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Home , Human migration

What Drives Migration?

Why do people migrate? This is a simple and a difficult associated with increasing (de Haas, 2010). question. On the one hand, it seems reasonable to assume Any form of development in the poorest that most people migrate hoping to find better conditions of the world is therefore likely to lead to accelerating or opportunities, such as jobs, higher wages, safety or emigration. This suggests that we need explanations that freedom of expression. This is the implicit assumption do not confuse individual factors or motivations to move underlying the ‘push-pull’ models taught at secondary (which, indeed, often refer to better opportunities) with school as well as neo-classical migration theories. Most macro-structural explanations of migration processes. migrants have good reasons to move. However, this Such rethinking can be achieved by conceptualising does not really help us to understand the complexity and migration as a constituent part of broader development and change, drivers of real life migration. rather than as a problem to be solved, or as the sum of To say that most people migrate to find better individual responses to given (unexplained) geographical opportunities is somehow stating the obvious. Push-pull opportunity gaps. For instance, in the modern age, models usually list factors in origin and destination areas, much migration within and across borders has been but fail to make clear how the various factors together inextricably linked to broader urbanisation processes. It lead to migration. They fail to explain why there should is difficult to imagine urbanisation without migration, be a difference between push areas and pull areas in the and vice-versa. Rather than asking ‘why people migrate’ first place, and are therefore ‘a platitude at best’ (see also the more relevant question is therefore how processes Skeldon, 1990). such as imperialism, nation state formation, the industrial Neoclassical migration theories assume that people revolution, capitalist development, urbanisation and migrate to maximise their income or wellbeing. Migration globalisation change migration patterns and migrants’ is a (temporary) response to development ‘disequilibria’ experiences. between origin and destination countries, and will decline For instance, how can we explain why development through a process of wage convergence. However, is often associated with more, instead of less, migration? migration has been a constant factor in the history of To understand this, we must move beyond sterile views humankind and is not a temporary by-product of capitalist of migrants as predictable ‘respondents’ to geographical development.Furthermore, the wage convergence opportunity gaps. Conceptualising migration as a assumption naively ignores how power asymmetries function of people’s capabilities and aspirations to usually sustain economic inequalities (Castles et al., 2014). move can help to achieve a richer understanding of Both push-pull and neoclassical models fail to provide migration behaviour. Processes of human and economic insight into the social, economic and political processes that development typically expand people’s access to material have generated the spatial wage and opportunity gaps to resources, social networks and knowledge. At the same which migration is supposedly a response. It is therefore time, improvements in infrastructure and transportation, not surprising that the predictions of push-pull models which usually accompany development, make travel less and neoclassical theories are fundamentally at odds with costly and risky. what is seen in real life migration patterns. Most migrants Development generally increases people’s capabilities do not move from the poorest to the wealthiest countries, to migrate over larger distances, but it does not and the poorest countries tend to have lower levels of necessarily lead to migration. Migration aspirations emigration than middle-income and wealthier countries. depend on people’s more general life aspirations, as well It is often said that the only way to reduce migration from as their perceptions of life ‘here’ and ‘there’. Both are poor countries is to boost development. However, this subjective and likely to change under the influence of ignores that the relation between development and levels broader processes of structural change. Improved access of emigration is fundamentally non-linear. Important to information, images and lifestyles conveyed through emigration countries such as , Morocco, education and media tend to broaden people’s mental and the are typically not among the poorest. horizons, change their perceptions of the ‘good life’, and Going against popular perceptions of a ‘continent on the increase material aspirations. Development processes move’, sub-Saharan is the least migratory region of tend to initially increase both people’s capabilities and the world. aspirations to move, explaining why development often Analyses of historical and contemporary data show boosts migration. Once sizeable migrant communities that human and economic development is initially have settled, social networks tend to reduce the costs

From Migration: A COMPAS Anthology, edited by B. Anderson and M. Keith, COMPAS, Oxford, 2014 and risks of migrating, with settled migrants frequently the world has remained remarkably stable at functioning as ‘bridgeheads’. levels of around 3 per cent over recent decades. However, as societies get wealthier, overall emigration It is illusionary to think that large-scale migration aspirations are likely to decrease because more is a temporary phenomenon that will disappear once people can imagine a future within their own , – an equally illusionary – equilibrium is achieved. Such while is likely to increase. Although it is ideas reflect a fundamentally flawed, ahistorical view on often assumed that technological progress increases the history of humankind. Development itself drives migration, easier transportation and communication may migration. Migration has therefore always been – and will enable people to commute or work from home, while remain – an inevitable part of the human experience. outsourcing and trade may also partly reduce the need to References migrate. In fact, from a long-term historical perspective, Castles, S. et al. (2014) The Age of Migration: International technology has facilitated humankind to settle down. Population Movements in the Modern World, 5th edn, London: Ever since the agricultural (‘’) revolution began MacMillan Press. some 12,000 years ago, technology has enabled people de Haas, H. (2010) ‘Migration Transitions: A Theoretical to shift from hunting and gathering to more sedentary and Impirical Inquiry into the Developmental Drivers lifestyles. In modern times, technological progress has of International Migration’, IMI Working Paper No 24, International Migration Institute, University of Oxford. certainly boosted non-migratory mobility – such as commuting, tourism and business travel – but its impact Skeldon, R. (1990) Population Mobility in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation, London: Belhaven Press. on migration is rather ambiguous. This may partly explain why the number of international migrants as a share of

From Migration: A COMPAS Anthology, edited by B. Anderson and M. Keith, COMPAS, Oxford, 2014