I.,' rt:HNA nON AL J 01 ' H :-.' AL 0,- LH'HOS) Volume 43 . Numoer 2 Prilltet! ill till' U. S .A. An Overview of Research on the History of Part 1. From Celsus to Simpson, Circa. 1 A.D. 1,2 Part 2. From Virchow to M011er-Christensen, 1845-1973 3 J Philip A. Kalisch

The hi story of leprosy, important as it un­ lo us a nd now controversial literature accu­ doubtedly is, receives sca nt attention from mulated during an unbroke n continuity of leprologists today. Occasiona ll y, a signifi­ more than a th ousa nd years, perhaps even cant article may appear in Danish, German, several millenniums. With this disputed a r­ French, and in isolated in stances British a nd cheological a nd semanti c problem we are American periodicals, but on the whole the not conce rned. Needless to say a recent im­ production is but a trickle and largely re­ plicatio n tha t lep rosy ex isted in ancient mains unnoticed. This void is unfortunate has not gone unchallenged (11 2). Be because the study of leprosy history makes that as it may, the Roman writer Celsus ( 37 ), it possible for today's leprologist to immerse who was born in 25 B. C., a nd the R oma n himself in the lives and times of the great politician, Plinius Secundus, born in 23 A. D. leprosy investigators of the past, their ac­ (191), both had many antecedent writings to complishments and id eas, and their influ­ aid them in their fairly distinct descriptions ence on their own and subsequent periods. of leprosy as .did the later Greek physicians. In this way the leprologist can identify him­ Galenus ( 83 ), Aretaeus (1 0), a nd Soranus, of self with the mature minds of yesteryear and Ephesus ( 223 ). consider himself a link in the great chain of The advance of know ledge co nce rning tradition that shapes his work. leprosy was abruptly halted by the collapse Moreover, because the history of leprosy of the Roman world after 300 A.D., and by has critical medical, social, cultural, psycho­ three centuries later there was almost no logical and educational functions; because medical knowledge available concerning the leprologists are all prisoners of the past, in disease in the Western world. Although the sense that their options are limited by copies of the preceding works and other what has gone before and their preferences treatises were probably extant, by 600 A.D. are shaped by their image of who they are practically no layman could read those and what leprosy has meant to mankind, it books. Thus, the embryo of leprology was is of the utmost importance that they try to dead in western Europe, a casualty of the free the history of leprosy from the myth and semi barbaric hordes who had no tradition of error that surrounds it. The following bibli­ learning. ographical survey of works on the history of The knowledge of leprosy had never sunk leprosy seeks to stimulate additional re­ so low in the East during these centuries as search in the field by identifying some of the it had in western Europe. Constantinople significant works upon which the contempo­ survived successive attacks by the Arabs rary leprologist may build. and preserved its libraries, and the Greeks who peopled it had a high regard for learn­ PART 1 ing, which was resumed when conditions At the time of Christ, what was known as permitted. During this time such physicians leprosy or elephantiasis had elicited a nebu- as Aurelianus (15), Aetius, of Amida (3), Paulus Ageineta (1 86), and Oribasius of Per­ gamun (1 81) substantiated the existence of I Received for publicati on 23 May 1973. 1 Part 2 of this pa per was presented a t the Tenth In­ the disease and traced it to prehistoric times. ternatio nal Leprosy Cong ress, , No rway, 17 Oribasi us very much praised the eating of August 1973 . vipers, for he writes that this gave a wonder­ ) P. A. Ka li sch, M.A., Ph. D., Associate Professor and Research Scientist, History of Nursing Research Proj­ ful help and relief to "lepers." The Arabs, ect, University of Michiga n Medical Center, 428 Victor though they lacked the tradition of scholar­ Vaughan Building, Ann Arbo r, Mi chi gan 48104. ship, were an able people whose ancestors

129 130 International lournal of Leprosy 1975

had lived on the edge of all the great civiliza­ ben [become] grete, the vertue of smellynge tions of antiquity, and they respected erudi­ faylyth, and the brethe stynkyth ryght tion. Once firmly in control of a vast empire, fowle," and when the disease is advanced the Moslems supported learning, and the they are "unclean, spotyed, glemy, and quy­ great caliphs, including Haroun-al-Raschid, thery [watery], and the nosethrilles ben had camel caravans laden with Greek and stopye, the wasen of the voys is rough and Latin books brought to Baghdad, where they the voys is horse, and the heere falls." Some engaged Nestorians, Jews, and Persians to 200 years later in the late 1400's Valesco de translate these works containing knowledge Taranta, a physician of Montpellier, strongly of leprosy into Arabic as documented by the recommended castration as the cure for lep­ laborious efforts of Janus Damascenus (48), rosy si nce the disease was caused by too Issac Israeli (11 3), the great Rhazes (196), Ali great a dryness and by the removal of the Abbas ( 6), (1 8), Abulcasis ( 2), testicles the body would be moistened ( 240 ). Avenzoar (1 6), and Averroes (1 7). This Many of his contemporaries held views that knowledge was available to the new schools were just as far fetched. They included Bar­ which arose at Baghdad, at Cairo, and fi­ tolomeo Montagnana of Padua (1 71), Pietro nally at Cordova in Spain. Collectively, the d' Argellata of Bologna (I I), Ferrari de Gradi Arabs not only helped to preserve the an­ of Pavia ( 75 ), and Hans von Gersdorff of cient knowledge of leprosy but may have Strassbourg ( 84). made important additions to it. By and large, An early 20th century historian of leprosy, however, the Arabic writers seem to have Hans Carlowitz (36) completed a disserta­ never entirely abandoned the notion that tion under the direction of Karl Sudhoff they were but humble disciples following in which compared most of the important 13th the footsteps of great masters, whom they and 14th century commentators on leprosy were bound to revere, imitate, and quote, including Teodorico Borgognoni (230), Gil­ but never overthrow. Thus, they excelled in bert, the Englishman ( 86 ), Guglielmo da Sa­ the synthesis of prior accumulated knowl­ liceto (95), Arnaldus de Villanova (12), Lan­ edge rather than in original findings. franco, of Milan (134), Bernard de Gordon Meanwhile, Christian Europe slowly ( 23 ), Vitalis de Furno (245), John of Gaddes­ struggled to lift itself out of barbarism and den (125), Henry de Mondeville (170), and superstition aided by Jewish physicians who Guy de Chavliac (97). Carlowitz found that circulated Greco-Arabic knowledge through­ the authors differed from each other only out the Christendom and by translations of slightly and that all except those who lived Greek and Arabic medical treatises into before Bernard (ca. 1285-1308) made use of Latin. About \060, Constantinus Africanus Bernard's U/ium medicinae. He noted that (45) brought a cargo of Islamic medical lore Henry of Mondeville and John of Gaddes­ to Salerno and with the aid of his transla­ den were particularly alike as they frequent­ tions of Greek and Arabic works in medicine ly used the same phraseology, for example. spurred the resurrection of such knowledge Carlowitz concluded that all these physi­ in Italy. His description of leprosy under the cians relied less upon their own observations title "De morborum cogni.tone and cura­ than upon the work of such famous Arabian tione" with its theory of four species of lep­ physicians as Rhazes, Ali Abbas, Avicenna, rosy was heavily borrowed from an Arabic and their 11th century commentator, Con­ work by A vicenna ( 18) who in turn had bor­ stantinus Africanus. The most original of the rowed it with a little alteration from the accounts appeared to be those by Gilbert Greeks themselves. Platearius, a 12th cen­ and Bernard de Gordon. tury s uccesso r to Constantinus, diligently Throndike, Sarton, and Singer have all followed up this theory in his compendium remarked on the fact that no notable con­ entitled Practica 10. Serapionis (190). tributions were made to medical literature, The author of the most popular encyclo­ including that pertaining to leprosy ( 5), for pedia of medieval medicine, in the 13th cen­ more than a century after the Black Death. tury, the Franciscan Bartholomaeus Angli­ The effects of the cataclysmic plague pan­ cus (21) testified that persons afflicted with demic that killed an estimated 43 million leprosy have "redde whelks and pymples in people in the Christian world during the mid the face , out of whom oftenne runne blood 1300's, are impossible to assess. It is impor­ and matter; en such the noses swellen, and tant to note, however, that an added obstacle 43 , 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the History 0/ Lepros.\' 13 1 during that time was implicit in the lack of tran sla ted int o Engli sh in 1630. Philippus the printing press to foster the distributio n Schopff of Augsburg published a nother spe­ of the knowledge tha t did exist. Books were cialized effort in 1582 (21~ ) followed four written by ha nd and copies were expensive. yea rs la ter by a 28-page doctoral study by Time a nd time again an advance had been Andreas Scholl ( W ) entitled, Theses de ra­ made in medica l knowledge o nl y to be lost, t ione expforandi, et judicandi feprosos . .. , or to be known only to a few who did not which was written under the direction of Jo­ pass o n the informa tion. The chief books on hann Vischer. At the end of the 16th century ancient leprosy and medicine were nearl y Guillaume Des Innoce ns very effectivel y all written in classical Greek, those o f the synthesized what little was known about the Arab and J ewish physicians in Arabic and disease oy drawing from the works o f the He brew, a nd no ne of these la nguages was Greeks, Romans, Arabs, as well as Renais­ widely kn ow n in western Europe. Such sa nce writers. This 13 2-page compilation transla ti o ns as existed were very imperfect. probabl y contains the first substantial his­ Then in the late 1400's a knowledge revolu­ tory of leprosy ( 54 ). tion was facilitated when movable ty pe was Little a dva nce in the writing of leprosy d evised and by 1500 Ital y a lo ne had 73 history occurred during the 17th century. As presses employing mova ble type. By about historical source materia l, Wilhelm Fabricus the middle o f the 16th century a n educated Von Hilden's observations on leprosy, con­ medica l profession in western Europe had tained in his Opera observationum et cura­ access to nearl y all the accumulated medical tionum medico-chirurgicarum quae extant and scientific literature that was then avail­ omnia, published in 1646, are of little value able and was again in full command of an­ (63). The Danish phys icia n, Thomas Bartho­ cient medicine a nd leprosy as it had been lin (20) gathered a more substantial body of passed down. But it had take n a full 1,000 knowledge in 1671. Other worthwhile works, years o f fumbling effort to recover the lep­ almost a ll of which contain the traditional rosy knowledge that it had so unwittingly interpretations of the leprosy's antecedents abandoned in the 6th century. Thus, at the include those by Luia (146), Sieboldt ( 217), onset of the Renaissance (ca. 1500), leprosy Helvetius ( 103 ), and De Spina ( 53 ). was soon attacked by an outpouring of new Moving into the 18th century, Helyot of books that touched on the subject. The phy­ France wrote a s plendid account of the sician, physicist, and poet Girolamo Fracas­ Knights of St. Lazarus, who always had a toro's (19) work on helped to differ­ "leper" for their Grand Master (102). Help­ entia te between that disease a nd leprosy. ful as constituting indicators of the then pop­ Other general treatises of the period that ular thinking on leprosy treatment are the touched on leprosy were authored by Philip­ accounts of Ovseel (1 83 ), Voight (247), Brooke pus von Hohenheim, known as ( 29 ), With of ( 255 ), Peyssonel (1 89 ), Udman ( 184), Girolamo Cardano ( 35 ), Julien Le Paul­ ( 238 ), Murray (1 76 ), Schilling ( 210), Maxy­ mier de Grentemesnil (14 2), Henrik Smith movycz ( 15 5), Gislesen ( 87 ), and Scherb ( 209 ). and Ha ns Christensen Bartsker ( 222 ) (42). Indeed the slight advance in knowledge con­ Concomitantly, the first se parate books, cerning the malady was revealed in an offi­ either solely devoted to leprosy or heavily cial report to the Royal Society of Medicine oriented toward that disease, appeared. In of Paris in 1782 when two investigators cited 1540 the French physician Pierre Bocellin Gilbert's 13th century description as the wrote a 47-page treatise concerning the con­ most clear exposition of leprosy that they tagiousness and infectious ness of leprosy had uncovered ( 38 ). ( 25 ). This was soon followed by a tract enti­ The initial attempt at a singularly histor­ tled "Examen leprosarum" in Conrad us ical study of leprosy was made by Raymond Gesner's collection, De Chirurgia Scriptores of France in 1767 (194) . His uncritical use of .. . , published in 1555 ( 85 ). One of the best sources and shallowness of much of his re­ works of the great French military surgeon search, however, reduced the value of an Ambroise Pare entitled Traicte de fa Peste otherwise valuable work. John Howard's ... avec une Bre/ve Description de fa Lepre, less ambitious account of the principal laza­ a bly dealt with leprosy (1 85 ). It was printed rettos of Europe is also superficial. This ef­ in Paris in 1568 and an altered edition was fort was followed in 1790 by the first success- 132 International Journal of Leprosy 1975 ful a ttempt to reco rd the hisro ry of leprosy. stretched back mo re tha n 1,800 years to the It was pub li shed by Philipp Gabri el Hensler, time of Celsus. First Phys icia n to the King of Denmark, a nd Wha t then sha ll we say of the yea rs I A.D. Professor of Physics, Uni versit y of Ki el ( 105). to 1845? For knowledge rega rdi ng leprosy, Unli ke hi s predecessbrs, Hensler inte nse ly they we re pe riod s o f s low evo luti o n, fo l­ studied o ri gina l so urces from the G reeks lowed by near dissolutio n, a nd subsequent down to his own time. evolutio n. T he 17th century ha d supplied a In his fi rs t cha pter H e ns le r investigates scientific m e th od fo r le pro logica l histo ry, the traces of leprosy fo und in t he works of the 18th ce ntury had provid ed a n accumula­ a ncient phys icia ns a nd then s u bseq ue n t ly ti o n of facts with whi ch to begin work , a nd describes le p rosy in the W es t during the the firs t ha lf of the 19th century saw the frui­ middle ages. He insists tha t leprosy was not ti o n of cl assical hi sto ri cal sc ho la rs hip a nd bro ught into the West by the C rusades but the initia ti o n of the sc ientific a pproach. ra ther nad re ma ined there from the times of the Ro ma ns. He does not d e ny, h owever, PART 2 tha t leprosy raged with greater violence fo l­ T he hi sto ri cal ma teria l inserted a t the be­ lowing the ho ly wa rs a nd ci tes M a tthew ginning of ma ny present-day scientific lep­ Pa ri s' now questi o na bl e estima te of 19,000 rosy mo nogra phs a nd a rticles, offers a n ex­ " leper ho uses" in the whole of Euro pe. In cell ent illustra tio n of w ha t has n fo r expla ining the decline of leprosy in the West, ma ny centuries the prima ry fo rm a nd a lm ost Hensler notes that the sympto ms of true lep­ exclusive source for the histo ry of leprosy. rosy gradua ll y vani shed as other cuta neous T hat traditio na l genre a ppeared in the ac­ a ffecti o ns became mo re commo n towa rd the counts of Da nie lssen (4~), Wilson ( 25 4), Ne is­ end of the 15th ce ntury. He further suggests ser (1 77 ), Ka posi (1 01), Le lo ir (14(1), J ea n­ tha t a t length the lepro us constitutio n passed selme (11 5), Kling mulle r ( 13 1), R oge rs a nd into the syphilitic. Appended to the wo rk a re Muir ( 20 1), a nd Co~ hr a n e ( 44) in the last ha lf extracts fro m a ncient a nd medieval writers of the 19th century a nd first six decades of a lo ng with severa l 18th century accounts of the 20th century. It had previo usly enj oyed leprosy in va ri o us pa rts of the wo rld. Hens­ a continuo us histo ry fro m the Rena issance ler's wo rk was re printe d in 1794 a nd has o n up into the 18th century, when the sco pe served as a point of depa rture for schola rly was much ex panded by the burgeoning col­ effo rts in leprosy histo ry for nearl y two cen­ lecti on of facts concerning t he di sease in dif­ turies (105). ferent pa rts of the wo rld . As previo usly in­ At the beginning of the 19th century the dicated, fro m the last 50 yea rs of the 18th sta ndard clinical work o n leprosy was tha t century come the earli est hi sto ri cal studies of Alibert ( 5). A round the sa me time A lefeld tha t a re sometimes still used as such, a mo ng (4 ), Ottner ( 182 ), Vieira (241) , Brown (31 ), them the se mina l treati ses by Raymo nd ( 194 ) Be rgerno n ( 22 ), a nd Bre hm ( 27 ) prefaced a nd Hensler (105). their mo re specia li zed derma tologic studies From a pre limina ry literature exa mina­ with a few histo ri cal references pertaining tio n, we can conclude that the oldest a nd the to leprosy in a ncient times. Brief histo rica l traditio nal fo rm o f leprosy histo ry was nar­ accounts by Lejeune co nce rn i ng the early ra tio n buttressed by occasio na l measure­ histo ry of the leproserie in C h a rtres (139 ), ments. Fro m the European inceptio n of spe­ Lehma ier o n the Biblica l references to lep­ cia li zed leprosy hi story in the late 18th a nd rosy ( m ), a nd S hafter o n the leprosy of the earl y 19th centuries, however, bo th Philipp middle ages ma rked the ascenda ncy of the Hensler in Germa ny a nd J a mes Y. Simpson cl assical study of leprosy histo ry to a new in Engla nd sought to develo p it without re­ high ( 216). It o nl y re m a ine d fo r James Y. li a nce on the yet to come scientific a pproach Simpson ( 218) to publish his la ndma rk " An­ to derma to logy. Mo reover, they seemed to tiqua ri a n Notices of Leprosy a nd Leper H os­ hold that the centra l pro ble m s of le prosy pita ls in Scotla nd a nd Engla nd" a nd its suc­ histo ry, a lth o ug h they might be st a t ed in cessor a rticles o n the "Nosological Nature terms of a particula r hi sto rica l phase, were of the Disease" a nd the "Etio logi cal His­ in essence independent of socia l, econo mic, to ry," to ma rk the culmina ti on of the classi­ a nd political hi sto ry. With few exceptio ns, cal approach to leprosy a nd its history which this general view permeated the writing of 43. 2 P. A . Kalisch: Research on the Historr 0/ Leprosy 133 leprosy hi story in the world until the mid- ' a nd Ehl ers ( 59). But the major obj ecti ve of 1900's. While numerous facts a nd statistical these two traditions was to clarify and deep­ data were collected they were se ldom a na­ en the understa nding of contemporary lep­ lyzed or used to test sociological proposi­ rology by trac in g its evoluti o n. Thus, 75 tions, and exha usti ve monographic evalua­ years ago most of those who wrote the his­ tions of the long-term social impact of tory of leprosy were practici ng leprologists, leprosy were practically unknown. sometimes eminent ones like Hanse n (98). Germa n-trained Ie p ro 10 gis t-h is toria ns, Us ually leprosy history was for them a by­ who in their rebellion against English clas­ product of clinical practice or applied re­ sicism called the mse lv es "scientists," rein­ search . . Moreover, they saw in it, besides forced this empirica l, positivistic tre nd. intrinsic value, a means to substantiate con­ Works such as those of Virchow (24 3), Ehlers cepts of their current investigations by citing ( 5~ . W), and Hirsch (109) were large, useful historical a nt ecedents. studies, full of factual detai l a nd statistics, Since the turn of the century, within the but generally devoid of theo retical interpre­ field that might be loose ly regarded as lep­ tations. As a scientist writing history, Vir­ rosy history, there appears to be five major chow insisted that hypothesis had only a su bdisciplines: I) medical leprologica l his­ transitory value, that is, to eli cit new facts. tory; 2) the experi ence of leprosy in various Hypotheses could not rest without adequate political units; 3) medieval leprosy history; proof or without verification. He condemned 4) "Biblical leprosy"; and 5) individual lep­ speculative thinking and emphasized the sa­ rosaria history. We will briefly consider cred ness of facts. some of the most productive efforts within Mean w h i Ie , the epidemiological-oriented each. studies of leprologists such as Bidenkap (24), The medical hi story of leprosy, systemat­ Rogenhagen (200) and Dehio ( 50. 51), and the ically begun by Hensler, has tended to be reports of the Royal College of Phys icians scientific rather than therapeutic in its major and the India Leprosy Commission (144), emphases. Armauer Hansen and Albert along with numerous papers presented at Neisse r have been studied in detail ( 78. 90), the Berlin Leprosy Congress (161), mar­ while the work of such other important lep­ shalled statistics to prove the contagious na­ rologists as Arning in Hawaii, and Rake in ture of leprosy. Like so many movements, Trinidad have received scant attention. His­ that of the epidemiologists against deduc­ torical output since World War II has cen­ tive, neoclassic leprosy history went to ex­ tered around the se minal paleopathological tremes and in some instances resulted in studies of Vii helm M~ller-Chri s tensen antitheoretical attitudes that prevented de­ ( 162. 169). Hi s work has facilitated a most • velopment of new hypotheses. In the minds productive marriage between science and of many of these empiricists, including Jean­ history and has in spired an unexcelled selme ( 11 5.124 ), Zambaco (256·260 ), and Ash­ school of historical research on leprosy his­ mead (13. 14) , there was an assumption that tory as evidenced by the monumental work factually based theory would emerge from of Anderse n ( 8), and the more limited study the data when it became sufficiently com­ by Brothwell (30). Other illuminating efforts plete, but, except for limited propositions, in this area include those by Dokrr (55), it never did. Several epidemiologist-oriented Bourges (26), Fite and Mansfield (77), Goerke historians of leprosy did, however, brilliantly (88), and Schmitt (212). fulfill their role as fact gatherers. Scores of While the national, provincial, and munic­ articles and a still greater number of reports ipal history of leprosy had isolated early from various leprosaria form by far the precedents, such as those of Minkh (1 60) and largest part of the scientifically collected and Buhler ( JJ), the development of scholarly prepared quantitative record of world lep­ investigation of governmental reaction to rosy history. the disease is notable in the late 19th century Both the scientific historiographic tradi­ work of Sederholm (215) in Sweden, and tion of Virchow and the subsequent epidemi­ Mouritz (174) in the Hawaiian Islands. Other ological-oriented tradition that followed, studies devoted to the history of leprosy in produced occasional monumental studies various political units are those by Araujo such as the prize essays by Newman (1 80 ) (9), Montoya y Florez ( 172 ), Ketting (1 29), 134 International Journal of Leprosy 1975

Haug ('00 ), Denney ( 52 ), McCoy (1 56), Faget depicted in art through the ages has been a ( 64 ), Abee (I), Spenesberger ( 224 ), Enna ( 61), compelling topic with Virchow initiating this San Martin Bacaicoa (2 06 ), Klovekorn ( 132 ), inquiry in 1862 (242), followed by Meige (1 57 ), Chirakadze ( 41 ), Tolivar ( 2.1 1. m ), Vogelsand Richer (1 99 ), Sassy ( 207), Hollander (liN ), ( 245.246 ), Trevien (234), Richards (1 97), and Van And~l (7 ), Gr~n ( 'I,)), Tricot-Royer ( 23 7), Kalisch (1 26 ). Some of the most detailed na­ Martin (1 52 ), Frohn ( 80 ), and Vogt ( 247). tionalistic work has been done on Cuba by Among the handful of attempts to write a Gonzalez Prendes (91), and on France by popular world history of leprosy are the less Fay ( 65.7 1 ). Similar political unit studies in­ than successful accounts of Weymouth ( 25 1), clude Maurano on Sao Paulo, Brazil ( 15.1. IS.) ) , Mouritz (1 73 ), and Feeny ( 72 ). Other broad Frohn on the German Rheinland ( XO·X2 ), Cou­ accounts that deal heavily with European goul on Fra nce, Gonzalez Urena on Mexico, leprosy history and elicit special notice are and Wellman on the Kingdom of Hawaii. those by Barbez ieux ( 19 ), Zubriczky ( 26 1), Leprosy in medieval Europe has fasci­ Leo (1 42), a nd Burnet ( 34). Most recently, nated numerous investigators among whom dissertations by Schlotter (211) , and M a let the work of Virchow ( 242. 24.1 ), Wickersheim­ (1 51) , offer a rather general treatment but er ( 252.253 ), MacArthur ( 14X. 150 ), Chaussin­ suffer from an inadequate bibliographical and ( .19. 4U ), and Brody ( 2M) is outstanding. base. Other useful work has been completed by In all the previously discussed efforts, Lecouvet (135), Lutolf ('47), Sa letes (205), medical or institutional, religious or social, Herey (104), Neret ( m. 179 ), Mercier ( 158 ), Le­ the reader cannot help but be impressed by Grand ( 1.16. 1.1 7), Lallemand ( 133 ), Duliscouet the lack of manifest ideology. Traditional ( 58 ), Remy (1 95), Pooth (1 92 ), Pawletz (1 87 ). leprosy rationale appears to be based on an Although largely devoted to the 16th cen­ empirically based objectivity, which in prac­ tury, Keussen's history of leprosy inspections tice means accepting existing folkways, in Cologne from 1491-1664 is a very careful mores, and institutions as the framework for compilation of notes and documents. analysis. Almost t9tally lacking is historical The controversy over the so-called leprosy research that openly argues for a new lep­ mentioned in the Bible has produced an rosy ideology or shows a missionary bias enormous amount of interest beginning with in favor of radical change in existing con­ Essinger's 1843 study (62), continuing with ve ntions. those of Horsford (110) , Finaly (16), Munch To say a word about methodology, at one ( 175), Schamberg ( 208 ), Sack ( 204) , Fels (14), extreme the antiquarian approach, which Unna ( 239 ), Dubreuilh and Bargues ( 57), Hill simply necessitates the collecti ng of bits and (10 7), Jastrow (114), Vorner ( 249), Trenel pieces of data, more or less without regard ( 233), Drogendij k ( 56 ), Lie (145), Gramberg to their importance or interrelationships, is (93), Landrum ('4' ), Cochran ( 43 . 44), Gold­ much in evidence. At the other extreme, the man ( 89) and concluding with Browne's ( 32 ). highly schematized or focused analytical Leprologists' and medical historians' in­ model, which is all articulation and interre­ terests in recording the history of individual lationships, is seldom employed. As a result, leprosaria are evidenced by the abundant most leprosy hi stories are essentially de­ accounts of such institutions from all quar­ scriptive in nature and fall toward the lower ters of the globe. Emphasizing the unique end of this continuum. Although the history social conditions that created and sustained of leprosy is first and foremost a story, there these unique institutions, are studies such are all kinds of stories: dull or exciting, scru­ as those by the eminent medical hi storian, pulously careful or wildly imaginative, pain­ Karl Sudhoff who ably dealt with various fully naive or subtly interpretive. Whereas European leprosaria from the 13th to the much of this quality depends on the artistic 19th centuries. Similar approaches were em­ ability of the leprosy historian, needless to ployed by Pazzini (1 88 ), Harmand (99), Puech say, the affective possibilities of the subject (193), Hildenfinger (106) , Kalisch (1 28 ), and of leprosy are limitless. Russell ( 203). The interesting organizational The proper course for future work appears story of The Mission to Lepers 1874-19 17, to lie not in moving back toward descriptive has been compiled by Miller ( 159) . narration, but rather in broadening the Several other topical strands in the history scope and variety of leprosy history to en­ of leprosy are worthy of note. Leprosy as compass the findings of social research. So- 43,2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on lhe Hislor)' oj'Lepros.\' 135

ciological and anthropological theo ry may tendfan a confundir la lepra con otras enfermeda­ ex plain, for example, why a nd how irration­ des de la pie I. colocaron los fundamentos emo­ al motives based on lepropho bia led to total cionales para trabajos posteriores en 10 que res­ institutional responses, but only by interfer­ pecta a supersticid n y conocimientos. Sus esfuer­ ence may explain why one leprosarium suc­ lOS fueron copiados fie lmente durante cientos de ceeded and its neighbor failed under approx­ a li os y proporcionaron por 10 menos una acumu­ imately the same circumstances. Indeed, lacidn de hechos y una documentacidn sobre el estado del a rte. EI desarrollo de la medicina cien­ why did the various leprosaria in the British tlfica a mediados del siglo diecinueve los siguien­ Empire of the 19th century yield such mixed tes 125 a nes han tra ldo un incremento de espe­ medical and social results? Yet the hi storia n cia li zacidn en la investigacidn de la historia de should be interested as much in the social la lepra, que puede SCI' dividida ventajosamente incentives as in the actual result s. To bring en aspectos medicos, politicos, B(blicos, institu­ order into this analysis of the total si tua tion cionales y medioevales. Se consideran a lgunos de it is necessa ry for him to use theoretical los esfuerzos mas productivos dcntro de cada una models and knowledge from the behavioral de estas a reas. EI desaflo del fu turo esta en dc­ sciences. The value of such an approach has san-oll ar modelos de a na li sis y evalu acidn basa­ dos en los ha lla zgos de investigaciones socioldgi­ been borne out by the studies of Skinsnes cas, mas bien que dependicndo totalmcnte de la ( 219-22/ ), and those of Gussow and Tracy (96). narracidn pura. Este es el medio por el cual se Out of imaginative but scholarly mono­ puede liberar la historia de la lepra de muchas de graphic research on these and other topics, las fabulas y errores que la rodean. on an international level it will begin to be possible to build a convincing sy nthesis of leprosy hi story, a synthesis independent of Cet a percu tente d'evaluer, d'une mani~re ge­ purely emotional responses. nerale, tout ce qui a ete ecrit sur l'histoirc de la f~pr e pendant 2. 000 ans. Ma lgre qu'ils aient eu SUMMARY une tendance a confo ndre la lepre avec d'autrcs maladies de la peau, les a nciens auteurs o nt pose This overview attempts to evaluate, in les fondations emotives pour tout ce qui a sui vi, general, the results of nearly 2,000 years of empreint de superstition et de frayeur. Leurs ef­ writings on the history of leprosy. The an­ forts o nt ete finalement pendant de siecles, pro­ cients, although prone to confuse other skin duisant en fin de compte une accumulati on de diseases with leprosy, laid the emotional faits et une large documentation conce rnant ce foundation for later work in superstition and probl~me . A l'aube de la medecine scientifique, lore. Their efforts were faithfully copied for vers la moitie du dix-neuvieme sj~cl e, et dans les 125 annees qui o nt suivis, o n a assiste une spe­ hundreds of years and provided at least an a cialisation accrue de la reche rc he concernant accumulation of facts and a documentation I'histoire dc la lepre. Ces recherches peuvent etre of the state of the art. The da wn of scientific utilement di visees en medicales, politiques, bi­ medicine in the mid-nineteenth century and bliques, institutio nnell es et medievales, d'apres the following 125 years has brought an in­ les differents aspects tra it es. Quelques-uns des creasing specialization of research in the his­ efforts les plus va la bles, da ns chacun de ces do­ tory of leprosy that might be usefully divided maines, sont passes en revue. Le defi qui se pose into medical, political, Biblical, institution­ aux a uteurs futurs est de develo pper des modeles al, and medieval aspects. Some of the most d'analyse et d'evaluation qui seront bases sur les productive efforts within each of these areas resultats d'une recherche socia Ie scientifique, et non pas uniquement sur l'anecdote o u la descrip­ are considered. The challenge of the future ti o n. Ceci est Ie se ul moyen de liberer l'histoire is to develop models of analysis and evalua­ de la I~pre de to us les mythes et les erreurs qui tion based on the findings of social scientific I'encombrent. research rather than relying totally on pure narration. This is the way in which to free the history of leprosy from much of the myth NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY and error that surrounds it. I. AnEE, H ORST OTTO VIKTOR M AX . Die L..ep­ rosenhauser del' era/echa/i Mark, Frankfurt, 1947,31 p. RESUMEN 2. Anu LcASIS . Methodus medendi certa, clara Esta revisidn trata de evaluar, e{l ge neral, los et brevis, pleraque quae ad medicinae partes resultados de cerca de 2.000 alios de escrituras so­ omnes, praecipue quae ad chirurgiam requi­ bre la historia de la lepra. Los antiguos, aunque runtur /ibris III exponens ... AWore Albucase 136 International Jo urnal of' Lepras.\' 1975

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Co l/i­ est lihri unil'er.l'Ole.\· quatuor. singuli quatuor get A l'erro.l'.I' reliquLIIII nuperrime diligemer serlllones cO /llplectentes, LIf sil1f ill summa correctulII , et lIIarginalihus adnotamentis quatuor .I'emlOnUIII quaterniones, hI est ser­ nunquam hactenu.\· adjatis il/ustratum. Addi­ /l1O//es XVI. per JanulII CO l'l1ariull1 .. . Latine ta est preterea Llfrique operi propria tabula conscripti. Ba sil eae, 1542,32 p. . .. , Lugduni, 1531. 4. ALE !'ELD, J . A. T. C. Dissertation leprae his­ 17. AVER RO ES. Co l/ige /. To III us Il onus [Omnium torial1l succinnalll et hinas leprosormn nuper operum ArislO telis] in quo lIIagni A verrois obsen'atorull1 hisfOrias cO /llplexa, Giessae, ... septelll libri Co I/iget , & A vicenllae Ca n­ 1800. tica cum ejusdem A ve l'. expositione ad rem 5. AUBERT, J . L. Description des Maladies de la medicam aninentes ... Adsunt quoque Sec­ Peau, Paris, 1806. tiones tres co l/ectaneorum ejusdem, a Joanne 6. 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He csul1f opera . .. tronique, Clermont, 1968,230 p. que in hoc volumine cOl1f inel1fur, Lugduni, 27. BREHM, E. G. Nonul/a de elephal1fiasi nodo­ 1504, 398 p. sa universali, in Livonia et Esthonia obvia, 13. ASHMEAD, A. S. Leprosy in America before Dorpati Li vo norum, 1828. 43, 2 P. A. Kafisch : Research U /1 !he J-lislUrr ol Lep ro.IT 13 7

28. BR ODY. S. N. Th e Diseases u/ lhe Suul: A 43. COCII RAi'iE. R. G. The hi story of leprosy a nd Sludy in Ih e Moral A ssoeial loll.\' u/ Lepro.IT il s sprea d thro ugho ut th e wo rl d. III : Leprosy in Mediel'{i/ Lileralure. Ithaca. Ne w York . in Theory a nd Prac ti ce. Bri stol. 1964. pp 1- 12. 1974. 223 p. 44. COCIIR AN E. R. G. Bihlica I Lepros.\' : A Sug­ 29 . BR OOK E. R. A surprisin g acc id ent al cure: a gesled Interprelal iUIl . Lond o n. 196 1. 16 p. ge ntleman labouring under a ve ry obstinate 45 . COi'iSTANT Ii'i I'S A VRI CA'\ (·s. Opera , conquisi­ leprosy was eured by usin g asses' milk , wh o ta undique lIIagnu sludio, jalll {JrimulII ll p is wa tered fr om a stone trough in whi eh a pieee el'Lilgata, praeler paucli la quedalll quae im ­ of erocus meta ll orum was pl aced fo r th e cure pressa ./uerwu, sed & ipsa a nohis ad l'e IUS­ of mange in hounds. Gentlemen's Mag. Hi s\. Ii ssimorulII ex elll p la I' i UlII IIwnuscriplOruII I Chro n. 2J ( 1753 ) 39. l'eritaJell/ lanta cll ra casliga lll . W hlljus aW o­ 30. BROTIIW ELL . D. R. Ev id ence of leprosy in Brit­ ris alllelwe nihil aedilu II I I'ellseri {Jossil . ish a rc ha eo logica l matcri a l. Med. His\. 17 Basi Icae. 1536. 387 p. (1958) 287-291 . 46. COUG O( JI. . J . G. IAl I.epre dall s 1'A ll cienne 31. BROW N. G. C. De elephallliasi graecorwlI I'el France, Bordea ux. 1943. 158 p. lepra A ra bulII . Edinburgh. 18 18. 38 p. 47. CZAP LE WS KI. Albe rt Ne isscr und di e Ent ­ 32. BROW NE . S. G. Lepros.\' in Ih e Bihle. Lond on. dec kung des Lepra batillus. Arch. DermalO l. 1970. 20 p. . Sy phil. 124 (1 9 17) 5 13-530. 33 . BUIIL ER. F. Del' A lissal :: in del' Sehll·ei::. Me­ 48. DAM;\SCEl\' (IS. J M, ( 'S [Y IIII A,'\l\'A IH l\' SERA- dicinisch-histurisehe SIUl lien. Zurich. 190 2. 1'1 01\ ]. PraClica }o. Serapionis. Illdex operum 34. BURi'iET. E. La Lepre: Legem/e. /-lislo ire. in ;'01' I'olwllille CO l7l ell lO rWII . Pra clica ./oan­ Acutualile, Pa ri s. 193 2. 185 p. 35 . CAR DANO. G IR OLA MO. Quaed alll opuscula, nis Serapionis aliler Brel'iariwlI nuncupa/a. artem m edicam exereem ibus utilissima, ut Liber Scrap. De silllpli. m edi. Sumpta a plan­ sUnl , De aqua & aelhere: De c I'na radice, lis: mineralibus & animalibus. Libel' Caleni seu, De decoct is, nunc lopcup lelalUm & cas­ Ad Papiam de vir/we eenlauree. Pra (e lica) ligalum: ConsiliulII pro illuslI'i /-lieron.\'I1 /o ./0. Plaleari. . .. Libel' de simpliei meel. ejus­ Pala vieino . . . eli/limit ale spirandi laboran­ dem Plalearii I' ulgariler Circa ins/ans dielus. Ie: ConsiliulII pro .f7uxu sanguinis coercenc/o: Th esaurus pauperum ah }o(anne) X X. Pan. Consilium pro ManlUano lepram paliente: Max. qui anle Pelrus /-li sp anus d icehalUr Medicine en CO l11illlll . Praelerea ejusdem in mu//a cOl7linens a dil'ersis auclO rihus /II edi­ calumnialorem liboru/JI de sublililale. aClio, cine scripta nunquam al7l (,(1 illlpressus. Cum Ba sil eae, 1559. 210 p. la bula .. . recel1l er addil a. Lu gduni. 152 5. 36. CARLOWIT Z. H. Der Lepraabschnill aus Bern­ 272 p. hard von Co rdon s "Iilium m ediciniae" in 49 . DA NIELSSON. D. C. a nd BOEC K, W. Traile de mille lallerficher deutscher Ue bersel zung, la Spedalskhed on Dephantiasis des Crecs, Leipzig, 1913. Pa ri s, 1848. 535 p. 37. CELSUS, A ULLIS CO Ri'iE Ll lJS. Medicine libri oc- 50. DEli 10. KARL. Del' Au ssatz' cinst a nd je7.t. 10 no viler emenelali el impressi: CUIll labula Lassa r's Derma to l. Z. 3 (1 896). repertoria cuj uslibel lihri & capiluli. Lugdu­ 51 . DEIII O, KARL. Pro ka::a I' p roshlo ll1 j naslo­ nl. 1516, 106 p. I'ashlshem i b o rba S lI el'U [Le prosy in the 38. C HAMP SAUR. A. a nd COQlJE REA U. C. J. L. Past a nd Present a nd the Struggle with It]. Elephantiasis leg itima. His\. Soc. Roy. Med. St. Petersburg. 1896. (Paris) 7 (1 78 2-83) 200. 52 . DENN EY. O. E. The hi story of leprosy in Lou­ 39. CHA USS INAN D, R. L'expansio n de la lepre de isiana. Public Hea lth Rep. 51 (1936) 1029- I'a ntiquite a nos jours. Acta Trop. 6 (1949) 1034. 105-119. 53 . DE S PI NA. P. De £/ephal1liasi, Lugduni. 40. CHA USS INAi'i D, R. La lepre, Pa ri s, 1950, 1685 . 212 p. 54. D ES INNOCENS. G UILL AUME. E'((Jm en des Ele­ 41. CHIR AKADZE. G. P. K voprosu iSlO ril lepry phal1liques on Lepreu x. Recue illl' de Plu ­ v Cruzii, Tbilisi, 1964, 94 p. siew's bans el Renolllll? e:: AU/h eLl;'s, Crecs, 42 . CHRI STENSEN BAR TS KER, HA Ns. En fide l L(lfins, Arabes el Francois . . ., Lyon, 1595. wnderuisning m egil n\'lIelig oc Iff/l slelig, sam 132 p. vel f o rl1l/Jden er, huorledis m ennisken skal 55. DOKE R, WILII ELM. Uber den A LissalZ im A I­ holde oc skicke sig, naar denne f o rgUflige lel'lum und in der Cege/1l\'Qrt , Heid elberg, peslilenlze k olde siuge beginder al sprede sig 1948, 21 p. wd ibland m ennisken, IiI al f orgiflue, ford­ 56. DR OGEND IJK. A. C. Is the Biblica l leprosy a rif/ue oc fo rdelJlue m ennis k en, huorledis purely reli gious conce ption') Genesskd. Gid s. m ennisk en i n ogen maade kand gi¢ire den 16 (1938) 824ff. m odsland, oc bek omme hielp , tr¢iSI oc raad 57. D UBR EU ILII , W. a nd BARGUES . A. La lepre de em od denne f orlerdelige oc f orskreckelige la Bibl e. Lepra 15 (1914) 5- 15 . siuge, Schleszwig, 1596, 70 p. 58. D ULI scouET, E. H. Les Lepreux au Moyen- 13 8 International Journal of Leprosy 1975

Age en France. Bord ea ux, 1906, 64 p. Derma tol. I()O ( 1969) 478-483. 59. EII LERS, EDVARD. Danish Lazar Houses in 78. FITE, G. L. and WADE, H. W. T he contribu­ Ihe Middle Ages. Lond on, 1901 . ti on of Ne isse r to the es tablishm ent of the 60. EII LERS, EDVARD. On the conditi ons under Hanse n bacillus as th e eti ologic agent of lep­ whi ch leprosy has' declined in . In : rosy and the so-ca ll ed Hanse n-Neisse r con­ Prize Essays on Leprosy, Lo nd on, 1895 . troversy. Int. J. Le pr. 23 ( 1955) 41 8-428. 6 1. ENNA, C. D. and BYRD, C. F. T he history and 79. FRASCASTO RO, G IROLA MO. De sympalhia el deve lopment of the Na ti onal Leprosarium in antipalhia rerum liber unus. De contagione the United States. I nt. Surg. 52 ( 1969) Suppl. el contagiosis morbis el curalione libri iii. 11 - 14. v enetii s, 1546,76 p. 62. ESS INGER, DAV ID. Ue her den Zaraalh des 80. FROII N, WI LIlE LM . Arzl und Lepra im Rhein­ Moses oder den weissen Aussal z. Tubinge n, lande. Bonn, 1929,32 p. 1843, 50 p. 8 1. FROHN, WI LIlE LM . Der Aussalz im Rheinland; 63. FA BRICI US VON HI LDEN, WI LII ELM. Opera Ob­ sein Vo rkommen und seine Bekamp/ung. serva lionum el Curalionum quae eXlant Om­ J ena, 1933,3 11 p. nia. Frankfurt, 1646,973 p. 82. FRO HN, WI LHELM. Lepradarstellungen in der 64. FAGET, G. H. T he sto ry o f leprosy in the Kunsl des Rheinlandes. Berlin, 19 36, 105 p. United S ta tes. Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 30 83. GALENUS. Des tumeurs oullre Ie coustumier ( 1941-42) 349-360. de nalure. Opuscule nouvellement Iraduict 65. FAY , HEN RI MARCE L. Hisloire de la Lepre de Grec en Latin: & de Lalin en Francoys. en Fran ce: Lepreux el Cagols du Sud-Ouesl. Lyo n, 1542, 26 p. NO les Hisloriques. Medicales. Philologiques. 84. GERSDORFF, HANS VON. Feldlbuch der Wun ­ suivies de Documenls; avec une Preface du darl zney. sampl vilen Instrwnenlen der Chi­ Prof esseur G. &Jllel. Pa ri s, 19 10,784 p. rurgey uss dem Albucasi conlrafayt. Chiro­ 66. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Conlribution a I' Elude mantia l o. Indagine. Das ist. die Kunst der de I' Hisloire de la Lepre en Fran ce. La Lep­ Handlbesehung. Nalurliche Astrologey. nach re dans Ie Sud- Ouesl de la France. Les Ca­ warem Laui/ der Sonnen. Physiognomey. uss gOls. Pari s, 1907, 106 p. des Menschens Anblick und Glyderen. sein 67. FAY, HENR I MARCEL. Notes pour servir a an ge borne Neygung zu erlernen. Comple­ I'h is toire de la lepre en France; les cagots, xion Buch. £ins yeden Natur zu erkennen. gaffoes et cassots. Bull. Soc. Fr. H ist. Med . durch der Planeten. und xii uffsteigenden 4 (1905) 69-109. Zeychen Geburtsrund. Canones. oder Rege­ 68. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Notes pour servir a len eins yeden Kran ckheyt warlich zu erkun­ I'hi stoire de la lepre en France; les chres tiaas. digen. Wie auch, und wenn sich der Arlzney France M ed. 52 (1905) 407ff. zugebrauchen. Strasszburg, 1540, 212 p. 69. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Les lepreux a Pl om­ 85. GESNE R, CON RADUS. Chirurgia. De chirurgia bieres. Bull. Soc. Fr. Hist. Med. 5 (1906) 152- scriptores optimi quique ve teres et recen­ 159. tiores, p/erique in Germania antehac non edi­ 70. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Quelques sa ints gue­ ti. nunc primwn in unum conjuncti volumen ri sseurs de la lepre dans Ie Sud-Ouest de la . .. , Tiguri, 1555, 406 p. France. France Med. 54 ( 1907) 317 . 86. GIL BE RT, THE ENG LI SHM AN. Compendium 7 1. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Notes pour servir a medicine Gilberti Ang/ici tam morborum uni­ I'histoire de la lepre en France. Bull. Soc. Fr. versalium quam particu/arium nondum me­ Hist. Med. 4 (1905) 208-229. dicis sed & cyrurgicis utilissimum . '" Lug­ 72 . F EEN Y, PATRI CK. The Fighl Against Lep­ duni, 1510, 361 p. rosy. Lond on, 1964, 191 p. 87 . GISL ES EN, J ONAS. De Elephanliasi Norve­ 73. FELDMAN, W. H. Gerhard Henrik Armauer giea, Havniae, 1785 , 63 p. Hansen. What did he see and when? Int. J . 88. GOE RK E, H. Ein Leprabericht eines Linnes­ Lepr. 33 (1965) Suppl. 412-416. chulers aus dem Jahre 1765 . Z. Haut Gesch­ 74. FELS, J . "Zaraath" of the Hebrew Bible: con­ lechtskr. 42 (1967) 161-166. tribution to the history of leprosy. Prezeglad 89 . GOLDM AN, L. , MORAIT ES, R. S. and KIT Z­ Lek. 40 ( 190 I) 509ff. MILLER, K. W. White spots in Biblical times. 75. FE RR ARI DE GR AD I, GI OVANN I MA TTEO A background for the dermatologist for par­ Consilia Secundum viam A vicen. Ordinala ticipation in disc uss ions of current revisions ... Nunc Secundo Recusa Lucidantur. Lug­ of the Bible. Arch. Derm atol. 93 (1966) 744- duni, 1535, 106 p. 753 . 76 . FI NA LY , SI GMUN D. Uber die wahre Bedeu­ 90. GONZ AL EZ PR EN DES, MI GUE L ANGE L. Gerhard tung des Aussatzes in der Bibel. Arch. Der­ Henrik Armauer Hanse n (1 841-1912). Lepr. matol. Syphil. 2 (1 870) . Rev. 35 (1964) 127- 147. 77. FITE, G. L. and MANSF IELD , R. E. The role 91. GONZA LEZ PR EN DES, MI GUE L ANGEL. Historia of hi sto logy in the stud y of leprosy. Arch. de la Lepra en Cuba. Havana, 1963, 415 p. 43. 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the Historr of Leprosy 139

92. GONZALEZ URlIEi':A. J. La l.Rpra en Mexico. of Icprosy. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. -' Buenos Aires. 194 1. X09 p. ( 1852-57) 34-J6. 9:1. GRMIBI,RG. K. P. I.epro~y and the Bible. III. HOWARD. JOII ~ rIll- PIIILA;-': 'I IIROI'IST . An Trop. Geogr. Med. 20 ( 1959) 127-139. Accou/1l ol' Ihe Prillcipal 11J::arel/o.l' in t.LI­ 94. GROi':. K. F. Leprosy in litcr

gia & pharmacopoeia. emendaliore & in me­ 140. LELOJR, H. Traite Pratique et Theorique de liorem redacta ordinem. recens edita opera la Lepre. Pa ri s, 1886. ac studio . ... Augustae Vindeli corum , 1595, 141. LENDR M, F. C. T he name " leprosy." Am. 11 88 p. J . Trop. Med. Hyg. 1(1952) 999- 1008. 126. K ALI SCH, P. A. Federal reacti on to leprosy 142. LEO, A. J . Beitrag zur Geschichte der Le­ in the United States, 1889- 1920: a study in pra. Leip zig, 1870. stigma. Loui siana Studies: An Interdiscipli­ 143. LE PAULM IER DE GRENTEMESNIL, J ULIE N. De nary J. South 12 ( 197 3) 489-53 1. Morbis Contagiosis Libri Septem . ... Pari­ 127. KALI SCH, P. A. The stra nge case of J ohn sii s, 1578, 443 p. Ea rl y: a stud y in the sti gma of leprosy. Int. 144 . . Report of Leprosy Com­ J. Lepr. 40 ( 1972) 291 -305. mi ssion, 1890-1 891 , Ca lcutta, 1892. 128. KALI SCH, P. A. Tracadie and Penikese lep­ 145. LI E, HANS PETER. On Leprosy in the Bible. rosaria: a comparati ve ana lys is of societal Lepr. Rev. 9 (1938) 25 fr. res po nse to leprosy in New Brunswick, 146. LUIA, G. A. De Elephal1liasi Graecorum, 1844 .: 1880 and Massachuse tts, 1904-192 1. Lugduni, 1662 . Bull. Hi st. Med. 47 ( 1973) 480-5 12. 147. LUTOLF, A. De leprosen und ihre VerpO e­ 129. KETT ING, G. N. A. Bijdrage tot de Geschie­ gung in Lu ce rn und del' U nige bund. Mitt. denis van de Lepra in Nederland. s'Graven­ des Hi sto ri sc h. Vercin s del' funf Orte 16 hage, 1922, 298 p. ( 1860) 125 fr. 130. KEUSSEN, HERM AN . Beitrage zur Geschi chte 148. MAC ARTH UR, W. Medieval " leprosy" in der Kolner lepra-untersuchunge n. Lepra 14 the British Isles. Lepr. Rev. 24 (1953) 8- 19. (191 3) 80- 11 2. 149. MAC ART HUR, W. Some notes on old-time 131. KU NGMULLE R, V. Die Lepra. Berlin, 1930, leprosy: the case of King Robert the Bruce. 907 p. J . Roy. Army Med. Corps 46 ( 1926) 32 1-330. 132. KL OVEKORN, G. H. Del' A ussar z in Koln. 150. MAC AR THUR, W. Some notes on old-time Munchen, 1967. leprosy in Engla nd and Ireland . J. Roy. 133. LAL LEMAND, L. La Lepre et les Leproseries Army Med. Corps 45 ( 1925) 410-422. du X au X VI Siecle. Pa ri s, 1905 . 151. MALET, CHRI STIAN. Histoire de la Lepre et 134. LANFRAN CO, OF MIL AN . A Most Excellent son Inf7uence sur. la Litterature et les Arts, and Learned Woorke of Chirurgerie, called Paris, 1967, 285 p. Chirurgia parva Lanf ran ci . . . reduced 152. MARTIN, ALFRED . The represe ntation of lep­ from dyvers translations to our vulgar or rosy and of lepers in minor art, particularly usuall frase, and now jirst published in the in Germany. Urol. Cutaneous Rev. 21 (1921) Englyshe pry nte by John Halle ... who 445453. hath therunto necessarily annexed. A table. 153. M AU RANO , F LAV IO A. Histaria da Lepra as weI of the names of diseases and simples em Sao Paulo, Sao Pa ul o, 19 39, 2 vols., with their vertues. as also of all other tennes 551 p. of the arte opened . .. And in the ende a 154. MAU RANO, FLAV IO A. Historia da Lepra no compendious worke of anatomie . . . An his­ Brasil e sua Distribuicao Geograjica, Ri o de toriall expostulalion also against the beastly Janeiro, 1944, 209 p. abusers. both of chyrurgerie and phisicke 155. MACY MOV YCZ, J. De Lepra Graeca el Ara­ in our tyme ... All these faithfully gath­ bica, Regiomonti, 1773 . ered, and diligently set f orth. by the sayde 156. Mc Coy, G. W. History of leprosy in the John Halle, Lond on, 1565 . United States. Am . J . Trop. Med. 18 (1938) 135 . LECOUVET, F. F. J . £Ssai sur la Condition 19-34. Sociale des Lepreux au Moyen-Age, Prin­ 15 7. MEIGE, H EN RY. La lepre dans l'art. Nor­ cipalement en Belgique et dans Ie Pays Li­ welle Iconogr. Saltpetriere 10 (1 897) 41 8- mitrophes. Gand , 1865 . 470. 136. LE GR AN D, L. Les Maisons- Dieu et Lepro­ 158. MERCIER, C. A. Leper Houses and Medie­ series . .. de Paris, 14 Siecle, Paris, 1898. val Hospitals; Being the Fit zpatric Lectures, 13 7. LE GR AN D, L. StatUls d'Hotels-Dieu et de Lond on, 1915. Leproseries; Recneil de Textes du XII au 159. MILLER, A. D. An Inn Called Welcome; the Story of the Mission to Lepers, 1874- 191 7, X IV Siecle, Pa ri s, 190 I. Lond on, 1965, 241 p. 138. LEHM AIER, J . Ueber den iu del' Bibel Er­ 160. MI NKH , G. N. Istoriya Pr okazi v Tersk oi wahnten Aussat z, Nurnberg, 1838 . Oblasti [History of Leprosy in the Prov ince 139. LEJEUNE. No tice Historique sur la Fonda­ of Terek) , Ki ev, 1894. tion de la Maladrerie ou Leproserie du 16 1. Mittheilungen und Verhandlungen der In­ Grand-Beaulieu, an Diocese de Chartres en ternationalen Wissenschaf tlichen Lepra­ 1054. par Thibault III. comte de Chartres. Conferenz zu Berlin im October 1897, Ber­ Orleans, 1833 . lin, 1897. 43 , 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the HislOry of Leprosy 141

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