing sources is developed before comparisons are made (Wimmer & Dominick, 1991, p. 159).

Content analysis is an unobtrusive way of gathering data and it will be used in this study to explore how the media represent the First Lady among and within different mass media channels. Since so little information is extant, content analysis is a first step in determining what is "out there."

Coding and analyzing existing information provides a starting point for more rigorous and controlled experimentation and research on the role of the First Lady. Ideally, multiple 30 research methods should be used to cross-validate findings, but this work represents only a first step toward that end.

A handful of political scientists have examined election news systematically (Adams, 1983; Diamond & Bates, 1984;

Graber, 1987a; Hofstetter, 1976; Jamieson, 1992; Lichter,

Amundsen, & Noyes, 1988; Patterson, 1980), but no one has extended the same degree of enthusiasm for studying the unelected First Lady's media coverage. In reviewing current literature on the relationship between First Ladies and the media's coverage of them, it is clear that research data in this field are virtually nonexistent. A first step toward capturing information on this topic is in order. This research is timely since we now have a First Lady whose approach to the job is so markedly different from other recent

Presidential spouses.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The preceding sections show how the media are powerful players in setting the news agenda, framing issues that are selected for presentation, and priming an audience response.

The First Lady occupies a newsworthy position and information about her is selected and filtered by the media for public consumption. The stereotypes and social roles perpetuated by the media inform judgments and expectations for society

(Hoffman & Hurst, 1990). This raises questions about 31 similarities and differences in media coverage of the First

Lady and that is what this study seeks to explore.

Questions of Interest

The research questions of interest are:

* Do news stories from different media (network news,

daily newspapers and weekly magazines) report the

same stories (content)?

* Do different news media report the same number of

stories on a given topic (quantity)? Is the length

of the stories similar?

* Do different media assign differential importance

to news stories as evidenced by the placement of

the stories?

* Is the balance in the stories consistent across and

among media?

* Are there differences in the bias/slant of news

stories between and within the channels?

* Is there a preponderance of episodic or thematic

framing by one or another of the news sources?

* Do media include comparable numbers of visual

accompaniments (photographs, charts, tables,

graphs, illustrations, etc.).

* Do various parts of the news story always convey

the same message (headline/lead-in, body of the 32

story, accompanying visuals, closing/sign-off), or

in other words, is there congruence among the

elements?

Methodology

The aim of this study is to provide new information on how media cover the First Lady. There is little, if any, empirical analysis on this topic, so selecting the most widely used sources of information from broadly circulated channels is emphasized here. People rely on multiple means for gathering information, blending the input from different sources to form an overall evaluation (Fiske & Taylor, 1991;

Graber, 1987b; Weaver-Lariscy & Tinkham, 1991). It is necessary, therefore, to review the coverage provided by more than just one media channel. This study uses three of the most commonly used channels (television, daily newspapers, and weekly magazines) and focuses on the 1993 coverage of the

First Lady in three of the most popular outlets within each channel.

Television is the most trusted and heavily used source for information (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987; Roper Organization,

1991; and Times-Mirror Center for The People & The Press,

1990). On a typical weekday the combined audience for ABC.

CBS, and NBC evening newscasts is 50 million Americans - no other medium reaches an audience of such magnitude 33

(Ansolabehere, Behr & Iyengar, 1993, p. 42). Americans' reliance on television for information and entertainment is perhaps best exemplified by the fact that there are more televisions in homes than indoor toilets (Jamieson, 1988).

Newspaper usage is declining, but political elites (those people who are more interested, knowledgeable, and involved in politics) still favor print material for the comprehensive and in-depth reporting it provides (Krosnick, 1990). Newspapers are not confronted with the same restrictions placed on television news. The combined daily circulation for the New

York Times, the Los Angeles Times, and the Washington Post is

3 million (Ansolabehere, Behr & Iyengar, 1993, p. 40).

The three major weekly news magazines - Time. Newsweek. and U.S. News and World Report - enjoy a combined circulation of 10 million (Ansolabehere, Behr & Iyengar, 1993, p. 41).

The format for the news magazines includes more visual imagery than newspaper formats, and the length of the magazine articles allows for more in-depth coverage than the network televised news can offer.

Storv Selection

Indices exist for each of the nine sources mentioned above. Information for the weekday evening newscasts is taken from Television News Index and Abstracts published by the

Vanderbilt Television News Archive; The Los Angeles Times 34

Index. The New York Times Index, and The Washington Post Index yielded information for newspaper coverage; and the Academic

Expanded Index, available through an online computer link to

Internet, provided the needed information for the weekly news magazines. Each index provides brief abstracts of the stories presented by that news outlet.

Information captured in the indices is useful, but it is presented in a neutral, sterile tone. The indices are used, therefore, only to identify news stories about Hillary Clinton and not as independent units of analysis. Using the indices, all 1993 stories on Hillary Rodham Clinton are identified and cataloged for each of the nine media outlets.

The stories are dichotomously divided into "prominent" and "non-prominent" categories. Prominence is deteirmined by placement in television and newspaper channels and by the number of pages devoted to the story in the weekly magazine channel. To qualify as a prominent story, it has to 1) appear before the first commercial break on the weekday evening television news, 2) appear on the front page of the daily paper, or 3) appear on more than one page in the weekly news magazine. While information is gathered on all news stories regarding Hillary Rodham Clinton, only prominent news stories are coded and used for detailed analysis. Prominent television stories were watched and transcribed. Prominent newspaper stories and weekly news magazine articles were 35 photocopied. Copies of each prominent print story and transcripts/ videotapes of each prominent evening news story are available for review at the Communication Department at the University of Arizona, in Tucson, Arizona.

A coding sheet and instructions for its use were prepared to guide the investigation into the research questions presented (see Appendix B, page 112). There are only three items from the nine sources unavailable for review: microfilm of the New York Times^ 4/28/93 edition is not available at the

University of Arizona Library and CBS newscasts for two stories that aired 10/21/93 and 10/22/93 are missing from the

University of Arizona's videotaped library (though copies are on order) so the actual telecasts can not be viewed at this time. The abstracts for these stories indicate they all deal with health care reform but the content could not be coded for this study. The three missing stories make up less than three percent of the total number of prominent stories (n = 119) and are less than one percent of the total number of all 1993 stories on the First Lady included in the study (n = 567).

Analvses

A set of ten propositions, hypotheses, and test methodologies is used to analyze and compare the content of

1993 news stories about the First Lady from the nine media outlets. The first four issues presented (Content, Quantity 36 differences within channels, Quantity differences among channels, and the Prominence of stories) deal with agenda setting. Issues five through seven are designed to deal with media's ability to frame perceptions (Balance, Bias, and

Framing). And the last three areas deal with priming

(Visuals, Beat reporters, and the degree of Congruence).

For each area of interest, a proposition is given to provide background information or to establish accepted facts.

The proposition is followed by an hypothesis that states the expected findings. The methodology for conducting the analysis is outlined, and findings are offered to substantiate or refute the hypothesis. Table 2 on the following page presents an overview of the analyses. Additionally, summary tables are cited in the findings sections. 37

TABLE 2 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISIOM NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Tiroes Post week Time News

CONTENT

Policy 9 23 7 11 21 5 6 6 5

Strategy 84% 90% 94% 67% 82% 78% 70% 84% 86%

Substance 16% 10% 6% 33% 18% 22% 30% 16% 14%

Cerentony 0 1 0 2 5 0 1 0 1

Other 1 2 4 1 7 1 0 0 0

QUANTITY (ALL)

Total # of Stories 37 47 56 57 208 112 18 24 8

% of TOTAL Stories 7% 8% 10% 10% 37% 20% 3% 4% 1%

PLACEMENT

# of Prom Stories 10 26 11 14 33 6 7 6 6

% Prom Stories 27% 55% 20% 25% 16% 5% 39% 25% 75%

ROLE

Role Model 1% 4% 11% 9% 12% 3% 24% 6% 14%

Helpniate 10% 9% 32% 16% 2% 20% 26% 24% 28%

Policy Partner 89% 87% 57% 74% 86% 77% 56% 70% 58%

BALANCE

Yes 6 20 11 7 22 4 4 6 4

% Balanced 60% 83% 100% 50% 69% 67% 57% 100% 67%

No 4 4 0 7 10 2 3 0 2

%Imbalanced 40% 17% 0% 50% 31% 33% 43% 0% 33% 38

TABLE 2 1993 HEDIA COVERAGE STORIES NENTIONING HILUUtY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week Time News

BIAS / SLANT

Positive 2 1 0 5 4 2 2 4 1

Negative 2 4 0 1 7 0 3 0 1

Neutral 4 13 5 5 13 3 1 1 2

Mixed 2 6 6 3 8 1 1 1 2

FRAMING •

Episodic 10 24 11 7 30 5 5 6 6

Thematic 0 0 n 0 0 2 0 0

Equal 0 0 0 3 2 1 0 0 0

BEAT REPORTERS

# in Bylines 11 29 13 23 31 6 13 11 11

# of Individuals 6 6 6 12 15 2 11 9 5

VISUALS (ALL)

# of Visuals N/A N/A N/A_ 7? 126 66 33 40 26

CONGRUITY

Yes, Present 10 24 11 8 27 4 4 6 6

No, Absent 0 0 0 6 5 2 3 0 0

NOTE: Information is based on the analyses of PROMINENT stories unless otherwise indicated by by ALL following the category heading. Prominent stories 1) appear before the first commercial on network television newscasts, 25 appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3) occupy more than one page in weekly news magazines. 39

RESULTS

Proposition 1 - Content

The media are covering real life events. They are dependent on various sources to generate information that can be reported to the public. The First Lady's actions and utterances are of interest to reporters. The fact that the media are focused on the same events leads to the first of ten hypotheses.

Hvpothesis 1 - Content

The content of news stories about the First Lady is

similar among and within the sample of news sources

in regard to the subject matter fpolicy, ceremonv

or other). and also in regard to the function the

First Lady performs (role model, helpmate, or

policy partner).

Test Method 1 - Content

Each prominent story about the First Lady appearing in the three news channels during 1993 is read/viewed to analyze the content. Stories are categorized as "policy," "ceremony," or "other." Policy stories are predominantly about issues that impact legislation, public policy, or government.

Ceremony refers to stories focusing on traditional social functions expected of First Ladies (i.e., Easter egg roll. 40 trimming the Christmas tree, redecorating the White House, hostessing social events for dignitaries, entertaining celebrities, etc.)- Stories that do not fit into either of these categories are coded as other (i.e., finances, character issues, family activities, personal likes and dislikes, etc.).

If the story content is labeled policy, a further decision is made about the percentages of the story devoted to strategy and substance.

The media's depiction of the First Lady's function (role model, helpmate, policy partner) is also examined. Each prominent story is reviewed to determine what percentage of the coverage is devoted to each function (i.e., the combined percentages for each story across role model, helpmate, and policy partner functions sum to 100% in each story).

Comparisons are made within and among the nine news sources to determine the level of agreement.

Findings 1 - Content

All prominent stories were read and viewed repeatedly to judge the nature of the coverage content. Table 3 on the following page shows the number of prominent stories by outlet that focus on policy, ceremony or other issues. It reveals all nine news sources carried more policy stories about

Hillary Clinton than stories dealing with ceremony or other issues. Though the presence of empty cells in each of the 41 three channels precludes applying standard statistical tests, the hypothesis cannot be rejected.

TABLE 3 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES »EMTIONIHG HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week Time News

CONTENT

Policy 9 23 7 11 21 5 6 6 5

Strategy 84% 90% 94% 67% 82% 78% 70% 84% 86%

Substance 16% 10% 6% 33% 18% 22% 30% 16% 14%

Ceremony 0 1 0 2 5 0 1 0 1

Other 1 2 4 1 7 1 0 0 0

Mrs. Clinton is the first First Lady to publicly wield the power she does: in January, 1993, the President announced that she would head a task force charged with the responsibility of producing recommendations for reforming the health care industry - a mammoth undertaking since health care constitutes one-seventh of the American economy and employs

8.5 million workers. It was cause for comment when Rosalyn

Carter sat in on her husband's cabinet meetings, but Hillary

Rodham Clinton had six cabinet members reporting to her. With the power to command such high-ranking officials at her disposal, she is considered a major player in America's political arena. The evening news abstracts report the three major networks devoted 1.5% of the news holes to her (140 of 42

8,947 stories according to the Vanderbilt Television

Abstracts, 1993). Considering the broad range of available stories and numerous personalities competing for very limited airtime, this is a significant amount of coverage. See

Appendix C, page 117 for an overview of the television stories.

The breakout of policy/ceremony/other shows limited variation. Of all the sources, the New York Timers prominent stories presented the most diverse coverage of the First Lady in respect to content. In addition to 21 policy stories, the

New York Times ran five front page stories on ceremonial aspects of Hillary Clinton's role (visiting a school -

1/27/93; changes in White House menu and smoking policy -

2/02/93; mail sent to the First Family - 6/21/93; the redecoration of the White House - 11/24/93; and Christmas preparation - 11/30/93). Seven stories dealt with other topics (Hugh Rodham's death - 4/09/93; personal friends -

5/27/93; the travel office scandal - 7/03/93; Vince Foster's suicide - 7/21/93; a vacation - 8/19/93 and 8/24/93; and

Hillary's response to rumors of her husband's previous sexual misconduct - 12/22/93).

The least diverse coverage is offered by Time magazine when only prominent stories are considered. All six of the multi-page stories from this source deal with policy issues and do not show Hillary Clinton in ceremonial or other 43 capacities. Time has more total stories than the other two magazines, however, and Time's shorter articles do address ceremonial and other issues like the use of her maiden name

(4/05/93 and 5/17/93), the deluge of mail (4/19/93), vacation time (7/26/93), her family's diet (10/04/93), the redecoration of the White House (10/13/93), and her friendship with a key player in the failed Arkansas Savings and Loan, Madison

Guaranty (11/15/93).

Television news, especially stories offered by ABC and

CBS. focuses on the policy portion of the First Lady's role.

As Table 2 shows, 39 of the 47 stories shown by the three networks in 1993 dealt with policy (83% of total). NBC offers the most diverse content coverage within this medium, with only 64% of its lead-in stories devoted to policy (7 of 11 stories appearing before the first commercial break). Four

NBC stories, or 3 6% of total coverage, deal with 'other' issues like her father's stroke (3/22/93), Vince Foster's suicide (8/10/93), and two stories on allegations that Bill

Clinton engaged in extramarital affairs while Governor of

Arkansas (12/20/93 and 12/21/93). ABC chose to report only one 'other' type of story before the first commercial break

(allegations of her husband's infidelity on 12/21/93), boosting 'policy' coverage to 90%. CBS bridges the gap, almost matching NBC's number of non-policy stories (three instead of four), but approximating ABC's percentage of non- 44 policy stories (88%).

Of the three media channels studied, newspapers devote the most attention to non-policy stories. The diversity of content for this channel is probably a result of a daily publishing schedule and the expanded opportunity to feature a single story prominently. The news magazines in this study are published weekly, thus limiting their news holes considerably. Though television newscasts also appear daily, only two or three stories each day are presented before the first commercial break while there are closer to ten front page newspaper stories each day. Seventy percent of the prominent 1993 newspaper stories on Hillary Rodham Clinton dealt with policy issues (37 of 53).

Weekly magazines show the strongest preference for policy content when judged by the percentage of prominent stories classified as policy, ceremony, or other. Eighty-nine percent of magazine stories in this study (or 17 of 19 stories) were policy oriented. Of the seven prominent stories presented in

Newsweek. only one is not on a policy topic. That brief story

(500 words) features pictures of the White House redecoration

(12/06/93). Timers 1993 coverage deals exclusively with policy issues and U.S. News & World Report contains only one non-policy multi-page feature. That article appeared in May

(5/10/93) and gives insight into the family life of Clintons.

Even when stories focus on the policy role Hillary 45

Clinton plays, the tendency is to describe events in a strategic way instead of offering substantive coverage.

Strategy and style are more interesting and engaging than facts and substance (Iyengar, 1991; Lichter, Amundson, &

Noyes, 1988; Patterson, 1991). The Los Angeles Times offers the most substantive coverage, but even then the split is two- thirds strategy and only one-third substance. Television sources, on average, do not include more than 16% substance.

Newsweek leads the news magazines in substantive coverage with an average of 30% of stories devoted to substance.

In analyzing the role played by the First Lady (role model, helpmate, or policy partner), it is apparent that the policy partner function garners more attention than the more traditional roles as a ceremonial head of state or as a loving wife/mother.

TABLE 4 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON ROLE POLICY MEDIA MODEL HELPMATE PARTNER TELEVISION 5% 15% 80% NEWSPAPERS 15% 20% 65% MAGAZINES 17% 19% 64% GRAND MEAN 11% 18% 71%

The percentages show that 11% of the prominent media coverage is devoted to the role model function, 18% of the 46 attention is given to the role of helpmate, and 71% of content features Hillary Rodham Clinton as a policy partner. Two CBS stories are not included because videotapes for those stories are presently unavailable, one New York Times article is missing, and two news magazine stories are excluded because

Hillary is not mentioned in them regardless of their provocative titles (Newsweek. 6/28/93, "Why wait for Hillary?" and Time. 10/11/93, "Here Comes Dr. No"). This reduces the total of prominent stories from 119 to 114. Total averages by type of media channel are shown in Table 4 on the previous page.

Proposition 2 - Ouantitv Within Channels

The news-consuming public typically relies on a blend of sources to satisfy their hunger for current events information

(Neuman, Just & Crigler, 1990). Different sources of news have specific attributes that shape the selection and delivery of information (for example, time/space available, visual and/or audio format, timeliness of production, personalities of media decision makers, etc.).

Marshall McLuhan (1964) maintained the medium is the message. Television has sound, motion, and color that have been shown to attract attention and stimulate psychological involvement (Nisbett & Ross, 1980; Zillman & Mundorf, 1987).

Different modes of communication utilize different delivery 47 techniques (Jamieson, 1988), and it has been said that while television is easy, print is tough (Salomon, 1984). Usage patterns of the different media underscore this finding (Times

Mirror Center for The People & The Press, 1990). This leads to the second hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2 - Quantity Within Channels

The numbers of stories on the First Lady should be

roughly ecmal within, but not necessarily among,

the media channels.

Test Method 2 - Quantity Within Channels

Information from stories about the First Lady in 1993 by the yarious channels is taken from published indices. Total numbers of stories by each medium are counted and compared.

Findings 2 - Quantity Within Channels

TABLE 5 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Tinies Post week Time NeMS

QUANTITY (ALL)

Total # of 37 la 56 57 208 112 18 24 8 Stories

% of TOTAL Stories TA 8% 10% 10% 37% 20% 3% 4% 1% 48

TABLE 5 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES HEHTIOHING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week Time News

TOTALS uo ST7 50

There are significant differences in the numbers of total stories presented in two of the three channels so the hypothesis is rejected. The number of 1993 television stories about Hillary Clinton does not vary significantly within the three networks (ABC = 37; CBS = 47; NBC = 56). However, the quantity of newspaper coverage and weekly magazine coverage ^ vary significantly within the channels (see Tables 6 and 7).

TABLE 6 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTOM

STATISTICAL DATA

NEWS # OF ALL CHI SOURCES STORIES SQUARE SIGNIFICANCE

ABC 37

CBS 47 3.47 NONE

NBC 56

LAX 57

NYT 208 91.65 0.01

WASH 112

NEWSWEEK 18

TIME 24 6.85 0.05

U.S. NEWS 8 49

TABLE 7 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

STATISTICAL DATA

NEWS PROMINENT CHI SOURCES STORIES SQUARE SIGNIFICANCE

ABC 10

CBS 26 8.98 0.01

NBC 11

LAX 14

NYT 33 20.08 0.01

WASH 6

NEWSWEEK 7

TIME 6 .01 NONE

U.S. NEWS 6

Newspapers have the broadest range of total stories (Los

Ancfeles Times = 57; New York Times = 208; Washington Post =

112). The Los Angeles Times and the Washington Post both use

U.M.I, indexing service, so the dramatic variance in the numbers of stories between these two newspapers is a result of editorial decisions rather than a reflection of differences in the indexing methodology. The New York Times does not subscribe to U.M.I.'s service, and that must be considered as a possible intervening variable in this study. The New York

Times^ indexing system very often does not assign stories to the First Lady as a main subject heading; 90% of the stories in this study are cross-listed under other headings. Only 2 0 50 stories appear under the main subject heading 'Clinton,

Hillary Rodham' for this source. The assignment of subject headings appears ill-considered in some cases (i.e., a story

Mother's Day activities appears under 'Clinton, Bill,' and stories about her fashion choices in handbags and dresses appear under the heading 'United States Politics and

Government').

Weekly magazines displayed significant differences in the number of total stories, but not in the number of prominent stories. U. S. News & World Report runs fewer short articles about Hillary than the other two magazines. The format for all three magazines is similar, each publication beginning with a section of very short articles ("Perspectives" in

Newsweek. "Chronicles" in Time, and "Outlook" in U. S. News &

World Report), followed by a series of longer articles and editorials.

And while television news stories do not significantly differ on the total number of stories, there are differences in the number of stories appearing before the first commercial. CBS placed 55% of all First Lady stories in the first few lead-off stories while NBC selected 20% of all stories to be so prominently featured. ABC placed 10 of the

37 stories before the first commercial (27%). The same abstracting service provides information on all the television networks, so variance cannot be dismissed as methodological 51 flukes - true differences exist in relation to the amount of prominent coverage the First Lady is accorded station by station.

Newspaper stories also show a marked difference when the numbers and percentages of prominent stories are compared.

The New York Times leads the others in the number of prominent stories with 3 3 of the 2 08 stories placed on the front page

(16%). The Los Angeles Times has the largest proportion of prominent stories to total stories with 14 of the 57 stories

(25%) receiving front page exposure. The Washington Post has only 5% of their stories so visibly positioned (6 of 112).

Proposition 3 - Quantity Between Channels

The weekday evening news had, on average, only eleven stories (Vanderbilt Television Abstracts, 1993). The weekly news magazines have more space to devote to news coverage, but they are published less often and must span periods of time longer than just a day. Daily newspapers provide the most in- depth coverage and have the largest news holes of the three sources. The number of stories offered in the daily newspaper far exceeds the other two channels. Yet studies show that newspaper readership lags behind television viewing (Times

Mirror Center for the People & the Press, 1990), though readers are better informed about current events than television viewers (Neuman, Just, & Crigler, 1992). The marked differences in the sizes of the news holes impact the opportunity for a single story receiving exposure in a given channel. Much more information can be presented in a newspaper, but the information is not as easily accessed as televised news stories. Weekly magazines act as a hybrid conduit for news, blending the in-depth informational capacity of print with the glossy, attention-grabbing pictures of a more visual channel (Neuman, Just, & Crigler, 1992).

Hypothesis 3 - Quantity Between Channels

Differences in the sizes of the news holes by

channels suggest that newspapers will have the most

stories, television news fewer stories and weekly

news magazines the fewest stories on any given

topic.

Test Method 3 - Quantity Between Channels

The total numbers of 1993 stories on the First Lady, culled from the indices by channel, are counted and compared.

Findings 3 - Quantity Between Channels

True to expectations, newspapers printed 377 stories, television had 140 stories, and the three weekly magazines featured 50 stories. The hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Refer to Appendix D, page 12 6 for a comparative overview of 53 the stories presented by each channel each month. Table 8 on the next page shows a month-by-month tally for news stories as well as comparative information about the number of stories among and within channels. TABLE 8 NUMBER OF STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

YEAR/ NETWORK NEWS STATIONS DAILY NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY NEWS MAGAZINES MONTH

L.A. N.Y. WASH. NEWS­ U.S. 1993 ABC CBS NBC TIMES TIMES POST WEEK TIME NEWS TOTAL

JANUARY 2 1 9 9 19 25 0 2 1 68

FEBRUARY 3 4 6 5 28 9 4 3 1 63

MARCH 6 6 7 8 26 14 3 1 0 71

APRIL 5 3 2 3 18 8 2 3 0 44

MAY 3 4 6 6 22 9 1 4 3 58

JUNE 3 2 2 5 15 8 2 0 1 38

JULY 3 2 3 6 12 6 0 1 0 33

AUGUST 0 2 2 1 11 3 0 0 0 19

SEPTEMBER 9 10 9 3 15 9 1 0 0 56

OCTOBER 2 9 3 3 17 9 2 5 1 51

NOVEMBER 0 2 4 5 12 7 2 5 1 38

DECEMBER 1 2 3 3 13 5 1 0 0 28

SUB­ TOTALS: 37 47 56 57 208 112 18 24 8

GROUP TOTALS: 140 377 50 567

NOTE: Information taken from abstracts prepared by Vanderbilt University (televised stories). newspaper abstracts, and the Advanced Educational Information on-line database (weekly news magazine stories).

Ln 55

Table 8 reveals there are significant differences in the numbers of stories reported monthly. August, a popular vacation month, holds the fewest stories with only nineteen.

December, another month when attention is focused less on wor^^ and more on holiday preparation, contains only 28 stories.

These two months' story totals fall more than one standard deviation below the mean (mean = 47.25 stories; standard deviation = 15.82 stories).

The numbers of stories reported in March and January fall more than one standard deviation above the mean. March was the biggest news month for Hillary, with 71 stories focusing on health care meetings, the constitutionality of closed health care meetings, Hillary's decision to reinsert 'Rodham' in her name, and her father's stroke. January, the month

Clintons moved from Arkansas to their new residence in the

White House, was also a big news month. Sixty-eight stories were presented in January, covering background information on the Clintons, inaugural activities, Hillary's anticipated role, and an unprecedented announcement that Hillary would head a task force charged with reforming the health care industry in the United States.

Proposition 4 - Prominence Within Channels

The elements that make events newsworthy are the same across the board (recognizable figures, conflict, impact of 56 action on society, human interest, changes in policy, etc).

Nonetheless, there are differences in television, newspaper, and weekly magazine production that influence the presentation of news (Neuman, Just, & Crigler, 1992).

Hypothesis 4 - Prominence Within Channels

Stories about the First Lady are assigned the same

level of importance, as evidenced by the story

placement and storv length, within the media

channels. Because different channels operate under

varying constraints, the storv lengths are not

expected to be the same among channels, but the

placement of the stories will be equitable among

the channels.

Test Method 4 - Prominence Within Channels

Information about the placement of stories and the length of stories is available from indices and also directly from the news sources.

Placement is divided between prominent and non-prominent categories - prominent television stories appear before the first commercial, prominent newspaper stories appear on the front page, and prominent weekly magazine stories span more than a single page. The length of stories is measured in minutes and seconds for television newscasts, in column inches 57 for newspaper stories, and in the number of words for magazine stories.

Data for all 567 stories are collected and compared.

Findings 4 - Prominence Within Channels

TABLE 9 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

UEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS -STORY PLACEMENT

STORIES BEFORE THE STORIES AFTER THE TOTAL OF ALL 1ST COMMERCIAL FIRST COMMERCIAL STORIES

NETWORK PERCENT PERCENT PERCENT NUMBER OF TOT NUMBER OF TOT NUMBER OF TOT

ABC 10 27% 27 73% 37 100%

CBS 26 55% 21 45% 47 100%

NBC 11 20% 45 80% 56 100%

TOTALS 47 34% 93 66% 140 100%

Table 9 shows that CBS was the most likely of the

three major networks to assign prominent coverage while

NBC was least likely to position a story about Hillary

Clinton within the few stories that were aired before the

first commercial break. 58

TABLE 10 1993 NEWS COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS - STORY LENGTH

STORY ABC CBS NBC TOTALS LENGTH IN # OF % OF # OF % OF # OF % OF # OF X OF MINUTES STORIES TOT STORIES TOT STORIES TOT STORIES TOT

0 - 1 8 22% 6 13% 14 25% 28 20%

1 - 2 10 27% 11 23% 13 23% 34 24%

2 - 3 13 35% 16 34% 15 27% 44 31%

3 - 4 2 5% 5 11% 8 14% 15 11%

4 - 5 2 5% 4 9% 5 9% 11 8%

5 - 6 1 3% 2 4% 1 2% 4 3%

6 - 7 1 3% 2 4% 0 0% 3 2%

7+ 0 0% 1 2% 0 0% 1 1%

TOTALS 37 26% 47 34% 56 40% 140 100%

Note: Information taken from abstracts prepared by Vanderbilt University

As shown by Table 10, CBS^s stories also tended to be longer, but not significantly so. Television stories are short; almost half of the 1993 televised news stories about Hillary Clinton (44%) are two minutes or less, about a third of the stories are between 2 and three minutes (31%), and one fourth (25%) of all the stories are more than three minutes.

Newspapers carried two-thirds of all the stories on

Hillary in this study (377 of 567). The Los Angeles

Times editors chose to put 25% of their 1993 stories about the First Lady on the front page (14 of 57). The

New York Times carries more prominent stories than any 59 other source in this study (n = 33), but because there are so many total stories, the percentage of prominent stories is lower (16%) than six of the other outlets.

The Washington Post ran 112 stories (20% of all 567 stories), and registers the second highest number of total stories, but again the percentage of prominent stories is low, the lowest of all sources at only 5% (6 of 112).

The lengths of newspaper stories were judged in column inches. If a story is up to six column inches long it is coded as short. If the article covers from six to 18 column inches, it is considered of medium length. Any story over 18 inches in length is identified as long. Table 11 summarizes the findings for newspaper stories.

TABLE 11 1993 NEWS COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

NEWSPAPERS - STORY LENGTH

STORY LOS ANGELES NEW YORK TIMES WASHINGTON POST TOTALS LEMGTH TIMES

# OF % OF # % OF it % OF if % OF STORIES TOT STORIES TOT STORIES TOT STORIES TOTAL

SHORT 2 3% 81 39% 2 2% 85 23%

MEDIUM 22 39% 120 58% 50 45% 192 51%

LONG 33 58% 7 3% 60 54% 100 26%

TOTALS 57 100% 208 100% 112 100% Z77 100% 60

The variability in lengths of newspaper stories

reveals editorial differences do exist - at least in

terms of coverage extended to the First Lady that is

reported here. The Los Angeles Times and the Washington

Post run longer stories while the New York Times prefers

medium or short stories.

TABLE 12 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

UEEKLY MAGAZINES

Prominent Average Average Total Number of Stories Length in Number of Weekly Number of Prominent as a X of Word Count Photo per Magazines Stories Stories Total of Stories Story

Newsweek 18 7 39% 960 1.83

Time 24 6 25% 850 1.67

U.S. News & 8 6 75% 1,180 3.25 World Report

TOTALS: 50 19 38% 47,083 99

AVERAGES: 16.67 6.33 38% 942 2

Because U.S. News & World Report does not include many short stories on Hillary Clinton, the average length of their stories was 1,180 words. There were only eight stories about the First Lady in 1993, and six of those were prominent (75%).

Time,, on the other hand, included many short stories (10 with less than 150 words), bringing the average story length down 61 to 850 words. As illustrated in Table 11, Time has the broadest range of story lengths; the eleven shortest and the five longest magazine stories appear in this publication.

TABLE 13 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKLY MAGAZINES -ARTICLE LENGTHS (IN WORDS)

WORD MAGAZINE MONTH DATE ARTICLE TITLE COUNT

T ime 4 5 Uhat's in a Name 30

Time 10 4 Speaking of Health Care 33

T ime 2 15 Up to the Hill 50

Time 4 26 Commander Hillary 50

Time 4 19 Dear Mr. & Ms. President 70

Time 5 17 Making a Name for Herself 70

T ime 10 11 Mrs. Clinton on the Hill 80

T ime 11 29 A Hidden Benefit of the NAFTA Victory 90

T ime 11 8 Senator Rodham 100

Time 2 8 First Lady's First Job 125

Time 10 11 Next Question! 400

U.S. News 10 11 'A Mother, a Wife, a Woman' 400

Newsweek 4 5 The Not-So-Secret Service 500

Newsweek 4 26 The Re-Selling of the First Lady 500

Newsweek 9 20 'The Second Blooming of Hillary' 500

Newsweek 12 6 Hillary's House 500

T ime 5 31 The Politics of What? 500

T ime 7 26 Policy Wonks in Paradise 500

T ime 10 11 Home Sweet White House 500

T ime 11 8 Clintonism: Trick or Treat? 500

T ime 11 15 Friends in Low Places 500

Newsweek 6 21 Hillary: So Close, and Yet So Far 600

Newsweek 5 3 Team Clinton's Uneven Bets 800

U.S. News 5 10 'Don't Sacrifice Your Basic Relationships' 800 62

TABLE 13 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

UEEKLY MAGAZINES -ARTICLE LENGTHS (IN WORDS)

WORD MAGAZINE MONTH DATE ARTICLE TITLE COUNT

U.S. News 6 7 Hillary, From the Pulpit 800

Time 2 8 A Room at the Top 850

Newsweek 2 1 On the Road to Power 900

Newsweek 3 15 Health Care: Covert Operation 900

Newsweek 10 4 Scenes From a Marriage 900

Newsweek 11 15 Go Ahead, Bust Sonie Chops 900

Newsweek 10 11 Did She Take the Hill? 1,000

T ime 5 20 "We've Had Some Good Times" 1,000

Newsweek 3 15 Talk Government 1,050

Newsweek 3 29 Hillary's Hard Sell 1,100

Newsweek 11 1 'Big Sister' and Critics 1,200

U.S. News 5 3 'There's a Lot More Coming' 1,200

Newsweek 2 15 Look Out, It's Superwoman! 1,300

Newsweek 6 28 Why Wait for Hillary? 1,300

U.S. News 11 1 Wonks at Play: The New Health Plan 1,300

Newsweek 2 15 'We Are All in This Together' 1,400

U.S. News 1 25 Now, the First Chief Advocate 1,450

Time 3 22 Operation Hillary 1,500

U.S. News 2 8 Co-President Clinton? 1,600

Newsweek 2 15 Hillary's Role 1,885

U.S. News 5 10 America's First (Working) Couple 1,900

Time 11 8 "Please Help Us" 2,000

Time 10 11 Here Comes Doctor No 2,100

Time 1 4 The Dynamic Duo 2,250

Time 1 4 "First We Have to Roll Up Our Sleeves" 2,500

Time 5 10 At the Center of Power 4,600

TOTAL WORD COUNT: 47,083 Based on the data in this study, the hypothesis of equal 63 prominence must be rejected.

Proposition 5 - Balanced Coverage

The media are said to operate as the fourth branch of power (the first three being the traditional branches of governmental power: executive, judicial, and legislative).

The assumption by most people is that the media strive to present balanced, unbiased information (Hill, 1985), or as Joe

Friday from Dragnet would say, "just the facts." This provides the basis for the fifth of ten hypotheses.

Hypothesis 5 - Balanced Coverage

The coverage of the First Lady is balanced, with

information taken from sources representing varying

points of view.

Test Method 5 - Balanced Coverage

Sources cited in the prominent stories are catalogued and coded to indicate positive, negative, neutral or mixed support for the First Lady. Individuals quoted in the stories or who contribute input to the stories are considered sources. The content of the sources' contributions to the story as well as the positions they occupy or their associations with organizations indicate whether the sources are supportive of the First Lady (positive), critical of her (negative), or 64 neutral. For instance, White House aides and staffers are expected to be supportive, while Republican spokespersons are assumed to be critical. This is not always the case, though, as evidenced by Democrat Daniel Patrick Moynihan's criticism of estimated health care cost savings as "fantasy figures."

After capturing information on the nature of the sources' input, an overall assessment is made, story by story, to determine whether each news item is balanced or imbalanced.

The content, if imbalanced, can be positive or negative. This section of the study focuses only on whether opposing sides are equally represented, not on the direction of the imbalance.

Finding 5 - Balanced Coverage

TABLE 14 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week T ime News

BALANCE

Yes 6 20 11 7 22 4 4 6 4

% Balanced 60% 83% 100% 50% 69% 67% 57% 100% 6n

No 4 4 0 7 10 2 3 0 2

%Imbalanced 40% 17% 0% 50% 31% 33% 43% 0% 33%

SUBTOTALS: 10 24 11 14 32 6 7 6 6

TOTALS: 45 52 19

NOTE: 2 CBS stories missina and 1 Ueu York Times story unavailable for analysis.

* Prominent stories 1) Appear before the first conmercial on network television newscasts, 2) Appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3) Occupy more tlian one page in weekly news magazines. 65

Of the television outlets, NBC news tries the hardest to present balanced coverage, with all 11 of the prominent stories containing offsetting sources. CBS's coverage leans heavily toward balanced sources (20 stories balanced, four not balanced, and two missing newscasts). ABC has six balanced stories compared to four one-sided stories. Television's attention to including balanced sources in news stories may be a reflection of this medium's reliance on conflict to capture interest and heighten audience involvement - opposing spokespersons are juxtaposed to fuel controversy.

The prominent newspaper stories show less concern with presenting both sides of the story. The Los Angeles Times is just as likely to have balanced sources as not (seven of each). The New York Times and the Washington Post run provide balance in approximately two-thirds of their stories.

Time, like NBC, included sources representing opposing sides in all of its prominent stories (n = 6). Newsweek. like the Los Angeles Times, did so in about half its stories (four balanced and three imbalanced). U.S. News & World Report has four balanced stories and two stories where only the view from the White House is represented.

Overall, this study indicates that television news strives to counterbalance opposing voices more than the print channels. Newspapers appear to stress the inclusion of balanced sources the least, perhaps preferring to report more 66 in-depth coverage of one side at a time or perhaps choosing to advance an editorial point of view without allowing equal time to those who disagree with their outlook. This is a very small sample, though, and sweeping generalizations should be avoided. Based on the findings presented here, hypothesis 5 on balanced coverage is rejected.

Proposition 6 - Unbiased Coverage

While the media are supposed to be just telling it like it is, Grimshaw (1981) concludes that "while there is talk that appears to be primarily referential (informative or expressive), it seems likely that most, if not all, talk will be found to have implications for social control" (p. 226).

Though it is difficult to ever achieve truly neutral reporting, it is expected that the media attempt to adopt an unbiased reporting style.

Hypothesis 6 - Unbiased Coverage

The stories are presented in an unbiased manner,

avoiding emotionally charged descriptors and

evaluative verbs in conveying the information.

Test Method 6 - Unbiased Coverage

Adjectives and verbs used to describe the First Lady and 67 her actions are recorded and judged on the evaluative direction and the degree of language intensity they reflect.

An overall assessment is made about the extent of bias reflected in the coverage.

Findings 6 - Unbiased Coverage

The summary findings for this section of the study are included on the following table. The amount of bias projected by each of the channels varies, so each medium will be discussed in turn. 68

TABLE 15 1993 HEDIA COVERAGE STORIES HENTIONIHG HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS UEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times T imes Post week Time News

BIAS / SLANT

Positive 2 1 0 5 4 2 2 4 1

Negative 2 4 0 1 7 0 3 0 1

Neutral 13 5 5 13 3 1 1 2

Mixed 2 6 6 3 8 1 1 1 2

SUBTOTALS 10 24 11 14 32 6 7 6 6

TOTALS 45 52 19

NOTE: 2 CBS stories and 1 New York Times story unavailable for analysis.

NOTE: Information is based on the analyses of PROMINENT stories unless otherwise indicated by by ALL following the category heading. Prominent stories 1) appear before the first conmercial on network television newscasts, 2) appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3} occupy more than one page in weekly news magazines.

Again it appears that television takes the least polarized approach. ABC has the greatest degree of variation, with 40% of its prominent stories showing directionality of bias (4 of the 10 stories on Hillary Clinton). But this difference is obscured by the fact that half of the polarized stories were positive and the other half negative. A quest for even-handed coverage seems to be driving the reporting.

CBS newscasts contain 79% of either neutral or mixed stories

(13 are neutral and 6 are mixed of the 24 total tapes available). The biased coverage that is included is not as evenly split as ABC, with only one positive story and four negative stories. NBC avoids an obvious bias in the 11 69 prominent stories reported on that network (five neutral and six mixed news stories). The results for television stories, then, give no reason to reject the hypothesis for unbiased coverage. A listing of the television stations, air dates, story titles and bias judgements is presented in the following table.

TABLE 16 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS - BIAS/SLANT

NTWK HON DATE POSITION TITLE BIAS

ABC 1 22 2 of 10 Hillary Clinton Neutral

ABC 3 17 1 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Hillary Clinton

ABC 4 14 1 of 15 Medicine & Money: Health Negat i ve Care Reform / Hospital Costs

ABC 5 25 1 of 11 Clinton / Health Care Neutral Reform

ABC 6 23 2 of 11 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform /Two Options / Hillary Clinton

ABC 9 15 1 of 14 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Republican Plan

ABC 9 16 1 of 10 Medicine: Health Care Mixed Reform

ABC 9 20 1 of 14 Medicine: Health Care Mixed Reform / Nashville, TN

ABC 9 28 2 of 14 Medicine: Health Care Positive Reform / Hillary Clinton

ABC 12 21 1 of 13 Clinton / Personal Life Negative

CBS 1 25 1 of 10 Clinton / Health Care Mixed Reform / Hillary Factor

CBS 2 4 4 of 14 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Hillary Clinton

CBS 2 11 2 of 12 Hillary Clinton / Neutral Pennsylvania Trip / Medical Reform TABLE 16 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS - BIAS/SLANT

NTUK HON DATE POSITION TITLE BIAS

CBS 2 15 2 of 8 Public Opinion / Hillary Neutral Clinton

CBS 2 22 1 of 12 Medicine / Economy: Health Neutral Care Reform / Hillary Clinton

CBS 3 29 1 of 13 Medicine: Health Care Plan Neutral / Forum

CBS 4 26 2 of 10 Health Care Reform: Neutral Prescription for Change (Corporate Exemption)

CBS 4 30 1 of 12 Health Care Reform: Neutral Prescription for Change (A Presentation)

CBS 5 7 1 of 9 Clinton / Campaign Reform / Negative Public Opinion

CBS 5 25 2 of 11 Health Care Reform / Neutral Prescription for Change

CBS 6 10 2 of U Health Care Reform / Mixed Hillary Clinton

CBS 6 18 2 of 17 Woodstock, VT / Hillary Mixed Clinton / Politics

CBS 7 28 1 of 12 Clintons / Health Care Negative Reform

CBS 8 9 1 of 12 Clinton / Economic Plan / Mixed Politics

CBS 9 15 1 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Republican Plan

CBS 9 17 1 of 10 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Paperwork / Multiple Transplant Operation

CBS 9 20 1 of 15 Medicine: Health Care Mixed Reform / Financing

CBS 9 23 1 of 13 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Clinton Plan

CBS 9 28 1 of 13 Medicine: Health Care Positive Reform / Hillary Clinton / Impact

CBS 10 21 3 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Missing Reform / Clinton 71

TABLE 16 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS - BIAS/SLANT

NTWK HON DATE POSITION TITLE BIAS

CBS 10 22 1 of 13 Medicine: Health Care Hissing Reform

CBS 10 26 1 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Clinton Plan / Hillary Interview

CBS 10 28 2 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Clinton Plan

CBS 11 1 2 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Negative Reform / Clinton Plan / Insurance Industry

CBS 11 4 1 of 11 Medicine; Health Care Negative Reform / Clinton

CBS 12 21 1 of 10 Clinton / Personal Life / Mixed Foster Suicide, State Troopers' Allegations

NBC 1 21 1 of 10 Clinton / Day One Neutral

NBC 1 27 2 of 11 Hillary Clinton / Poll Mixed

NBC 3 22 2 of 11 Clintons / Rodham Stroke / Neutral News Conference

NBC 4 8 2 of 13 Medicine: Health Care Mixed Reform / Tobacco Tax

NBC 5 11 2 of 13 The Health Revolution Mixed

NBC 5 26 1 of 12 Health Care Reform / Neutral Hillary Clinton

NBC 8 10 1 of 17 Foster Suicide / Note's Neutral Contents

NBC 10 26 1 of 12 Medicine: Health Care Mixed Reform / Clinton Plan / Hillary Interview

NBC 10 27 2 of 11 Medicine: Health Care Neutral Reform / Clinton Plan

NBC 12 20 2 of 14 Clinton / Personal Life Mixed

NBC 12 21 1 of 16 Clinton / Foster Suicide / Mixed Extramarital Allegations 72

TABLE 16 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKDAY EVENING TELEVISION NEWSCASTS - BIAS/SLANT

NTUK HON DATE POSITION TITLE BIAS

DIRECTION OF BIAS /SLANT

NTW< POS NEG (+) (-) NEUTRAL MIXED MISSING

ABC 1 2 5 2 0

CBS 1 4 13 6 2

NBC 0 0 5 6 0 The Los Angeles Times. in what appears to be emerging as a distinct pattern, provides a decidedly positive slant to news stories about the First Lady. Only 1 of the 14 prominent

199 3 stories reported in this newspaper is negatively slanted

(7% of the total). Five of the stories are positively biased and the other eight do not have a clear directional sway (five neutral and three mixed). The New York Times slants stories in a clear direction about one-third of the time; eleven stories of 32 show directionality while 21 are neutral or mixed. When bias is provided by the New York Times, it tends to be negative. The Washington Post appears to favor Mrs.

Clinton in prominent stories since none of the six entries are negative (two positive, three neutral and one mixed). But again, this is a very small sample and the scope of the study should be expanded before concrete conclusions are drawn. The results reported here, however, do not support the hypothesis for the unbiased nature of newspaper reporting. The following 73 table presents more detailed information on the front page newspaper stories that were coded.

TABLE 17 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

DAILY NEWSPAPERS - BIAS/SLANT

PAPER MONTH DATE LENG TITLE BIAS

LAX 1 17 L White House Floor Plan Neutral

LAX 1 22 HRC to Head Health Care Positive

LAX 1 26 L HRC to Head Health Care Positive

LAX 1 31 L HRC Take-Charge Attitude & Role Mixed

LAX 3 6 L Analysis of Power Role Negative

LAX 4 7 L Illness Personalizes Health Care Neutral

LAX 6 14 L AHA Offered "New Bargain" Neutral

LAX 7 8 L Japan - HRC Popular Mixed

LAX 7 20 L Los Angeles Visit Positive

LAX 8 10 L Appeal to AHA neutral

LAX 9 21 L Congressional Preview Neutral

LAX 9 29 L "Mother, wife, daughter, sister, Positive woman"

LAX 11 2 L Lashes Out S Insurance Industry Positive

LAX 12 22 L Infidelities Mixed

NYT 1 22 M New Job & New Office Mixed

NYT 1 26 M HRC To Head Panel on Health Care Mixed

HYT 1 27 H 2 HRCs: 1 Traditional & Mixed 1 Trailblazer

NYT 2 2 M HRCs New Ho(ne: Diet & Smoking Positive

NYT 2 5 M HRCs Vivid Display of Clout Positive

NYT 2 16 M Poll Finding: Ready for Mixed Sacrifice But Expect Fairness

NYT 2 17 H 2 Dozen New Taxes Mixed

NYT 3 4 M AMA Softening Stand on Changes Neutral

NYT 3 5 M White House Shuns AMA Negative

NYT 3 11 M Limits on Secret Sessions Negative 74

TABLE 17 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

DAILY NEWSPAPERS - BIAS/SLANT

PAPER MONTH DATE LENG TITLE BIAS

NYT 3 25 M Health Team Agrees to Let People Negative Speak, Quickly

NYT 4 9 M Future Doctors Unsettled by Neutral Health Care Changes

NYT 4 9 H Clintons Mourn Loss of Hugh Neutral Rodham

NYT 4 12 M BC Continues Old Drug Policies Neutral

NYT 4 28 H MICROFICHE MISSING FROM LIBRARY

NYT 5 27 H Best Friends In Tough Role Negative

NYT 5 27 M HRC Sets Aggressive Tone Negative

NYT 6 21 H Mail Deluges Clintons Mixed

NYT 6 23 H HRC 'De Facto' Federal Official Positive

NYT 7 3 M Travel Office Rebukes Negative

NYT 7 21 H Foster Suicide Neutral

NYT 7 30 H BC Gives Tax Plan Homey Touch Neutral

NYT 8 19 H Martha's Vineyard Vacation Neutral

NYT 8 24 S Martha's Vineyard Vacation Neutral

NYT 9 28 M Clinton at United Nations Neutral

NYT 9 29 H HRC on Capital Hill Mixed

NYT 10 15 H HRC Supports Dinkins Neutral

NYT 10 28 H Health Care Plan to Congress Neutral

NYT 11 2 H HRC Attacks Insurance Companies Negative

NYT 11 9 H Drug (Tagamet) Price Breaks Neutral

NYT 11 24 M Redecorated White House Positive

NYT 11 30 S Added Bit of Christmas Sparkle Neutral

NYT 12 22 M HRC Defends Husband Mixed

WP 1 26 L HRC Head Health Care Positive

UP 4 30 L Policy Role Mixed

UP 5 1 L Price Controls Neutral

UP 9 29 L House Comn. Testimony Positive 75

TABLE 17 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

DAILY NEWSPAPERS - BIAS/SLANT

PAPER MONTH DATE LENG TITLE BIAS

UP 11 2 H Lashes Out 3 Health Insurance Neutral Ind.

UP 12 23 M Madison Guaranty S & L/ Neutral Uhitewater

DIRECTION OF BIAS/SLANT

POS NEG NEUTRAL MIXED NEWSPAPER (+) (-)

LOS ANGELES TIMES 5 1 5 3

NEU YORK TIMES 4 7 13 8

UASHINGTON POST 2 0 3 1

Weekly magazines are less likely to hug the middle ground than the other two media channels. Time displays the most obvious bias, and that is in a flattering direction for

Hillary Clinton with four of the six prominent stories coded as positive. The remaining two Time stories are neutral and mixed. Both Newsweek and U. S. News & World Report spread the bias fairly evenly - possibly a result of the political ideology of various reporters working on the stories. Because

Time deviates from the neutral/mixed bias, the hypothesis of unbiased coverage must be discarded for weekly news magazines.

A listing of the stories is presented on the next page. TABLE 18 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

WEEKLY MAGAZINES -BIAS/SLANT

NAME MONTH DATE PAGE TITLE BIAS

Newsweek 2 15 18 Hi Ilary's Role Negative

Newsweek 2 15 22 'We Are All in This Mixed Together'

Newsweek 2 15 24 Look Out, It's Positive Superwoman!

Newsweek 3 29 20 Hillary's Hard Sell Positive

Newsweek 6 28 38 Why Wait for Hillary? Negative

Newsweek 11 1 24 'Big Sister' and Critics Negative

Newsweek 12 6 26 Hillary's House Neutral

Time 1 4 34 "First We Have to Roll Up Positive Our Sleeves"

T ime 1 4 38 The Dynamic Duo Positive

Time 3 22 36 Operation Hillary Positive

T ime 5 10 28 At the Center of Power Positive

T ime 10 11 26 Here Comes Doctor No Neutral

T ime 11 8 36 "Please Help Us" Mixed

U.S. News 1 25 46 Now, the First Chief Mixed Advocate

U.S. News 2 8 30 Co-President Clinton? Mixed

U.S. News 5 3 42 'There's a Lot More Neutral Coming'

U.S. News 5 10 32 America's First (Working) Positive Couple

U.S. News 10 11 10 'A Mother, a Wife, a Neutral Woman'

U.S. News 11 1 41 Wonks at Play: The New Negative Health Plan

DIRECTIOH OF BIAS/SLANT

POS NEG NEUTRAL MIXED (+) (-)

NEWSWEEK 2 3 1 1

TIME 4 0 1 1

U.S. 1 1 2 2 NEWS 77

Proposition 7 - Framing

In presenting stories, the media can frame them in an episodic, a thematic, or a mixed manner. Episodic frames are focused on the here and now; they represent a particular case or a specific event. They tend to be more dramatic than thematic frames and lead the audience to assign responsibility to specific individuals rather than exploring societal or more complex causality. Earlier, the episodic frame was likened to the entertainment value of television; this is because the episodic frame is more conflict-ridden and emphasizes drama.

Thematic frames, in contrast, place the story in some larger context and provide a more historical view of the event or case presented. Thematic frames are often employed when an historical backdrop is necessary to explain the issue.

The essential difference between episodic and thematic framing is that episodic framing depicts concrete events that illustrate issues, while thematic framing presents collective or general evidence. Visually, episodic reports make "good pictures," while thematic reports feature "talking heads"

(Iyengar, 1991, p. 14). An example may help to clarify the difference. When the World Trade Center was bombed in New

York City last summer, the episodic frame showed the arrest of

Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman or the immediate impact of the bomb; the thematic frame explored the escalating tensions between the Islamic and Moslem factions and the reasons for the 78 growing animosity between the groups. One style is dramatic and isolated, the other more comprehensive and exploratory.

Hypothesis 7 - Framing

Episodic framing dominates the reporting frames

used across all nine sources, but differences in

the media channels lead to print coverage

evidencing a higher percentage of thematic frames

than the televised coverage.

Test Method 7 - Framing

Each prominent story is reviewed to see if an episodic, a thematic, or a mixed frame is provided.

Findings 7 - Framing

Table 19 on the following page presents a summarized overview across all news outlets. Since television news of the First Lady is entirely episodic in this study, and the other media channels show little variability, the hypothesis is not rejected. 79

TABLE 19 1993 HEDIA COVERAGE STORIES HENTIOHING HILUUIY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week Time News

FRAHIMG

Episodic 10 24 11 7 30 5 5 6 6

Thematic 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0

Equal 0 0 0 3 2 1 0 0 0

* Prominent stories 1) Appear before the first cotimercial on network television newscasts, 2) Appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3} Occupy cnore than one page in weekly news magazines.

Episodic reporting is the norm across all news sources.

Television stories in this study are entirely episodic, a finding that is easy to understand when the plurality of news stories are less than two minutes. Newspaper coverage is the most likely channel to offer a thematic frame or to present both episodic and thematic background. The Los Angeles Times provides the most in-depth coverage if thematic framing is used to operationalize that concept. Half the stories appearing on the front page of the Los Anaeles Times are either thematic in nature or evenly split between episodic and thematic.

Newsweek is the only weekly magazine to use a thematic frame. It does so for two of the seven stories ("Why Wait for

Hillary?" on 6/28/93 and "Hillary's House" on 12/06/93). 80

Proposition 8 - Visuals

Including visuals attracts attention and heightens interest. As the old saw goes, "a picture is worth a thousand words."

Hypothesis 8 - Visuals

Visuals will be present in more than half the

printed news stories.

Test Method 8 - Visuals

The pictures, illustrations, and visual elements are counted for each story.

Findings 8 - Visuals

The presence of visual images is analyzed only for the print channels since television is, by its very nature, a visual medium and comparisons between channels with such marked differences would not be meaningful. 81

TABLE 20 1993 NEWS COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

NEWSPAPERS - VISUAL ELEMENTS

LOS ANGELES TIMES NEW YORK TIMES WASHINGTON POST TOTALS TYPE OF VISUAL # # # It STORIES STORIES STORIES STORIES WITH X OF WITH % OF WITH % OF WITH % OF VISUALS TOT VISUALS TOT VISUALS TOT VISUALS TOT

NONE 35 61% 97 47% 46 41% 178 47%

PHOTO 21 37% 103 50% 59 53% 183 49%

ILLUS. 1 2% 5 2% 6 5% 12 3%

CARTOON 0 0% 1 0% 0 0% 1 0%

TABLE 0 0% 2 1% 1 1% 3 1%

TOTALS 57 100% 208 100% 112 100% 377 100% Across all newspapers, the average probability that a story includes a visual element is 53%, therefore the hypothesis is borne out. Visual elements can be photographs, illustrations, charts, graphs, cartoons, or tables. The Los

Angeles Times uses the fewest visuals when conveying information on the First Lady, perhaps due to the geographical distance separating the bases of operations for the newspaper and Hillary Clinton. The New York Times and the Washington

Post are similar in respect to the inclusion of visual accompaniments. While the Los Angeles Times runs over 60% of the stories without accompaniment, the other two newspapers choose to run only text in less than half their stories (NYT

= 47% and WP = 41%). More investigation needs to be done to determine whether the inclusion of fewer visuals by the Los 82

Angeles Times is true for all types of stories, or if regional differences might have influenced the outcome in this case.

If fewer visuals are included for all Washington news sources, a case could be made for bi-coastal limitations. Perusing the different newspapers did not disclose a marked difference in the layouts or print/photograph compositions.

Table 12 on page 60 shows that, on average, U.S. News &

World Report runs more photographs per story than the other two weekly news magazines in this initial study. Again, this is because the other two magazines are more likely to run much shorter articles which do not have a visual element.

Proposition 9 - Beat Reporters

The media operate as businesses. They have employees on the payroll who are responsible for various duties. Certain reporters are assigned certain beats. Repeat coverage by the same individuals is expected.

Hypothesis 9 - Beat Reporters

The same reporters will cover stories dealing with the

First Ladv.

Test Method 9 - Beat Reporters

Bylines on prominent print material are recorded so the results can be tallied. The television reporters and anchors 83 for 1993 stories involving the First Lady are noted so a determination of consistency can be made.

Findings 9 - Beat Reporters

TABLE 21 1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times Times Post week Time News

BEAT REPORTERS

# in Bylines 11 29 13 23 31 6 13 11 11

# of Individuals 6 6 6 12 15 2 11 9 5

Prominent stories 1) Appear before the first conmercial on network television newscasts, 2) Appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3) Occupy more than one page in weekly news magazines.

"The face of the news is predominantly male," according to the Women, Men and Media Project at the University of

Southern California. This appears to be the case, with the exception of CBS. across channels and outlets. At ABC eleven people are shown relating the ten prominent stories, ten of the reporters are male and one is female. Brit Hume is included in four newscasts, the most for a single reporter.

Jackie Judd, the lone female, reported on one story (9/28/93

Congressional testimony).

CBS represents a radical departure from the male- dominated media world. Twenty-four prominent stories (two 84 evening newscasts are not videotaped) are presented by 29 newspeople. Linda Douglass reports on 18 of the stories.

Rita Braver covers four stories and the four men on the CBS news team report on three or fewer stories.

NBC has 11 prominent stories and uses 13 reporters to tell the stories - nine male and four female. Andrea Mitchell is the most visible correspondent with four stories. Tom

Brokaw provides information on three stories and the other four station members have only one or two opportunities to report on the First Lady.

The Los Angeles Times uses the most people to provide coverage - 23 reporters for 14 stories. Seventeen of the reporters are male and six are female. Edwin Chen's name appears most often (eight stories) while seven other names appear only once. The New York Times lists twice as many male reporters than female journalists on prominent First Lady stories (ten male reporters versus five females). The

Washington Post used only two reporters - Dana Priest and

Susan Schmidt - to report the six front page stories on

Hillary Rodham Clinton. This was the most concentrated use of personnel for all the channels.

The weekly magazines typically employ two or more writers on prominent articles. Newsweek uses 13 people to write seven articles. Time and U.S. News & World Report both produce six articles and list 11 people in the bylines. Although familiar 85 names appear regularly, it was expected that fewer individuals would be employed to produce the news on the First Lady beat.

Hypothesis 9 is rejected.

Proposition 10 - Congruence

And, finally, human beings crave consistency (Heider,

1958). People want balance and strive for a consistent interpretation of events (Fiske & Taylor, 1991, pp. 462-475).

When a producer or an editor pulls together the various elements to generate the final news story, he/she will seek out supporting images, text, lead-ins and wrap-ups.

Hypothesis 10 - Congruence

A high level of congruence occurs, regardless of

channel, among different elements within the news

storv (headline. storv title. lead-in. storv

content, visuals, closing comments, sources cited,

etc.).

Test Method 10 - Congruence

An overall assessment is made to determine if the various elements (i.e., headlines/lead-ins, information in the story, visual images, concluding passages) appear to be congruent. 86

Findings 10 - Congruence

Television offers the highest degree of congruence of three channels reviewed here. The hypothesis holds true for this medium.

TABLE 22 1993 Na>IA COVERAGE STORIES (ENTIONING HILLARY CLINTON

TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS WEEKLY MAGAZINES

L.A. N.Y. Wash. mim News­ U.S. ABC CBS NBC Times T iraes Post week T ime News iSissS CONGRUITY

Yes, Present 10 24 11 8 27 4 4 6 6 numf No, Absent 0 0 0 6 5 2 3 0 0

* Prominent stories 1) Appear before the first conmercial on network television newscasts, 2) Appear on the front page of daily newspapers, and 3) Occupy more than one page in weekly news magazines.

It is not surprising that the source employing the most reporters would have the least congruence. This is the case with the Los Angeles Times. Four of the nine news sources shown here lack congruity, and three of these sources are newspapers. Every newspaper had incongruous elements while none of the television sources did. And Newsweek was the only weekly news magazine to display a lack of congruity. The hypothesis must be rejected for newspaper and weekly magazine media. 87

DISCUSSION

Why is it important to look at the coverage afforded the

First Lady? She is, after all, unelected, unpaid, and has no formal job description. Why bother with what the media think of her at all?

The First Lady is married to the man elected to lead the

United States. This relationship thrusts her into the public spotlight. The American people recognize her as one of the most visible and prominent role models for women. What she does and what she says are reported to the public who judge her actions in reference to their expectations for appropriate female behavior. If she engages in controversial acts or statements, the public discussion that ensues contributes to a reevaluation of attitudes. Hillary chooses to retain her maiden name and the rest of the country examines their feelings about autonomy and dependence in marriage. Hillary addresses a bipartisan gathering of Congress, generating discussion and perhaps causing business leaders to explore their feelings about a woman's capacity to assume responsible positions.

The First Lady also has unparalleled access to her husband's time and attention. She shares her life with the man who heads the nation. She is in an enviable lobbying position to advance concerns that affect her. She has more opportunity to provide input than most of the President's 88 closest advisors. If she adopts an active and involved interest in the affairs of state, the outcome of major policy decisions potentially differs from the results if she were to choose to remain uninvolved.

A Presidential spouse can help set the agenda for social concerns. When her time and energy are expended on a project

(Nancy Reagan's "Just say no" campaign, for instance) the subject is covered on the evening news, in newspapers, and in weekly magazines. The interest generated by this coverage propels the topic into the front of America's collective consciousness. This is a powerful opportunity for her to make her mark on history.

The First Lady's position as a spouse, a role model, a lobbyist and an agenda setter places her in the spotlight.

The media are interested in what she is doing and saying.

They report information about her to the American public. If differences exist among media channels, mixed messages are sent to the news consumers. This study indicates that coverage of the First Lady is not monolithic - some outlets give her more attention than others, some confer more prominance to stories about her, and the bias of stories ranges between negative, neutral, positive, and mixed. The next step is to devise methods to measure the impact of these differences.

The seminal work presented here is an initial attempt to 89 develop a more systematic and scientific way of evaluating media coverage of First Ladies. Further research needs to be done to verify whether the initial findings reported here are sound. Multiple coders are needed and the scope of the work should be expanded. Additional research should explore the non-verbal content in news coverage as well as the presence of visual images. Burgoon (1985) distinguished classes of nonverbal behavior that can be coded (i.e., kinesics, physical appearance, haptics, proxemics, artifacts). Facial expressions reflect both pleasantness and intensity, the two basic dimensions of emotion (Schlosberg, 1954). It would be interesting to discover whether or not the different outlets systematically select flattering or non-flattering visuals of the First Lady.

The time period covered in this study focused on Hillary

Rodham Clinton's first year in the White House. Stories on the Whitewater affair and her involvement with the failed

Arkansas savings and loan, Madison Guaranty, were just breaking at the end of this period. Information about improbable financial gains made through commodities trading didn't receive much attention. Allegations of her husband's marital infidelity cropped up just before Christmas. If the work is to be continued, a category for 'character' should be added to the content section instead of lumping these stories into the indistinguishable 'other' category. 90

Women's role in society is changing. Shifts in women's employment status, earning potential, and the division of child-care and housekeeping responsibilities prompt a re­ examination of expectations for females in our culture. At the forefront, serving as a very visible leader, is Hillary

Rodham Clinton. The case study presented here explores how the media represent the First Lady to the public. The norms that are adopted for defining who she is and what she does will have an impact on the rest of society.

The media disseminate information about distant political figures, setting the American agenda, framing the issues, and priming an audience response. The First Lady is a role model for women in America and much of what is known about her by the public is supplied by news media. Hillary Clinton is changing the role of First Lady, adopting a more involved and active approach than her recent predecessors. How the media report on her actions and words will influence attitudes and expectations about women's place in society. Hillary Rodham

Clinton has made and will continue to make her mark on history. Her example challenges the status quo regarding a woman's place in society. Additional studies and research should be conducted to chart the changes and gauge her impact on American history. 91

APPENDIX A

Hillairy Rodbam Clinton - A Brief Synopsis of Her Life

10/47 Born to Hugh and Dorothy Rodham in Chicago, Illinois.

1950 Rodhams move to a suburban environ, Park Ridge,

Illinois.

1952 Hillary stands up to a neighborhood girl who

bullies her.

1956 At 9 years of age Hillary decides she likes her

name (Rodham), and will retain it even after

marriage.

1960's Hillary is influenced by Reverend Don Jones at First

United Methodist church. She hears Martin Luther

King, Jr. preach in Chicago.

Hillary wins Good Citizen Award from the Daughters

of the American Revolution in high school.

1961 Hillary writes to NASA about astronautical

aspirations only to discover that NASA does not

accept women in that capacity.

1963 Hillary, at age 16, has already organized

neighborhood Olympics, a child care program for

migrant workers, and a voter registration drive.

1964 Campaigns as a Goldwater Girl.

Hillary graduates in top 5% of class, picking up

the tag "Sister Frigidair" from the High School

newspaper predictions for seniors. 1965 Hillary is accepted at both Smith and Wellesley;

she decides to attend Wellesley.

1967 Begins to feel Vietnam War is wrong.

1968 Hillary witnesses the Democratic National

Convention in Chicago. Supports McCarthy.

1969 Hillary is elected president of College Government.

V'Jrites thesis on "Aspect of the War on Poverty."

Graduates from Wellesley. Gives the commencement

speech (her photo and excerpts of her speech appear

in Life). Peter Edelman invites Hillary to attend

a League of Women Voters conference. Backpacks

through Alaska and is fired from job at a fish

cannery after arguing with management about the

quality of the fish. Yale Law School accepts her.

1970 Meets Marian Wright Edelman, requests a job, writes

a grant proposal to fund her position at Washington

Research Project, the forerunner to the Children's

Defense Fund. Works for Walter Mondale's Senate

subcommittee studying the plight of migrant

workers.

1971 Hillary introduces herself to Bill Clinton.

1972 Hillary & Bill campaign for McGovern in Texas.

1973 Hillary serves as the editor for the Yale Law

Review. Receives law degree from Yale. 1974 Hillary serves on the House Judiciary Coiwnittee

investigating Richard Nixon's ties to Watergate.

Moves to Fayetteville, Arkansas to teach law

school. Bill runs for House of Representatives;

Hillary, her parents, and her two brothers help

with the campaign, but Bill loses.

10/75 Marries Bill Clinton.

1976 As #2 coordinator in Indiana, campaigns for Jimmy

Carter.

1977 Hillary co-founds Arkansas Advocates for Children

and Families.

1978 Bill wins Governor's race. Enters into Whitewater

investment scheme with McDougal.

1979 In February, becomes a partner at Rose Law Firm.

Writes Children's Rights ; Contemporary

Perspectives. Rumors circulate of Bill's affairs.

Hillary, with assistance of James Blair, makes a

killing in agricultural-commodities futures.

1980 Gives birth to Chelsea. Bill loses the Governor's

race.

1981 Undergoes a makeover focusing more on fashion,

appearance, and more subdued demeanor.

1982 Hillary takes pains to charm Arkansas Democrat's

managing editor and columnist, John Robert Starr.

Bill wins Governor's race. 198 3 Heads committee on educational reforms.

1984 Bill easily wins re-election. Roger Clinton is

arrested for dealing cocaine.

1985 Bill founds the Democratic Leadership Council.

Hillary heads Home Instruction Program for

Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY). Hillary represents

Madison Guaranty Savings & Loan before the state

securities commissioner.

1986 Bill wins re-election. Hillary chairs the

Children's Defense Fund (CDF).

1987 Bill flirts with idea of running for President, but

quickly rejects it when Hart scandal breaks

(Hillary weeps at news conference held to announce

his non-candidacy). Hillary's educational

standards are implemented in Arkansas. U.S.

District Court Judge Henry Woods appoints Hillary

counsel to a special committee for a Little Rock

school-desegregation case. Hillary agrees

(somewhat reluctantly) to chair American Bar

Association on Women in the Profession. Hillary

chairs the Children's Defense Fund (CDF). McDougal

requests all Whitewater documents be sent to

Governor's Mansion.

1988 Hillary chairs CDF. Hillary named to the country's

top 100 lawyers. Bill bombs the nominating speech for Michael Dukakis; shores up damage with

appearance on Johnny Carson^s Tonight Show.

1989 Hillary chairs CDF. She toys with idea of running

for Governor herself. Hillary accosts Bill's

opponent, Tom McRae, at his press conference.

Federal regulators take over Madison S & L. Plan

adopted to leave Black schools segregated but to

give those schools more money; Judge Woods rejects

the settlement; Hillary asks Judge Woods if she

could present arguments opposing the monetary

agreement her husband hammered out; Judge Woods

declines her offer; settlement is upheld by Eighth

Circuit.

1990 Hillary chairs CDF. Bill promises to serve 4 years

in Arkansas & wins re-election. Larry Nichols

files a lawsuit alleging Clinton involved in

extramarital affairs.

Serves on panel for National Center for Education

and the Economy as a paid lobbyist.

1991 Hillary chairs CDF. Hillary again is named as one

of the country's top 100 lawyers. In July,

Arkansas is sued by the National Center for Youth

Law, Central Arkansas Legal Service, and Ozark

Legal Services over child welfare; Bill lobbies for

a $57 million bill to address problem; five weeks after passage of bill, Clinton administration

initiates an appeal and ties up the funding.

1992 Hillary resigns as CDF chair to help Bill campaign. 97

1993

JANUARY

11 The University of Arkansas Press agrees to publish

a volume of Hillary Clinton's legal writings and

speeches (Washington Post).

15 Names Margaret Williams as chief of staff and

Melanne Verveer as deputy chief of staff

(Washington Post).

17 Plans to occupy offices in the East Wing and the

West Wing of the White House (Los Angeles Times).

19 Visits with the public on the Washington Mall

(Washington Post).

2 0 Inauguration. Hillary wears a hat, has spent

$14,300 on a new wardrobe (Washington Post).

22 President seeks Hillary's help on health care (Los

Angeles Times).

2 6 Bill says Hillary will head the health care reform

committee (Washington Post).

Hillary's first trip as 1st lady is to New York

City (NBC 1/26/93).

2 7 Phones congressional powerhouses privately while

publicly visiting schools (Washington Post).

29 A mini-controversy is brewing over the use of

Hillary's maiden name (Washington Post).

3 0 Real estate agent in Little Rock uses unauthorized 98

photo of himself with Hillary to drum up business

(Washington Post).

3 0-31 Camp David retreat to strategize; Hillary

stresses the need for a coherent story to

convey to the public (Woodward, pp. 109-

110). FEBRUARY

3 No-smoking policy in White House is announced

(Washington Post).

5 Hillary meets with 3 0 Democratic senators on

Capital Hill to discuss health care reform

(Washington Post).

Consoles family of slain CIA employees at a

memorial service (Washington Post).

7 Meeting in White House with Ira Magaziner and

Economic Team regarding a possible medical price

freeze (Woodward, p. 123).

10 Rep. Wm dinger Jr. (R-PA) questions open meeting

laws in regard to the health care committee

(Washington Post).

11 Hillary visits Pennsylvania to address health care reform

(ABC, CBS, NBC 2/11/93).

16 Hillary makes a trip to Capitol Hill to promote

health care (ABC, NBC 2/16/93).

17 Bill delivers his economic speech, Hillary sits in

the audience by Alan Greenspan, head of the Federal

Reserve (Woodward). 100

MARCH

2 Hillary visits Congressional Black & Hispanic

caucuses to express willingness to increase

minority group participation in the health care

reform (Washington Post).

Hillary meets with Betty Ford to talk about health

care issues (CBS 3/02/93).

4 Justice Dept. says a federal law on secret meeting

policy is unconstitutional and asks a federal judge

to throw out a request to open up health care

reform meeting (Washington Post).

Hillary visits Louisiana to promote health care reform

(Washington Post; ABC 3/04/93).

10 Federal judge rules that health care meetings must

be open to the public (Washington Post).

12 Six female senators meet with Hillary to urge the

administration to focus on family needs when

developing health care reform (Washington Post).

13 Hillary arrives in Tampa, Florida for the first of

a series of national health care forums focusing on

health care (Washington Post).

17 Health care price controls are possible proposal offered

by Task Force (ABC, NBC).

22 Hillary's father, Hugh Rodham, suffers a stroke in

Little Rock, Arkansas (ABC). us District Court ruling on open meetings is appealed by Clinton administration (Washington

Post).

Open forum on health care reform is held (ABC, CBS). 102

APRIL

1 Health Care Task Force virtually rules out price

freeze on doctors' charges and hospital fees (ABC).

2 Health Care Task Force will not meet deadline due

to Hugh Rodham's illness (ABC)

4 Hillary addresses an issues conference for

Democratic senators in Jamestown, Virginia (New

Yorker).

7 After two-week vigil at father's side, Hillary

delivers speech about "crisis of meaning and

spirituality" (Washington Post).

8 Hugh Rodham dies.

14 Task force considers a value-added tax (ABC).

21 Hillary tells Senate Finance Committee that the

administration will propose taxing some employee

health benefits (Washington Post).

Hillary speaks at a National Youth Service Day

ceremony (Washington Post).

26 A panel of health care professionals will review

the Task Force's options (ABC).

3 0 Hillary presents a preview of the Clinton health

care plan to Congress (CBS, NBC). 103

MAY

6 Hillary talks to NBC about raising Chelsea in the

White House.

7 Hillary meets with business leaders about health

care reform & its costs in Williamsburg, Virginia.

13 Hillary delivers the commencement address at

University of Pennsylvania (Washington Post).

17 Hillary gets a new hairdo (CBS).

20 Internal debate on the size of health care reform

(Woodward pp. 198-9).

2 3 Hillary listens to small business owners in

Baltimore, Maryland discuss their problems with

health insurance system (Washington Post).

26 Hillary attacks the insurance industry over health

care price gouging (Woodward, p. 2 00).

28 Hillary recognized at National Legal Aid & Defender

Associations' 3rd annual awards dinner (Washington

Post).

Hillary delivers speech at University of Texas

(Washington Post).

Interviews David Gergen (Woodward, p. 2 09). 104

JUNE

10 Hillary gets tepid response from Bethune-DuBois

Fund audience after veiled reference to Lani

Guinier (Washington Post).

Hillary is interviewed by NBC on health care

reform, mistakes in the administration, and her

role in Supreme Court appointment.

14 Addresses annual convention of American Medical

Association (Washington Post).

15 Lobbying efforts by the AMA are profiled on ABC.

18 Hillary sells health care reform to a meeting of

Democratic governors in Woodstock, Vermont (ABC).

23 US Court of Appeals decides closed meetings are

okay (Washington Post).

Thomas Foley urges President Clinton to put off

health care refojrm until the budget is completed

(ABC).

27 Hillary is featured guest at fund-raiser for Dem.

Mary Sue Terry's campaign for Virginia Governor but

no media coverage allowed (Washington Post). 105

JULY

2 Confidential meeting with consultants on economic

strategy (Woodward, p. 242).

3 Meeting with Bill Clinton and chief of staff

McLarty on how to sell economic plan (Woodward).

7 Japanese are fascinated with Hillary who is there

for G-7 economic summit (Washington Post).

8 Hillary lunches with prominent Japanese women while

Bill meets with opinion leaders (Washington Post).

9 Reaction of Japanese to Hillary is reported (ABC,

CBS, NBC).

14 Hillary discusses health care on Hawaiian vacation

(Washington Post).

2 0 Hillary gives two speeches stating that all

Americans should be covered and mental health care

should be included (NBC).

21 Vince Foster commits suicide (ABC).

28 Hillary tries to revive talks on health care reform

(CBS). 106

AUGUST

9 Hillary talks to a meeting of the American Hospital

Association in Orlando, Florida (NBC).

10 Hillary talks about White House changes in

connection to Foster's suicide (NBC).

11 Hillary & Bill open a campaign to sell health care

reform plan (CBS). 107

SEPTEMBER

3 White House redecoration is unveiled (ABC, NBC).

9 Hillary campaigns before Congress on health care

(ABC, CBS).

10 Health care costs are addressed (CBS, NBC).

15 Republican's alternate health care plan is

presented (ABC, CBS, NBC).

15 In a White House meeting, Hillary tells Charlie

Rose (D-NC), about possibility of $0.75/pack tax on

cigarettes (Washington Post).

17 Hillary campaigns in Minneapolis, Minnesota to sell

health care reform (CBS, NBC).

2 0 Background briefings on health care policy given to

ABC, CBS, & NBC (Washington Post).

21 Hillary directs bipartisan, bicameral briefing on

health care reform for more than 300 legislators

(Washington Post).

NBC interviews Hillary about health care reform.

23 CBS interviev;s Hillary about health care reform.

24 Hillary is profiled on ABC news.

28 Hillary campaigns on Capitol Hill on behalf of

health care reform (ABC, CBS, NBC).

29 Hillary testifies before House Education and Labor

Committees on health care (Washington Post).

3 0 Third day of appearances before Congress by Hillary. Meets with Senate Finance Committee (ABC,

CBS, NBC). 109

OCTOBER

11 Congress growing impatient waiting for legislative

details on health care plan (CBS).

14 Hillary tapes an episode for "Sesame Street" about

the importance of good eating habits (CBS, NBC).

22 CBS compares the administration's health care plan

and the alternative plan in Congress.

2 6 ABC interviews Hillary about health care plan.

CBS outlines changes under health care plan.

NBC interviews Hillary about health care plan.

A surprise party is given for Hillary to celebrate

her birthday (Time).

27 Health care plan is presented to Congress (ABC,

CBS, NBC).

28 CBS presents reaction to the health care plan by

Senate Finance Committee.

30 Hillary debates health care reform with leading GOP

senators (Washington Post). 110

NOVEMBER

1 Hillary lashes out at health insurance industry in

an address to the American Academy of Pediatrics

(Washington Post).

9 Hillary attends a fund-raiser to send more

Democratic women to the US Senate (Washington

Post).

11 Federal government is investigating McDougals

(NBC).

2 0 Hillary tours the Defense Dept. (Washington Post).

2 3 Hillary travels to Georgia promote health care

reform (Washington Post).

29 Hillary places star on top of national Christmas

tree (NBC). Ill

DECEMBER

8 Hillary travels to Boston, Mass. to a regional

"health summit" (Washington Post).

15 NBC reports "Wall Street Journal" poll results on

public's view of Hillary.

17 Questions about whether the health care crisis is

real (CBS).

21 Hillary responds to allegations by Arkansas state

troopers that her husband was involved with other

women (ABC, CBS, NBC). APPENDIX B 112

CODING SHEET - HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON & THE MEDIA

AAAGAZINE PAPER TV Placement:

Source: Length:

Date: Writer/Reporter: M or F

CONTENT: POUCY or CEREMONY or OTHER

If POUCY: % Game/Strategy + % Substance/Policy Content

ROLE: % Role Model % Helpmate % Policy Partner

CONTENT:

Adjectives:

Verbs:

Sources:

Slant: POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEUTRAL MIXED Balance: = or <>

Framing: % Episodic + % Thematic

Congruence:

Photo/Illustration Present? YES NO 113

APPENDIX B

Instructions for Coding 1993 Media Coverage

HRC & THE MEDIA

1) Circle the type of media coverage: magazine, paper or tv.

2) List the source: ABC. CBS. NBC. Los Angeles Times. New York Times. Washincfton Post. Newsweek. Time or U.S. News & World Report.

3) Fill in the date the item appeared.

4) List the placement of the story: for television state the placement of the story and the total number of stories for that evening's newscast (i.e., 1 of 12); for newspapers record the section, page number and column number; for weekly news magazines write down the page numbers.

5) Indicate the length of the story: television stories are measured by the minutes and seconds; newspapers by S (short - up to 6 column inches), M (medium - 6 - 18 inches), or L (long - over 18 inches); magazines by the number of words in the article.

6) Record the name(s) and sex(es) of the writer(s)/reporter(s). If a unisex name appears (i.e., Dana) skip the sex information; a follow-up telephone call will be made to that outlet to inquire about the reporter's gender.

7) Review the news story. Make one mark above "Policy," "Ceremony," and "Other" each time the story presents information that falls into these categories. Not every sentence will need to be coded - look for main themes, generally within each paragraph.

Policy - deals with substantive issues of government and public policy. Examples would be health care, education, pending legislation, etc. Coding Sheet - HRC & THE MEDIA Page 2

Ceremony - focuses on performances traditionally associated with the social side of the First Lady's job (i.e., Easter egg roll on White House lawn, trimming Christmas tree, entertaining celebrities or hostessing for visiting dignitaries, etc.).

Other - includes character issues, family relationships, personal issues (i.e., role as mother, biographical information, likes and dislikes, etc.).

Once the story is coded, divide the number of marks appearing over each category by the total number of marks to determine the percentages for each content type.

8) If the story is judged to be predominantly "Policy" review the contents again, marking each time a passage appears to be focused on "game/strategy" or "Substance/policy content."

Game/strategy - Interested in the maneuverings of individuals. Focuses on personalities instead of issues. Hard details are missing and affective elements are stressed.

Substance/policy - Facts, figures, details, historical background, or cognitive content.

Add the marks to determine the total number. Divide the number of marks per category by the total number of marks to determine percentages.

9) Review the news story to determine the role or function Mrs. Clinton is performing. Again, make marks above the categories so a percentage breakdown can be determined.

Role Model - Holds First Lady up as an example worthy of emulation or paints her as a figurehead for a much larger group (i.e., "superwoman," or new type of working wife, or hardworking but caring mother), Coding Sheet - HRC & THE MEDIA Page 3

Helpmate - Focuses on the assistance the First Lady extends to her husband.

Policy Partner - Contains information about the First Lady's involvement in affairs of state.

10) Briefly outline the news story, including only the highlights of the coverage in the contents section.

11) List the adjectives used to describe Mrs. Clinton or her actions. Put symbols beside the words to indicate whether they are positive (+), negative (-), neutral (0), or mixed (+/")•

12) List the verbs used to describe Mrs. Clinton's activities. Put symbols beside the words to indicate whether they are positive (+), negative (-), neutral (0), or mixed (+/-).

13) Record the sources cited in the article. Determine if they are supportive (+), critical (-), neutral (0), or mixed (+/-) of the First Lady and mark this information beside their names.

14) Review the content, adjectives and verbs to determine the degree of bias present. If more than 50% of the coverage is judged to fall into one category, circle the corresponding category on the coding sheet. If there is not a clear majority, determine whether the overall slant is mixed or neutral (usually it will be mixed).

15) Look at the sources cited in the story. Apply the same guidelines for determining balance as you did for finding the bias/slant.

16) Review the story for information on episodic or thematic framing. Again, make marks when you note a particular frame, sum the category totals, and assign percentages.

Episodic - focus on the present without providing background information. Conflict, drama, stereotyping, individual assignment of blame. 116

Coding Sheet - HRC & THE MEDIA Page 4

Thematic - more context provided, history of problem laid out, complexity of issue explored, solutions suggested.

If the story is coded over two-thirds episodic or thematic, assign that label to the entire story. If the breakdown is less, record the overall assessment as "mixed."

17) Review the headline/lead-in, the story content, the accompanying visuals (if any), and the story's closing to determine if a uniform representation of the story is offered or if there are discordant elements. Record the information in the congruence section.

18) Check to see if visuals (photographs, illustrations, charts, graphs, tables, cartoons, etc.) are present and circle "yes" or "no." If there are visuals, count the number of occurrences and record that information beside the circled "yes."

19) Look over the coding sheet to see if any information is missing. Master's Thesis - Maty H. [)eCamp APPENDIX C 117

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HIliARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. IDATE IDAY I I ABC | CBS | NBC

1 1 FRIDAY 1 2 SATURDAY 1 3 SUNDAY 1 4 MONDAY 1 5 TUESDAY 1 6 WEDNESDAY 1 7 THURSDAY 1 8 FRIDAY 1 9 SATURDAY 1 10 SUNDAY Advisory Role 1 n MONDAY X 1 12 TUESDAY 1 13 WEDNESDAY Interview 1 14 THURSDAY X Inaug. Fashion 1 15 FRIDAY X 1 16 SATURDAY 1 17 SUNDAY Bros. Return $ 1 18 MONDAY X 1 19 TUESDAY 1 20 WEDNESDAY Policy Role 1 21 THURSDAY Advisory Role X,X <- Open House 1 22 FRIDAY X 1 23 SATURDAY 1 24 SUNDAY Head Health Head Health 1 25 MONDAY X X 1 26 TUESDAY NYC Trip-> X 1 27 WEDNESDAY Poll Results -> X,X <- Comment 1 28 THURSDAY Hith Care 1 29 FRIDAY 1 30 SATURDAY 1 31 SUNDAY 2 1 MONDAY 2 2 TUESDAY 2 3 WEDNESDAY Health Care 2 4 THURSDAY X Betty Friedan 2 5 FRIDAY X 2 6 SATURDAY 2 7 SUNDAY Policy Role 2 8 MONDAY X 2 9 TUESDAY Role/Comment -> X 2 10 WEDNESDAY Penn. Trip Penn. Trip Penn. Trip 2 11 THURSDAY X X X 2 12 FRIDAY Master's Thesis - Mary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 118

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIOt-JING HILLARY CUtvlTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

IMP. IDATE |DAY | | ABC | CBS | NBC

2 13 SATURDAY 2 14 SUNDAY Poll Results 2 15 MONDAY Visits Hill X Visits Hill 2 16 TUESDAY X X 2 17 WEDNESDAY 2 18 THURSDAY 2 19 FRIDAY 2 20 SATURDAY 2 21 SUNDAY Health Care 2 22 MONDAY X Income/Comment 2 23 TUESDAY X 2 24 WEDNESDAY 2 25 THURSDAY Baseball 2 26 FRIDAY X 2 27 SATURDAY 2 28 SUNDAY 3 1 MONDAY Caucuses Betty Ford Caucuses 3 2 TUESDAY X X X 3 3 WEDNESDAY AAAA l.ouisiana Trip 3 4 THURSDAY X X 3 5 FRIDAY 3 6 SATURDAY 3 7 SUNDAY Health Care 3 8 MONDAY X 3 9 TUESDAY Open Migs Open Migs X <- Health Care 3 10 WEDNESDAY X X X <- Poll Results 3 11 THURSDAY X <- Plan Outlines 3 12 FRIDAY X <- Florida Forum 3 13 SATURDAY 3 14 SUNDAY Iowa Trip 3 15 MONDAY X 3 16 TUESDAY Plan Outlines Price Controls 3 17 WEDNESDAY X X 3 18 THURSDAY 3 19 FRIDAY 3 20 SATURDAY 3 21 SUNDAY Bedside Vigil Bedside Vigil 3 22 MONDAY X X 3 23 TUESDAY 3 24 WEDNESDAY 3 25 THURSDAY 3 26 FRIDAY 3 27 SATURDAY Bedside Mental Master's Thesis - AAary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 119

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILIARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

MO. IDATE |DAY i 1 ABC 1 CBS 1 NBC 1

3 28 SUNDAY Vigil Heollh 3 29 MONDAY X X 3 30 TUESDAY 3 31 WEDNESDAY No Price Freeze 4 1 THURSDAY X 4 2 FRIDAY X <- Delayed by Dad's Illness 4 3 SATURDAY 4 4 SUNDAY 4 5 MONDAY 4 6 TUESDAY 4 7 WEDNESDAY Dad's Death Dad's Death Tobacco Tax 4 8 THURSDAY X X X A 9 FRIDAY 4 10 SATURDAY 4 n SUNDAY 4 12 MONDAY 4 13 TUESDAY Value Added Tax 4 14 WEDNESDAY X 4 15 THURSDAY 4 16 FRIDAY 4 17 SATURDAY 4 18 SUNDAY 4 19 MONDAY 4 20 TUESDAY 4 21 WEDNESDAY 4 22 THURSDAY 4 23 FRIDAY 4 24 SATURDAY Professionol 4 25 SUNDAY Input AR-CIO 4 26 MONDAY X X 4 27 TUESDAY 4 28 WEDNESDAY Senate Senate 4 29 THURSDAY Criticism Presentation 4 30 FRIDAY X X 5 1 SATURDAY 5 2 SUNDAY 5 3 MONDAY 5 4 TUESDAY Possible 5 5 WEDNESDAY Postponement 5 6 THURSDAY Bus. Leaders Poll Results X,X <- Chelsea 5 7 FRIDAY X X X <- Bus. Execs. 5 8 SATURDAY 5 9 SUNDAY Master's Thesis - Mary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 120

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING MILIARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. [DATE IDAY 1 ! ABC 1 CBS 1 NBC 1

5 10 MONDAY Sales Campaign 5 11 TUESDAY Sales Campaign X 5 12 WEDNESDAY X 5 13 THURSDAY 5 14 FRIDAY 5 15 SATURDAY 5 16 SUNDAY Hairdo Progress Rept 5 17 MONDAY X X 5 18 TUESDAY 5 19 WEDNESDAY 5 20 THURSDAY 5 21 FRIDAY 5 22 SATURDAY 5 23 SUNDAY No Blue Cross 5 24 MONDAY Compromise Model 5 25 TUESDAY X X Costs 5 26 WEDNESDAY Plan Oulline -> X X 5 27 THURSDAY 5 28 FRIDAY 5 29 SATURDAY 5 30 SUNDAY 5 31 MONDAY 6 1 TUESDAY 6 2 VvtDNESDAY 6 3 THURSDAY 6 4 FRIDAY 6 5 SATURDAY 6 6 SUNDAY 6 7 MONDAY 6 8 TUESDAY 6 9 WEDNESDAY Campxjign Interview 6 10 THURSDAY X X 6 11 FRIDAY 6 12 SATURDAY 6 13 SUNDAY 6 14 MONDAY AAAA 6 15 TUESDAY X 6 16 WEDNESDAY 6 17 THURSDAY Dem. Govs. Dem. Govs. 6 18 FRIDAY X X 6 19 SATURDAY 6 20 SUNDAY 6 21 MONDAY Options & Master's Thesis - Mary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 121

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILIARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. IDATE IDAY I 1 ABC 1 CBS 1 NBC 1

6 22 TUESDAY 1st Ladies' History Lobbying 6 23 WEDNESDAY X X 6 24 THURSDAY 6 25 FRIDAY 6 26 SATURDAY 6 27 SUNDAY 6 28 MONDAY 6 29 TUESDAY 6 30 WEDNESDAY 7 1 THURSDAY 7 2 FRIDAY 7 3 SATURDAY 7 4 SUNDAY 7 5 MONDAY 7 6 TUESDAY Japan's Interest 7 7 WEDNESDAY X 7 8 THURSDAY Japan Trip Japan Trip Japan Trip 7 9 FRIDAY X X X 7 10 SATURDAY 7 11 SUNDAY 7 12 MONDAY Hawaii Trip 7 13 TUESDAY X 7 14 WEDNESDAY 7 15 THURSDAY 7 16 FRIDAY 7 17 SATURDAY 7 18 SUNDAY Universal 7 19 MONDAY Coverage 7 20 TUESDAY X 7 21 WEDNESDAY Foster Suicide 7 22 THURSDAY X 7 23 FRIDAY 7 24 SATURDAY 7 25 SUNDAY 7 26 MONDAY 7 27 TUESDAY Revival Efforts 7 28 WEDNESDAY X 7 29 THURSDAY 7 30 FRIDAY 7 31 SATURDAY 8 1 SUNDAY 8 2 MONDAY 8 3 TUESDAY Master's Thesis - Mary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 122

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HIUARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. IDATE IDAY 1 1 ABC 1 CBS i NBC 1

8 4 WEDNESDAY 8 5 THURSDAY 8 6 FRIDAY 8 7 SATURDAY 8 8 SUNDAY Florida Trip Florida Trip 8 9 MONDAY X X 8 10 TUESDAY Campaign X <- Foster Suicide 8 11 WEDNESDAY X 8 12 THURSDAY 8 13 FRIDAY 8 14 SATURDAY 8 15 SUNDAY 8 16 MONDAY 8 17 TUESDAY 8 18 WEDNESDAY 8 19 THURSDAY 8 20 FRIDAY 8 21 SATURDAY 8 22 SUNDAY 8 23 MONDAY 8 24 TUESDAY 8 25 WEDNESDAY 8 26 THURSDAY 8 27 FRIDAY 8 28 SATURDAY 8 29 SUNDAY 8 30 MONDAY 8 31 TUESDAY 9 1 WEDNESDAY White House White House 9 2 THURSDAY Redecoralion Redecorotion 9 3 FRIDAY X X 9 4 SATURDAY 9 5 SUNDAY 9 6 MONDAY 9 7 TUESDAY Lobby Lobby 9 8 WEDNESDAY Congress Congress No 9 9 THURSDAY X X Compromise 9 10 FRIDAY Plan Details -> X X 9 n SATURDAY 9 12 SUNDAY 9 13 MONDAY 9 14 TUESDAY Alternate Plan Alternate Plan Alternate Plan 9 15 WEDNESDAY X X X Masler's Thesis - AAary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 123

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILIARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. IDATE IDAY 1 1 ABC CBS 1 NBC 1

9 16 THURSDAY Plan Details -> X Minn. Trip Minn. Trip 9 17 FRIDAY X X 9 18 SATURDAY 9 19 SUNDAY Need for Change Sin Taxes 9 20 MONDAY Sales Pilch -> X,X X Interview 9 21 TUESDAY Sales Blilz -> X X,X <- Bill's Diel 9 22 WEDNESDAY Interview 9 23 THURSDAY Interview X 9 24 FRIDAY X 9 25 SATURDAY 9 26 SUNDAY 9 27 MONDAY Lobby Hill Lobby Hill Lobby Hill 9 28 TUESDAY X X X 9 29 WEDNESDAY Day 2 on Hill -> X X <• Day 2 on Hill 9 30 THURSDAY Day 3 on Hill -> X X X <- Day 3 on Hill 10 1 FRIDAY Medical Research -> X 10 2 SATURDAY 10 3 SUNDAY 10 4 MONDAY 10 5 TUESDAY 10 6 WEDNESDAY 10 7 THURSDAY 10 8 FRIDAY 10 9 SATURDAY 10 10 SUNDAY Plan Delays 10 11 MONDAY X 10 12 TUESDAY 10 13 WEDNESDAY "Sesame Street" "Sesame Street" 10 14 THURSDAY X X 10 15 FRIDAY 10 16 SATURDAY 10 17 SUNDAY 10 18 MONDAY Drug Co. Cutbacb 10 19 TUESDAY X 10 20 WEDNESDAY Alternate Plan 10 21 THURSDAY X 10 22 FRIDAY X <- Interview 10 23 SATURDAY 10 24 SUNDAY 10 25 MONDAY Interview Interview Interview 10 26 TUESDAY X X X 10 27 WEDNESDAY Plan Outline -> X X X <- Plan Oulline 10 28 THURSDAY X <- Senate Finance React Master's Thesis - AAary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 124

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

|MO. (DATE iDAY 1 1 ABC 1 CBS 1 NBC |

10 29 FRIDAY 10 30 SATURDAY 10 31 SUNDAY Attack Ad Attack Ad 11 1 MONDAY X X 11 2 TUESDAY X <- Ad Facts 11 3 WEDNESDAY Costs 11 4 THURSDAY X 11 5 FRIDAY 11 6 S/*TURDAY 11 7 SUNDAY 11 8 MONDAY 11 9 TUESDAY 11 10 WEDNESDAY Failed S & L n 11 THURSDAY X 11 12 FRIDAY n 13 SATURDAY 11 14 SUNDAY 11 15 MONDAY 11 16 TUESDAY 11 17 WEDNESDAY 11 18 THURSDAY 11 19 FRIDAY n 20 SATURDAY 11 21 SUNDAY 11 22 MONDAY 11 23 TUESDAY 11 24 WEDNESDAY 11 25 THURSDAY 11 26 FRIDAY 11 27 SATURDAY 11 28 SUNDAY X-AAas Star 11 29 MONDAY X 11 30 TUESDAY 12 1 WEDNESDAY 12 2 THURSDAY 12 3 FRIDAY 12 4 SATURDAY 12 5 SUNDAY 12 6 MONDAY 12 7 TUESDAY 12 8 WEDNESDAY 12 9 THURSDAY 12 10 FRIDAY Master's Thesis - Mary H. DeCamp APPENDIX C 125

1993 MEDIA COVERAGE STORIES MENTIONING HILLARY CUNTON NETWORK NEWS CAST

IMP, [DATE |DAY ABC CBS NBC

12 11 SATURDAY 12 12 SUNDAY 12 13 MONDAY 12 14 TUESDAY Poll Results 12 15 WEDNESDAY X 12 16 THURSDAY Crisis?? 12 17 FRIDAY X 12 18 SATURDAY 12 19 SUNDAY Infidelity 12 20 MONDAY Infidelity Infidelity X 12 21 TUESDAY X X X <- Infidelity 12 22 WEDNESDAY 12 23 THURSDAY 12 24 FRIDAY 12 25 SATURDAY 12 26 SUNDAY 12 27 MONDAY 12 28 TUESDAY 12 29 WEDNESDAY 12 30 THURSDAY 12 31 FRIDAY

SUBTOTAL BY SOURCE: 37 47 56

TOTAL FOR CHANNEL: 140 CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON

AAonday AAonday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sunday AAonday Tue: 4 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 1

Interview - Both

Advisor Role Inaug. Fashion 3ros. return corp $

W. H. Floor Plan Compare to ER Soc Sec Appt Inaug. Gown Inaug. Gowoi InH. Relations Fashior

Friends Role Profile-Education Profile-Flowers Appt. Chief Staff Wardrobe Japan's Profile Inaug. Gown Visits W( Writings Published

Dynamic Duo (Co ^er) " 1 St we have to r oil up our sleeves"

Friday Saturday Sunday AAonday luesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sotu 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3

Role = RFK Role Policy Role Commentary NYC Trip Approval Ratings

Heed Health Care To Head Health Visits School Active Role Criticism Praise New Job & Ofc Award Yale Parly To Head Health Dual Role (2) Fashion Evening Bags Relationship Visits School HRC "full of bull" Space Assign. To Head Health Visits School Name Debate Used C Lobbies Cong. Praise

Now, the 1 St Chie f Advocate (Cover

Note: Information about stories taken from Vunderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

I I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 126 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21

Interview - Both

Inaug. Fashion Bros, return corp $ Policy Role Ojjen House

W. H. Floor Plan Compare to ER Soc Sec Appt Inaug. Gown Inaug. Gown Infl. Relations Fashion Sense Relationship Nancy Reagan West Wing Ofc Profile-Educotion Preifile-Flowers Appt. Chief Staff Wardrobe Japan's Reaction Inaugural Fashion Inaug. Gown Visits Wash. Mall Profile/Role Clothes Payment

Sunday AAonday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Role Policy Role Commentary NYC Trip Approval Ratings

To Head Heollh Visits School Active Role Criticism Role Praise Yole Party To Head Health Dual Role (2) Inaug. Hat Evening Bags Relationship Visits School HRC "full of bull" Space Assign. To Head Health Visits School Name Debate Used Car Ad changed Demeanoi Lobbies Cong. Praise Former 1 st Ladies

Now, the 1 s( Chief Advocate (Cover)

abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 68 iry of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HIliARY CUNTON IFEBRUARY 1993 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday 2 3 4 6 8

Policy Role Betty Friedan Policy Role

Courts Congress WH Prohscc4:; Wellesley Edilh B. Wilson Gburts Congress Correction Fashion Role Nail Gov Assn WH Dinner Fashion Smoking Ban No Smoking in Wf I Meets w/30 Sen. Name Debate Role CIA AAemorial

On the Road to Power: Baird Was a Blemish; Hillary Is the Real Story First Lady's First Job A Room At the Top Co-President Clinton?

Monday Sunday AAonday Tuesday Wednesday Sunday Monday Tuesday 13 14 15 16 17 21 22 23

Congressional Visit Approval Rating Boston Trip Congressional Visit Comment - Income

Look-Alike Seeks Input Attacks Status Quo Virginia Trip Name Debote Poll Results New Taxes Fashion ER Dedication Attys Flub AG Pharmaceuticals

Hillary's Role (Cover) Look Out, It's Superwomanl 'We're All In This Together' Up To the Hill

Note: Information about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and A£l abstracts (weekly magazines).

I I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 127 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

ursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 4 6 8 9 10 11 12

Pennsylvonia Trip icy Role Penns^vania Trip Betty Friedan Policy Role Comment-Role Pennsylvania Trip

Courts Congress Pennsylvania Trip B. Wilson Courts Congress Correction Fashion Role Liberal HHS Pennsylvania Trip AG Problems Memorial Benefit

AAeets V//30 Sen. Name Debate AG Problems Open Mtg Challenge Teach-in Role CIA Memorial

jtory First Lady's First Job A Room At the Top Co-President Clinton?

jesday Wednesday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Friday Saturday Sunday 16 17 21 22 23 24 26 27 28

ssional Visit Baseball Opening Boston Trip •ssional Visit Comment - Income

Seeks Input Attacks Status Quo 1 Results New Taxes Fashion ER Dedication AAagaziner Profile Fed Reserve JUWalker Concert laceuticols Fraud & Hubbell Jackson Hole Group Visits Caucus

il

r abslracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 63 jiacemeni In a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CO OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUN MARCH } 1993 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesc 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ABC Mfg w/Cducuses AMA tnput/loofsiafK Open Mee CBS Mtg w/Belty Ford AMA Input/Louisianc Open Mee NBC M^ w/Coucuses AMA Input/Louisianc Plan Details Approval Ri

lA TIMES Public Hearings Role NY TIMES Baseball Budget/Hltfi Care :! AMA Soften* - AMA Siiurmed Open Meetings Unjust Attoclcs Costs Diet Pfoise WASH. POST Mtg w/Caucus«s Approval Roting Louisiana Visit Open Meetings Public Input Stress Effects Open Meetings

NEWSWEEK

TIME US NEWS

Tuesdoy Wednesday ThurvJay Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Tfiursday Frido' 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26

Pbn Details Father's Stroke

Price Controls/Poll Fatfier's Stroke

Serves Teo Constitutionality (QWO Visit Nome Debate Drs Investment Lobbyist? Pother's Strolce Ark Visit |2) Father's Stroke Public Input Drug Pc Price Controls HC Costs/Taxes Opening Meeh'ngs

Operation Hiltory

Note: Inlormotion about itorim toUn from Vonderbilt abitracti (televHion), n«wtpaper abitracti, and AEI abstracts (we«ld/ rrugazines).

\ \ Ui«d to mdicote lood stories (first itory of a newscast, poge one placement tn a newspaper, or tfie cover of a weeWy magci/ne).

CROSS^EDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 128 OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON

Friday Sahjrdoy Sundoy Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Fridoy Saturday Sunday Monday 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Open MeeHngs Open MeeHngs Plan Details Florida Forum Plan Details Approval Ratings Iowa Trip iblic Hearings Role Open Meetings Tampa Town Noll Open Meetings MA ShunnM Open Meeh*r>g$ Unjust Atlocia Cosh Die! i; Cknsd K4}g5 Open Meetings Tampa Town Hall Praise Misiana Visit Open Meetings Public Input NAACP Mtg 6 Senate Women Tampa Town Hall Open Meeh'ngs

H C: Covert Operation Talk Gcvemment

Saturday Sunday Mondoy Tuesday Thur^ay Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30

Father's Stroke Visits III Father Mental Hlrt\ Covera Father's Stroke

Constitutionality E^slde Vigil lobbyists Fatlier's Stroke Ark Visit (2) Father's Stroke Public Input Drug Policy Task Force Names Nome Debate Misses Meeting Price Controls Opening Meetings HC StaR Profile

Hillary's Hard Sell

Operation Hillary

I obstracts (we«kl/ magazines). Number oJ Storiw. 71 paper, or tf>e cover of a weelcly mogazino).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILIARY CUNTON APRIL 1993 Thursday Friday Saturday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Fri( 1 2 3 5 6 7 8

ABC No Price Freeze Deadline Delay Father's Death CBS Father's Deoth NBC Father's Death

LA TIMES III Ddd Petsonifies CDF NY TIMES Hockersmith Profile W. Hubbell Retum to Wash. Father's Death Future Delays Crisis of Awning Moui WASH. POST Bedside Vigil Toll Women, AAen, Medio Crisis of Meaning

NEWSWEEK The Not-So-Secret Service TIME What's in a name? US NEWS

Wednesday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Wednesday Sunday AAon 14 16 17 18 19 21 25 2

ABC Value-Added Tax Heoilh P CBS AFL-CIC NBC

iA TIMES Cost of No Reform NY TIMES '92 Income Resumes Campaign Cost of Dad's Care WASH. POST Taxes French/Eng. Read Nlat'l Youth Svc Day

NEWSWEEK The Re-Sel TIME Dear Mr. & Mrs. President Command US NEWS

Note: Information about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

I I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 129 OF STORIES FEATURING MILIARY CUNTON

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Sunday AAonday Tuesday 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13

Father's Death Father's Death Father's Death

III Dad Personifies CDF Return to Wash. Father's Death Future Doctors Father's Funereil Drug Policies Easter Egg Roll Crisis of AAeaning AAoum (2| Women, AAen, AAedia Crisis of Meaning Interview

The Not-So-Secret Service Whet's in 0 name?

Sunday AAonday Wednesday Sunday AAonday Wednesday Thursday Friday 18 19 21 25 26 28 29 30

Health Pro Input AFL-CIO Input Senate Opposition Senate Preview

1 Cost of Dad's Core No Delay Budget & HC Spain's Royalty Taxes French/Eng. React Policy Role Mat'l Youth Svc Da\

The Re-Selling of the First Lady Dear Mr. & Mrs. President Commander Hillary

spaper abstracts, and AEl abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories; 44 one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

aOSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON ~WS7~ 1993 Saturday Sunday Monday Thursday Friday Saturday Monday Tuesday 2 3 6 8 10 11

ABC Mtg w/Business CBS Approval Ralings NBC Postponement Mtg w/Business Selling Campaigr Interview - Both

lA TIMES Plan's Coverage NY TIMES Courts Congress U Mich AAagazine Blitz Plan's Coverage WASH. POST Price Controls ; Politics of Meaning Quote Attribut. Plan's Coverage AAother's Day

NEWSWEEK Team Clinton's Un even Bets TIME At the Center of Power (Cover) "We've Had Some Good Times" (Ir US NEWS 'There's a Lot AAore Coming' (Interviev ^erica's First (Working) Couple (C< "Don't Sacrifice Your Basic Relations

Tuesday Wednesday Friday Saturday Sunday 1 uesday Wednesday Thursday 18 19 21 22 23 25 26 27

ABC FinatKing HC Costs of HC CBS Push for He Refonm NBC Costs & Outline

lA TIMES Baltimore-Sm Bus Personal Inverview NY TIMES U Penn Visit Wcsh.'s Plan Blind Trust Scope Questions Internal Clash Dental Coverage Friends' Role Motor Voter Politics of Virtue HRC Aggressive Stephens Probe WASH. POST U Penn Visit Baltimore-Sm Bus Role

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Note; Information about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

I I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 130 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

jrsday Friday Saturday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Monday 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 17

Mig w/Business Approval Ralingi W. Virginia Visit New Hairdo onement Mtg w/Business Selling Campaign Progress Report ew - Both

Plan's Coverage W. Virginia Visit Magazine Blitz Plan's Coverage of Meaning Quote Attribut. Plan's Coverage Mother's Day W. Virginia Visit Internal Battles

Is At the Center of Power (Cover} Making a Nome for Herself "We've Had Some Good Times" (Interview) ig' (Interview) ^erico'i First (Working) Couple (Cover) "Don't Sacrifice Your Basic Relationships" (Interview)

Iturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Financirra HC Costs of HC Push for He Reform Cosh & Outline

Boltimore-Sm Bus Praise Personal Invervisw 3 Crises in Nation i Questions Internal Clash Dental Coverage Friends' Role AMA Reaction AAedia Reaction Politics of Virtue HRC Aggressive Cost of AAake-Up Stephens Probe Baltimore-Sm Bus Award Banquet Praise

The Politics of What?

paper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines), Number of Stories: 5 S le placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CLINTON JUNE 1993 Saturday Atenday Thursday Friday Sunday AMnday Tu< 5 7 10 11 13 14

ABC AAAAI CBS HC Campaigning NBC Personal Interview

LA TIMES Firm on Reform AAAATalk NY TIMES AG Botched Mental Health Johns Hopkins HC Receding AAAATalk TV Interview HRC Role WASH. POST Fund Raiser Res Hosp/AAed Sch AAAATalk Tepid Black Resp

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS Hillary, from the pulpit (Column)

Saturday Sunday Monday Wednesday Thursday Sunday Moi

19 20 21 23 24 27 A

ABC Alternate Plans CBS NBC Lobbying for HC

lA TIMES Fair Share Lemer-Press Attack Delay for Budget NY TIMES Power Wielders AAail 'De Facto' Ofhdal M. Lemer Profile WASH. POST Fair Share Oper. ,V.cc:ir.gs Delay (or Budget Fund Raiser

NEWSWEEK Hillary: So Close & Yet So Far; Has Health Care Kept Her From Helping Bill? VWiy Wail TIME US NEWS

Note: Information about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

Used to indicate lead stories { first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 131 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

y Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Friday 10 11 13 14 15 16 18

AAAA Lobbying Mtg w/Dem Govs HC Campaigning Mtg w/Dem Govs Personal Interview

Firm on Reform AMATolk Mental Heolth Johns Hopkins HC Receding AAAATalk Ballet Chairwoman Tony Engaged TV Interview HRC Role Jazz Anniversary Fund Raiser Res Hosp/Med Sch AMATolk Tepid Black Resp

e pulpit (Column)

! AAondoy Wednesday Thursday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday 21 23 24 27 28 29 30

Alternate Plans

Lobbying for HC

Attack Delay for Budget Idere AAail 'De Facto' Official M. Lemer Profile Ruling Criticized Ballet Chair Open AAeetings Delay for Budget Fund Raiser

Hillary: So Close & Yet So For; Has Health Care Kept Her From Helping Bill? Why Wait For Hillary?

racis (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEl abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 38 ry of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING MILIARY CUNTON JULY 1993 Friday Saturday Sunday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 2 3 4 7 8 9 10

ABC Japan's Interest Japan's Role AAodel CBS Japan's Reaction NBC Japan's Role Model

LA TIMES Japan's Interest Popular in Japan Schedule in Japan NY TIMES No Chelsea Trip Travel Office: Econ. Summit Correction WASH. POST Bedroom Conjecture Japan's Interest Schedule in Japan Japan's Reaction

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Wednesday SatunJay Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday AAonday 14 17 20 21 22 23 26

ABC CBS NBC Plan Strategy Foster Suicide

LA TIMES So Ort LA Visit Gays in Military Breast Cancer NY TIMES Hawaii Forum Breast Cancer Drew Univ. Foster Suicide Foster Funeral Diet WASH. POST Hawaiian Wonk

NEWSWEEK TIME Policy Wonb in US NEWS

Note: Information about stories taken from Vandetbilt abstracts (television), nevrapaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 132 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

Sunday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Monday Tuesday 4 7 8 9 10 12 13

Japan's Interest japan's Role Model Hawaiian Wonk Japan's Readion Japan's Role Model

Japan's Interest Popular in Japart Schedule in Japan Econ. Summit

om Conjecture Japan's Interest Schedule In Japan InlematI Role Japan's Reaction

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday AAonday Wednesday Thursday Friday 20 21 22 23 26 28 29 30

Revival Efforts an Strategy Foster Suicide

Ort lA Visit Gays in Military Breast Cancer 5rew Univ. Foster Suicide Foster Funeral Small Business Tax Plon Diet

Policy Wonks in Paradise (Column)

/ision), newspaper abslrads, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 33 scasi, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a week]/ magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND COI OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTOh AUGUST I 1993 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Sunday Monday 9 10 n 15 16

ABC CBS Florida Visit Selling Campaign NBC Florida Visit Foster Suicide

lA TIMES Arapeal to AHA NY TIMES Florida Visit New Song Redecoration Blind Trust WASH. POST Fair Share

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Thursday |-riday Sunday Tuesday Saturday 19 20 22 24 28

ABC CBS NBC

LA TIMES NY TIMES Vacation Vocation Vacation Vacation Vocation WASH. POST

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Note: Information about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstract

I I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or

MPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 133 ILES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday 15 16 17 18

Redecorotion Blind Trust Lack Specifics Letters Received Letters Discussed

Tuesdoy Saturday Sunday 24 28 29

Vacation Vacation Vacotior:

newspaper abslracis, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories; 19 ge one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON September 1993 Friday Thursday Friday Saturday Wednesday Thursday Friday 3 9 10 11 15 16 17

ABC White House Decor Lobby Congress Alternate Plan Personal Stories CBS Lobby Congress Financing HC Alternate Plan Minneapolis NBC White House Decor Finandng HC Altemate Plan Minneapolis

lA TIMES NY TIMES New Details Israel-PLO Health Care Health Ca WASH. POST Tobacco Tax

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday AAonday Tuesday 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

ABC Personal Interview Selling Camp CBS Personal Interview Selling Camp NBC Selling Camp

lA TIMES Focus Shifts to Bill NY TIMES Solidifying Power Medicitje & Health Health Care Health Care Medicine & Health Medicine & Health United Natii

WASH. POST Role 5 Cong Comn

NEWSWEEK TIME- US NEWS

Note: Information about stories token fnjm Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 134 OF STORIES FEATURING HIUARY CUNTON

lay Saturday Wednesday Thursday Friday Monday Tuesday 0 11 15 16 17 20 21

Alternate Plan Personal Stories Selling Campaign Selling Campaign ing HC Altemate Plan Minneapolis Trip Need for Change Personal Interview ing HC Alternate Plan Minneapolis Trip Selling Campaign Interview on Diet

320 Congr Preview New Details lsr<]el-PLO Health Care Health Care Medicine & Health Tobacco Tax Background Briefings Congress Preview Work Foster Suicide

2nd Blooming of Hillary

day Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday 14 25 26 27 28 29 30

Interview Selling Campaign Day 3 Cong Hearings Selling Campaign Day 3 Cong Hearings Selling Campaign Day 3 Cong Hearings

h Care Health Care A/\edicine & Health AAedicine & Health United Nations Copitol Hill Visit Health Core Cookies ole 5 Cong Committees Testifies - 2 Comm. Takes On GOP

tewspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 56 page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT Of STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON Ocfobef 1993 Friday Soturday Sunday Monday Wedrtesdoy Thursday Saturday Sunday Monday 1 2 3 A 6 7 9 10 11

ABC CBS Med Research/Cost Congress Impatient NBC

LA TIMES Lost Comm Appear Uses TV Agressively NY TIML-S Impact on insurers Medico! Ethic» Feminist (con Invmt Mgr S«l«cted Nutn'tionhtJ & HC Cookies Minnesota's Model Blind Trust HRC is 'Atlack-Proof' Mentally Retarded WASH. POST Oun & Ammo Ta:i Wort Succeu on Hill Giomour Phase Ends Approval Rotinfls

NEWSWEEK Scenes Ftwn Q Mam'oge (Cover) Did She Talce the Hill? (C i'lMc Speaking of Health Reform Here Comes Dr. No Mrs. Clinton on the Hill Hon:>e Sweet White Houv Next Question! US NEWS "A Mother, A Wife, A W

Sundoy Tue^ay Thursday Fridoy Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Thuriday Fridoy 17 19 21 22 24 26 27 28 29

Interview/Details Plan Presentation Doctors' Response Approval RaKngs Aftemata Pian Interview/Defails Plan PresentaHon Sen Rnance React Interview/Details Plon Presentation

Support 'Virtue' NJ Gov. Race Proposol to Congress Children's Health Eleonor Comporison

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Note: InformoHon about stories token from Vonderbilt abstrocts (television), newspoper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weeUy nvigoztnes).

[ j Used to indicate lead stories (first story of o newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover o( o weeUy mogozlne).

ROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 135 OF STORIES FEATURING HILLARY CUNTON

Monday Wednesday Thursday Saturday Sunday Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday 4 6 7 9 10 11 13 14 15

Congress ImpaKent 'Sesame Street' Toping *Sesame Street* Taping

Invest Mgr Selected Nutritionists & HC Cookies Minnesota's Model Blind Trust HRC is 'Attaclc-Proof' NYC ^yofiat Roca Mentally Retarded Succeu on Hill Glamour Phase Ends Approval Rotings Hospital Records Approvol Rotinqs

«ne$ From a Marrioge (Cover) Did She Tolce the Hill? (Column) )ealcing of Health Reform Here Comes Dr. No Mrs. Clinton on the Hill Home Sweel White House Next Question! 'A Mother, A Wife, A Woman'

Friday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Fridoy Saturday Sunday 22 24 26 27 28 29 30 31

Interview/Details Plan Presentation Altemote Plan interytew/Detaiis Plan Presentation Sen Rnance Reoct interview/Details Plon Presentation

Defends Plan Praposal ID Congress Children's Health Kansas & Missouri Ban Assault Weapons Eleonor Comparison GOP Debate

and AEI abttrach (we«idy magazines). Number ol Stories: 51 ent in a newspaper, or the cover o( a weeUy mogazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HILIARY CUNTON November 1993 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Sunday Monday Tuesd 1 2 3 4 7 8 9

ABC CBS Attack Insurance Ind HC Costs NBC Attack Insurance Ind Ad Accuracy Check

lA TIMES Attack Insurance Ind Bentsen Reluctance Attach Alter NY TIMES Attack Insurance Ind Attack Insurance Ads AAMC Threatened Tagamet 1 Comoro WASH. POST Attack Insurance Ind Govt Spouse Role Attacb Allen Women's Fu

NEWSWEEK 'Big Sister' and Critics TIME Clintonism: Trick Or Treat? "Please Help Us" Senator Rodham US NEWS Wonks at Play: Ttie New Health Plan

Sunday AAonday Friday Sotundoy Tuesday Wednesday Mondi 14 15 19 20 23 24 29

ABC CBS NBC Star on Xm

lA TIMES AIDS Benefit-LA. NY TIMES 4 Midwest Families CDF's 20th Anniver. WH Redecorated Chief of S. Korean Dinner WASH. POST Tours Defense Dept Georgia Trip HRC Reviews 1 st Yr

NEWSWEEK Go Ahead, Bust Some Chops (Column) TIME Friends In Low Places A Hidden Beni US NEWS

Note: Infortnolion oboul slories taken from Vonderbiit cbslracls (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

[ I Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 136 OF STORIES FEATURING HILiARY CUNTON

Wedrtesday Thursday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesdoy Thursday 3 4 7 8 9 10 11

HC Costs ; A/\cDougal

Bentsen Reluctance Attacks Alternate Plan Socially Resp Bus Attack Insurance Ads Threatened Tagamet Rebate i Open Up Records Compromise Govt Spouse Role Attacks Alternate Plan Women's Fund Raiser

Clintonism: Trick Or Treat? "Please Help Us" Senator Rodham

Friday Saturday Tuesday Wednesday AAonday Tuesday 19 20 23 24 29 30

Star on Xmas Tree

AIDS Benefit-LA. CDF's 20!h Anniver. WH Redecorated Chief of Staff Star on Xmas Tree S. Korean Dinner Tours Defense Dept Georgia Trip HRC Reviev« 1st Yr

Chops (Column) A Hidden Benefit of the NAFTA Victory

ision), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories; 38 vscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weetjy magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT OF STORIES FEATURING HlilARY CUNTON December 1993 C Wednesday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Friday 1 5 6 7 8 10

ABC CBS NBC

lA TIMES "Vogue" Debate Plan & Sm Bus NY TIMES Correction Cfiristmas Plans Boston Globe Conf. Ughting Xmos Tree "Vogi WASH. POST Lighter Menu Sfiared Name Boston Forum

NEWSWEEK Hillary's House TIME US NEWS

AAonday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Saturday Monday Tu 20 21 22 23 25 27

ABC Infidelity CBS Infidelity NBC Infidelity Infidelity

LA TIMES Infidelity NY TIMES Infidelity Infidelity "Vogue" Debate Alter WASH. POST Whitewater Plan & Sm Bus

NEWSWEEK TIME US NEWS

Note: Infomialion about stories taken from Vanderbilt abstracts (television), newspaper abstracts, and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines).

Used to indicate lead stories (first story of a newscast, page one placement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

CROSS-MEDIA COMPARISON OF TIMING AND CONTENT 137 OF STORIES FEATURING MILIARY CUNTON

Aonday Tuesday Wednesday Friday Sunday Wednesday Friday Sunday 6 7 8 10 12 15 17 19

Validity of "Crisis" Approval Ratings

Plan & Sm Bus Christmas Plans Boston Globe Conf. Lighting Xmas Tree "Vogue" Debate Clinton Traditions Foster Whitewater File Boston Fotvm

House

xJnesday Thursday Saturday Monday Tuesday Thursday Friday 22 23 25 27 28 30 31

ifidelily ifidelity Infidelity "Vogue" Debate Attends Play Holiday Hilton Head Renaissance Weekend V^/hilewater Plan & Sm Bus

vspoper abstracts^ and AEI abstracts (weekly magazines). Number of Stories: 28 age one plocement in a newspaper, or the cover of a weekly magazine).

138

REFERENCES

Adams, W. C. (Ed.)- (1983). Television coverage of the 1980 presidential campaign. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1983.

Alexander, S. (1994). The difficulties of being Hillary. Playboy, 41, 96-231.

Allen, C. F., & Portis, J. (1992). The comeback kid; The life and career of Bill Clinton. New York: Birch Lane Press.

Ansolabehere, S., Behr, R., & Iyengar, S. (1993). The media game; American politics in the television age. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Anthony, C. S. (1990). First Ladies. (Vol. 1). New York: William Morrow and Company.

Beasley, M. (Ed.). (1983). The White House press conferences of Eleanor Roosevelt. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Behr, R. L., & Iyengar, S. (1993). Television news, real-world cues, and changes in the public agenda. Public Opinion Quarterly. 49. 38-57.

Bennett, W. L. (1988). News, the politics of illusion. (2nd ed.). New York: Longman, Inc.

Brody, R. (1991). Assessing the president: The media, elite opinion and public support. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Burgoon, J. (1985). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp & G. R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication, (pp. 344-390), Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Bush, B. (1992). Millie^s book, as told to Barbara Bush. New York: Morrow.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and guasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Caroli, B. B. (1987). First Ladies. New York: Oxford University Press.

Carpenter, L. (1970). Ruffles and flourishes; the warm and tender story of a simple girl who found adventure in the White House. New York: Pocket Books. 139

References - Continued

Carter, R. (1984) First Ladv from Plains. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Chadakoff, R. (Ed.). (1989). Eleanor RooseveltMy Day. New York: Pharos Books.

Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39. 752-766.

Cook, B. W. (1992). Eleanor Roosevelt. Vol. 1: 1884-1933. New York: Penguin Books.

Crano, W. D., & Brewer, M. B. (1994). Social psychology. Minneapolis/St. Paul; West Publishing Company, p. 474.

Diamond, E., & Bates, S. (1992). The spot; the rise of political advertising on television. (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA; MIT Press.

Duffy, M. (1994) A profile in courage; The most private of public persons, Jacqueline Onassis radiated restraint and strength. Time. 143. 29-39.

Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior; The MODE model as an integrative framework. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 23, 75-109.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York; McGraw Hill.

Ford, B., & Chase, C. (1978). The times of mv life. New York; Harper & Row.

Gerr, J. G., & Kahn, K. F. (1993). Grabbing attention: An experimental investigation of headlines during campaigns. Political Communication. 10. 175-191.

Goodman, E. (1994). Jackie O.: Despite the odds, she did it her way. The Arizona Daily Star. May 22, 1994.

Graber, D. A. (1987a). Kind words and harsh words: How television presents the candidates. In Kay Lehman Schlozman, ed., Elections in America. Boston; Allen & Unwin. 140

REFERENCES - Continued

Graber, D. A. (1989). Mass media and American politics. (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Graber, D. A. (1987b). Researching the mass media-elections interface; A political science perspective. Mass Communication Review. 14, 3-19.

Grimshaw, A. D. (1981). Talk and social control. In M. Rosenberg & R. H. Turner (Eds.), Social psychology; Sociological perspectives, (pp. 200-232). New York; Basic Books.

Gutin, M. G. (1989). The President's partner; The First Lady in the twentieth century. New York: Greenwood Press.

Haddock, G., & Zanna, M. P. (1994). Preferring "housewives" to "feminists." Psychology of Women Quarterly. 18, 25-52.

Hale, J. F. (1993). Shaping the conventional wisdom. Political Communication. 10, 285-302.

Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York; Wiley.

Henry, W. (1985). Television at its best. Queenstown, Md; Aspen Institute.

Hill, D. B. (1985). Viewer characteristics and agenda setting by television news. Public Opinion Quarterly. 49. 340- 350.

Hoffman, C., & Hurst, N. (1990). Gender stereotypes; Perception or rationalization? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58. 197-208.

Hofstetter, C. R. (1976). Bias in the news. Columbus; Ohio State University Press.

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago; University of Chicago Press.

Iyengar, S. & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters. Chicago; The University of Chicago Press.

Jamieson, K. H. (1988). Eloguence in an electronic age. New York; Oxford University Press. 141

REFERENCES - Continued

Jainieson, K. H. (1992). Dirty politics. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jennings, J., Geis, F., & Brown, V. (1980). Influence of television commercials on women's self-confidence and independent judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38. 203-210.

King, N. (1993). Hillary, her true story. New York; Birch Lane Press.

Krosnick, J. A. (1990). Expertise and political psychology. Social Cognition. 8, 1-8.

Lash, J. P. (1984). A world of love: Eleanor Roosevelt and her friends 1943-1962. New York: Doubleday.

Lasswell, H. D. (1969). Propaganda and promotional activities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lichter, S. R., Amundson, D., & Noyes, R. (1988). The video campaign: Network coverage of the 1988 primaries. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.

Lippman, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Lipset, S. M. (1993). The significance of the 1992 election. PS: Political Science & Politics. 26, 7-28.

McCombs, M. E. (1981). The agenda-setting approach. In the Handbook of political communication. Ed. by D. D. Nimmo & K. R. Sanders. Beverly Hills; Sags Publ.

McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly. 36. 176-187.

McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media. New York; American Library.

Meyer, P. (1993). The media reformation: Giving the agenda back to the people. In M. Mills, K. (1993). The media and the year of the woman. Media Studies Journal. 2, 19-32.

Nelson, Ed., The elections of 1992. Washington, D.C.; Congressional Quarterly Press, (pp. 89-108). 142

REFERENCES - Continued

Neuman, W. R., Just, M. R., & Crigler, A. N. (1992). Conmion knowledge; News and the construction of political meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference; Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Kail.

Paletta, L. A. (1990). The World Almanac of First Ladies. New York: World Almanac, distributed by St. Martin's Press.

Patterson, T. E. (1980). The mass media election; How Americans choose their president. New York; Praeger.

Patterson, T. E. (1989). The press and its missed assignment, in M. Nelson (Ed.) Campaign '88. Washington, D.C.; Congressional Quarterly Press, (pp. 105-107).

Patterson, T. E. (1991). More style than substance; Television news in U.S. national elections. Political Communication and Persuasion. 8, 145-161.

Peterson, H. S. (1976). Abigail Adams, "Dear partner." In B. Wayne (Ed.). Women in the White House. Champaign, 111.: Garrard Publishing Company (pp. 52-85).

Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Schumann, D. (1983). Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness; The moderating role of involvement. Journal of Consumer Research. 10, 134-148.

Popkin, S. L. (1991). The reasoning voter; communication and persuasion in presidential campaigns. Chicago; University of Chicago Press.

Reagan, N., & Novak, K. (1989). Mv turn: the memoirs of Nancy Reagan. New York; Random House.

Rogers, E. M., Dearing, J. W., & Bergman, D. (1993). The anatomy of agenda-setting research. Journal of Communication. 43., 68-84.

Roosevelt, Eleanor (1949). This I remember. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Roosevelt, Eleanor (1937). This is mv story. New York; Garden City Publication. 143

REFERENCES - Continued

Roosevelt, Elliot, & Brough, J. (1977). Mother R.. Eleanor Rooseveltuntold story. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.

Roosevelt, J., & Libby, B. (1976). Mv parents, a differing view. Chicago; Playboy Press.

Roper Organization. (1991). America's Watching; Public Attitudes Toward Television. New York; Roper Organization.

Salomon, G. (1984). Television is 'Easy' and print is 'tough'; The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions. Journal of Educational Psvchology. 76. 647-658.

Schlosberg, H. (1954). Three dimensions of emotion. Psychological Review. 61. 81-88.

Singleton, R., Straits, B. C., Straits, M. M., and McAllister, R. J. (1988). Approaches to social research. New York; Oxford University Press.

Smith, H. (1988). The power game; How Washington works. New York: Ballentine Books.

Thomas, E. (1994). Grace and iron. Newsweek. 123. 34-40.

Times Mirror Center for The People & The Press. (1990). The American media; Who reads, who watches, who listens, who cares. Washington, DC; Times Mirror Center for The People & The Press.

Vanderbilt Television News Archive (1994). Television news index and abstracts. Nashville; Vanderbilt Television News Archive.

Warner, J. (1993). Hillary Clinton, the inside story. New York; Signet.

Weaver, P. H. (1994). The culture of lying. The Arizona Daily Star. F, 3:2.

Weaver-Lariscy, R. A., £e Tinkham, S. F. (1991). News coverage, endorsements and personal campaigning; The influence of non-paid activities in congressional elections. Journalism Quarterly. 68. 432-444, 144

REFERENCES - Continued

Weimann, G. (1987). Conceptualizing the effects of mass- mediated terrorism. Political Communication and Persuasion. 4, 213-216.

Weisberger, B. A. (1993). "Petticoat government," American Heritage. October, 18-20.

Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (1991). Mass media research. (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Winfield, B. H. (1994). The media and Hillary. The Arizona Daily Star. 6/12/94, Fl.

Women, Men and Media Project, University of Southern California. As cited in Men dominate TV news, front pages, study finds. Tucson Citizen. 4/10/94, p. 18.

Woodv/ard, B. (1994). The agenda. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Zhu, J. H., Watt, J. H., Snyder, L. B., Yan, J., & Jiang, Y. (1993). Public issue priority formation: Media agenda- setting and social interaction. Journal of Communication. 43, 8-29.

Zillman, D., & Mundorf, N. (1987). Image effects in the appreciation of video rock. Communication Research, 14, 316-334.