more sedentary and spend most of the year within the forest. Ranching in Mountain reindeer migrate con- GEORGE W. SCO!I’TER siderable distances and use al- Range Ecologist, Canadian Wildlife Service, Department pine areas as summer pasture. of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Edmonton, Mountain reindeer have short, Alberta. triangular faces and are some- what smaller than the forest Highlight mately 40,000,OOO hectares (98,- reindeer, which have more rec- Reindeer in Fennoscandia make 840,000 acres) and in 1963 they tangular faces. Also, some work- use of a forage resource which produced a revenue of $5,590,000 ers feel there are marked be- would otherwise be of limiied value. haviour differences. The taxo- This article discusses the status of (Canadian) . In and reindeer ranching, ifs economics, and northern the ownership nomic status of these two groups the attempts fo improve the animals of reindeer is largely restricted is now being investigated. and grazing practices. to Lapps. There is no such re- Rangelands striction in southern Norway or In and Fennoscandia Approximately 40,000,OOO hec- . Sweden has 50 grazing hundreds of thousands of do- tares of rangelands are available districts or siidas, with 34 in the mesticated reindeer utilize the for use by reindeer. Summer mountains and 16 in the forests. rangelands of the and rangelands are abundant and re- About 2,800 families make their Subarctic regions. Since vast ceive light to moderate use only. living totally or partially from areas in northern Alaska and Research and management per- the reindeer industry. In Nor- northern Canada are suitable for sonnel seem to agree that the way 500 families own approxi- similar production, I have al- abundance of winter pasture is mately 150,000 reindeer. Rein- ways had a strong desire to es- the factor that sets the upper deer are owned by companies in tablish closer contacts with co- limit on the number of reindeer southern Norway. In Finland workers in Northern and within many districts. Many some 500 families make their liv- to study their research tech- winter ranges that I saw ap- ing from the reindeer industry. niques and management meth- peared to be used to capacity; Additional families in the 62 ods. My employer, the Canadian with some regions overutilized, grazing districts in Finland re- Wildlife Service of the Depart- while others were only lightly ceive part of their income from ment of Northern Affairs and grazed. More emphasis on bet- the reindeer industry. Most of National Resources, made it pos- ter distribution of animals on the rangelands used by reindeer sible for me to travel to Norway, the ranges, with more use of within the three countries are Sweden, and Finland for this lightly grazed areas and protec- grazed without payment of fees. purpose during the summer of tion or reduced use on over- 1964. I am indebted to Mr. Both the mountain reindeer grazed ranges, would seem de- Skuncke, Dr. Ahti, and Dr. and the forest reindeer have sirable. Skjenneberg who provided me been domesticated in Fenno- In winter, the reindeer, like with well-planned itineraries scandia. Forest reindeer are the wild caribou in Northern several months in advance of my visit. Such careful organization Table 1. Numbers of reindeer, hectares of rangeland, and income from fhe allowed me to see a good cross- reindeer industry in Fennoscandia. section of the reindeer industry Approximate Approximate Approximate during my seven-week stay. Ap- number of area of income from preciation is also extended to Country reindeer rangeland reindeer others who provided me with in hectares1 industry (1963) 2 such warm hospitality through- out my travels. My impressions Norway 40,000 Wild 200,000 Domestic 11,000,000 7,500,OOOkrone of the reindeer industry follow. ($1,140,000 Canadian) The reindeer population in Sweden 250,000 Domestic 16,000,OOO 9,000,OOOkrona Norway, Sweden, and Finland ($1,910,000 Canadian) totals approximately 710,000 ani- Finland 30 Wild mals (Table 1). These are all 220,000 Domestic 13,000,000 7,500,OOOmarks domesticated animals except for ($2,540,000 Canadian) 40,000 wild reindeer in Norway Total 710,030 40,000,000 $5,590,000 (Canadian) and a few wild ones along the Finnish-Russian boundary. IOne hectare = 2.471 acres. These reindeer graze approxi- 2Not including hides, antlers, hunting, and tourist values.

301 302 SCOTTER

supported 10 reindeer for four weeks. Grass pastures could also be used to advantage in fatten- ing animals for the autumn slaughter. Such trials tend to support the idea that lichens are not a necessary component of the reindeer diet. The proper utilization of li- chen rangelands is still a ques- tion of prime importance. It is generally agreed that the maxi- mum quantity of forage is pro- duced by the major forage li- chens at the end of the first phase of growth, which lasts ap- FIGURE1. The herders have followed these reindeer from the winter rangelands to the proximately 10 years. The Rus- calving grounds. Note the light colour of some animals. (Photo S. Skjenneberg) sians are recommending a three- year pasture rotation utilizing Canada, are particularly fond of sires is a second method of mak- 30 to 35% of the lichens every those kinds of lichens which ing better use of the winter third year. Near the breeding reach their greatest abundance range. Breeding experiments in station of AskankylZ, Finland, a in the pine and spruce wood- Norway suggest the male-female pasture of 4 square kilometers lands of the boreal forest or ratio could be 1: 15 with young (400 hectares) supported 200 taiga. Although spruce-lichen bulls and 1: 20 to 1: 30 with ma- reindeer for 16 months. Now forests are abundant in Canada, ture bulls without causing any that the animals have been re- they are extremely rare in decrease in the calf crop. moved from the heavily grazed Northern and Fin- Another method by which the pasture, it would be interesting land and are replaced in impor- summer herds could be ex- to study the recovery of this now tance by the pine-lichen forests panded would be to market at an protected area. Several advan- that form the basis for the rein- early age all animals not being tages may accrue from such in- deer industry in many regions., retained for breeding. It appears tensive use. These include less For more than half the year li- pointless to carry steers on the herding, the possibility for easier chens are a favourite item in the range beyond two years, because and better management during diet of reindeer. In Norway the gain per kilogram of food con- calving and slaughtering peri- main rangelands for reindeer are sumed is slight. The most eco- ods, and better utilization of the birch forests and other mountain nomical age for the slaughter of less preferred forage species. pastures. reindeer appears to be at about Such a grazing system might be Artificial feeds are being de- six months of age. Gain in based on an 8 to lo-year rotation. veloped to substitute for the weight per kilogram of forage At the Askankyls breeding lichens on the winter range. consumed decreases after that station two sets of twins oc- Such feeds are necessary to pre- age. curred in 120 births during the vent the serious losses of rein- Improved breeding practices last year. Females of the year deer which have occurred during would also allow for the selec- become, pregnant, much to the severe winters in the past. Feed- tion of animals which are the displeasure of the owners. Such ing trials in Sweden and Norway most efficient in terms of forage happenings may reflect the ex- suggest that the rations devel- use per kilogram of gain. All of cellent rangelands that surround oped are suitable. Such feeding these methods should produce the Askankylg area. Neither of practices could carry more ani- more salable meat without in- these conditions has been re- mals through the winter. Addi- creasing the use of the winter ported for caribou in Northern tional benefits should accrue range. Canada, Conception of calves has such as higher calf weights at In an effort to integrate farm- been reported from Norway, birth and at market age, higher ing practices with the reindeer also. calf survival, and higher milk industry, grazing trials are be- Cladonia alpestris, regarded production by the mother. Rein- ing carried out on grass pastures by many as the most important deer owners have not readily ac- at the Apukka Agricultural Ex- reindeer lichen, was one of the cepted the possible values of perimental Station, a few miles last to be eaten in the newly con- such a feeding program. north of Rovaniemi, Finland. structed holding pens at Askan- Reducing the number of herd One-half hectare of such pasture kylg. Lichens such as Cladonia REINDEER RANCHING 303

FIGURE 2. The use of supplemental feeds for reindeer, while FIGURE 3. Conformation of this mature female reindeer is su- possible and desirable, may not always be economically feasi- perior to that found in many herds. Both sexes are antlered. ble. (Photo S. Persson) (Photo S. Persson) sylvatica, C. rangiferina, and C. Wild Reindeer , in Norway.-Per- ered in the light of the income ob- uncialis were preferred over C. haps the most interesting reindeer tained from licenses, guide fees, purchase of food, and accommoda- alpestris. This observation con- range in Fennoscandia is one near tion. Such expenditures by hunters firms those made in northwest- Kongsvoll used by about 10,000 of Norway’s 40,000 wild reindeer. In add to both the local and national ern Manitoba by the writer. that district there is considerable economies. The potential value of My studies in Northern Can- controversy between sportsmen and such herds does not seem to be rec- ada showed that arboreal lichens government agencies regarding the ognized generally. may contribute substantially to number of reindeer and the condi- Compafibilify with Foresfry the diet of caribou, particularly tion of the range. The sportsmen and Farming under severe weather conditions claim that the winter range has been The first impression one gains when other food sources are less overgrazed and that more reindeer when talking with foresters is that available. The use of arboreal li- should be harvested. Some of the there is a conflict between the forest chens by reindeer was clearly sportsmen have pointed out that in and reindeer industries. Upon fur- calves demonstrated at the Kuolpa September wild reindeer ther questioning, however, there weigh about one-half the amount of Reindeer Research Station near appears to be little conflict except domestic reindeer calves. Trophy Gallivare, Sweden. These lichens that during the winter tree-cutting antlers have decreased in size, and season. During that period foresters have been utilized so persistent- the condition and weight of the ani- incur expense trying to prevent the ly that a definite high line on the mals have decreased compared with animals from concentrating near branches and trunks of trees is former years. Although I could not trees which are soon to fall. On the discernable. One of the major verify those claims, the extremely other hand, reindeer grazing pro- conflicts between the forest and overgrazed condition of the range duces openings in the lichen cover reindeer industries involves examined is good evidence that which may increase the germination these arboreal lichens. The arbo- changes have occurred. From my of certain forest seeds. real lichens are so favoured by appraisal of the range, it would ap- The harvesting of the forests the reindeer that animals con- pear that the government should al- causes an immediate decrease in li- low greater harvests of reindeer. centrate in winter felling areas chens because of fragmentation by This case is in sharp contrast to machines, logs, and men. Ten or and many are injured or killed North America, where government more years after logging the ranges by falling trees. The forest in- agencies recognize the need for more may produce even more lichens than dustry must report such losses. liberal harvests of game in many before because the lichen density is Foresters report that the buzz of areas, but are thwarted by a con- increased by the fragments, and the power saws attracts the rein- servative public. competition from moss is reduced. deer to the immediate cutting The value of the wild reindeer Lichen regeneration after controlled area. herds in Norway should be consid- burns requires a longer period of 304 SCOTTER

time, but still much less than after can be seen at much greater dis- severe wild fires. tances than the darker ones. All In a heavily grazed district near these factors may have led to an in- Jokkmokk, Sweden, tree seedlings ferior type of animal. have been established in a fenced In Sweden, the Kuolpa Reindeer exclosure and in a comparable un- Research Station started operation fenced area. To date there appears in 1955. The major research objec- to be little difference in the survival tives there have been to study of the protected and unprotected summer food habits of reindeer, to pine seedlings. determine animal growth rates, to There is some conflict between determine whether mountain and reindeer and farmers in Norway and forest reindeer are different sub- in the southerly limits of the rein- species, and to study parasites and deer industry in Finland. Reindeer diseases, artificial feeds, and the best are known to have damaged fences age and method of castration. Also, and to have trampled and grazed on warble-fly control studies and rut- hay fields. ting-behaviour studies have been FIGURE 4. Butchery trucks are being used Research made. Effective control of the war- ble fly is now possible through the to improve slaughtering facilities in some Research is being conducted on use of injections. areas. (Photo S. Persson) a variety of subjects. Fenced ex- Near L+dingen in Norway, breed- closures and comparable unfenced ing experiments for stock improve- distributed. The producers certainly plots are being used to study the ment are being conducted as are have an excellent product to sell! effects of fire, simulated grazing, studies on feeding trials, warble-fly simulated trampling, and fertilizer Economic Outlook control, slaughtering methods, and on lichen ranges. The possible uses practical herding and management Throughout the tour I asked of artificial winter forage and grass techniques. Preliminary results in- research and management per- pastures are being studied, as are dicate a 120 to 1:30 bull-cow ratio sonnel about the long term eco- the influences of female body weight may be suitable for good calf crops. nomic outlook for the industry. on calf size, calf weight, and the Breeding studies were conducted at conception rate. Without exception, they consid- Askankyla in Finland, also. A considerable amount of atten- ered it bright. In Finland, for Other research includes studies of tion is being paid to stock improve- example, the income from the the radioactivity levels in the lichen- ment in Norway, Sweden, and Fin- reindeer industry has nearly reindeer-human food chain and land. Scientific breeding experi- doubled in the last ten years. studies of reindeer taxonomy. The ments are being conducted in each Further improvement is antici- present radioactivity levels in the country. The breeding research, at food chain are not considered haz- pated. Inflated money value is least in part, has been stimulated by ardous to humans, no doubt responsible for some of the presence of larger and better the recent increase. quality reindeer in Russia. Animals Marketing and Slaughtering One of the present problems is which do not conform to stock im- Improved slaughtering methods to reduce the number of very provement standards are now being and facilities are being established culled from the herds. Much empha- in all three countries. Both hygienic small owners and absentee own- sis is being placed on the selection of and economic aspects have prompted crs, and to increase the number bulls but in the writer’s opinion lit- such changes. September was sug- of families obtaining all or a tle attention is being placed on the gested as the best time for slaugh- large portion of their livelihood selection of females. In some small tering males and November or De- from the reindeer industry. In herds larger calf weights have been cember for females. Slaughtering of Finland, for example, there are obtained by introducing bulls from young animals is being emphasized. 25,000 owners in 5,500 families. more distant herds. Cooperatives have been estab- An economic unit for a family In the past it has been a habit of lished for marketing reindeer meat. would appear to be from 300 to the owners to sell the better animals Development of luxury markets for 600 reindeer. Owners of small and to keep the poorer ones for calf meat in the finest hotels is be- herds of animals, in general, are breeding purposes. Some owners ing promoted. The promoters hope even considered it a disgrace to sell to obtain a premium price for a less concerned about improving poor quality animals and so they quality product. A reindeer meatball the management of their rein- were retained for breeding. Light- canning industry has been estab- deer. coloured reindeer, although consid- lished, and possible expansion to Educafion Programs ered as undesirable breeding stock United States markets is being con- One of the great problems in by some scientists because the ani- sidered. the reindeer industry is to get mals may be less thrifty and more Increased interest in the product subject to premature death, are might be stimulated in the more the owners to accept and prac- highly prized by many owners for southerly regions of the producing tice the methods and techniques clothing and herd location. They countries if recipes for reindeer which research and management claim that the light-coloured animals meat preparation were prepared and have shown to be desirable. REINDEER RANCHING 305

Practices such as improved ganize the industry. 2. The quality of reindeer has breeding, winter feeding, and Conclusions deteriorated because of poor warble-fly control, all accepted Reindeer in Fennoscandia uti- breeding practices. Improved by the livestock industry in lize a land resource which would breeding practices such as cull- North America, are making slow otherwise be of little value. For ing of the inferior animals and advances. Education is, of course, this and other reasons the indus- changing of the gene pool by the answer to the problem. In try should be encouraged and introducing males from other Norway a film is being made to promoted. Although there is herds should increase both size illustrate some of the desirable still room for improvement, the and quality. procedures. More effort to trans- reindeer industry has become 3. Research and management late the findings of research and more efficient in recent years. results are not widely used by management into the language Efficiency could possibly be in- the owners. An education pro- of the reindeer owners would creased in the following ways: gram is required. seem worthwhile. 1. It is generally agreed that 4. Development of a luxury The Association of Reindeer winter range is the factor which market for reindeer meat should Owners (Paliskuntain Yhdistys) will curtail the expansion of the be encouraged. has been established to protect, reindeer industry. More effec- perpetuate, and promote the tive range use can be obtained 5. The number of reindeer reindeer industry in Finland. by reducing the number of males owners should be reduced and The organization, whose ex- in the herds, by slaughtering restricted to those’who derive a penses are met by taxing each younger animals, by selecting large part or all of their income member on the basis of the num- animals which are more efficient from the animals. ber of animals owned, has done in forage utilization, and by arti- The outlook for the industry much to encourage and to or- ficial feeding. would appear to be fairly bright.

Range Study Tour in the Soviet Union a detailed review of the vegeta- , tion, its distribution, botanical, C. KENNETH PEARSE taxonomic and ecological rela- AgricuZturaZ Officer (Range Management) Pasture and tionships and forage value. Fodder Crops Branch. Food and Agriculture Organiza- Range improvement by reseed- tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy1 ing, soil and water conservation and other practices, and physical Highlight ress of range research and the improvements through, for in- Range management and utilization status of range and livestock stance, road building, were also in fhe semi-arid and arid zones of management in some little discussed. Herbarium speci- Kazakhstan, Turkedan, and Uzbeki- mens, wall maps and charts were stan were presenied fo a group of known portions of the Soviet Fellows who attended a nine-week Union. The tour was sponsored used. All lectures were given Study Tour sponsored by F.A.O. Lec- by the Food and Agriculture Or- in Russian with translation into tures and field trips disclosed fhe English, the common language vast exfeni of these ranges, many in ganization of the United Nations. good condition, and the methods of Arrangements for the tour and of the Fellows. handling of livestock on State and the lectures were made by the For the most part the lecturers Collective Farms. Methods of re- search and grazing management and Ministry of Agriculture, Repub- were mature and experienced reseeding practices showed many lic of Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. The scientists with an intimate similarities with developments in headquarters of the group was knowledge of their subject. They other regions of the world with simi- lar climate and vegetation. in the capital city of Alma Ata, generally took the classical ap- and field trips extended over proach of basic botany with em- A group study tour organized much of the arid and semi-arid phasis on detailed descriptions in the Spring of 1964 provided regions of the Kazakhstan as of a qualitative nature although an unusual opportunity for ob- well as of the Republics of Turk- in some cases, as in describing serving and studying the prog- eman and Uzbekistan. Nine Fel- the physical resources of the lows, from Argentina, Iran, Is- area, many statistics were pro- 1Mr. Pearse served as FAO Liaison rael and Pakistan, participated in vided. The younger lecturers, Officer for the Group Fellowship the tour which lasted for nine although apparently capable, Study Tour on Grassland Man- weeks. had restricted their thinking to agement and Utilization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions in the The lectures, which covered a their special field of interest and USSR, March 31 to May 31, 1964. total of twenty days, presented found it difficult to understand