INKING OVER THE GLASS CEILING: THE MARGINALIZATION OF FEMALE CREATORS AND CONSUMERS IN COMICS A thesis submitted to the College of the Arts of Kent State University School of Art in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. by Maria Campbell August, 2015 Thesis written by Maria Campbell B.F.A, Lesley University, 2011 M.F.A., Kent State University, 2015 Approved by Diane Scillia, Ph.D., Advisor Christine Havice, Ph.D., Director, School of Art John R. Crawford, Ed.D., Dean, College of the Arts TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………….v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………viii AUTHOR’S NOTE……………………………………………………………….ix INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER ONE THE ORIGINS OF COMICS AND THE GOLDEN AGE……………………….6 The Early History of Comic Strips…………………………………………...6 World War II and the Golden Age……………………………………….......9 Wonder Woman and Her Creators………………………………………….11 The Seduction of the Innocent………………………………………….......13 Jackie Ormes………………………………………………………………..17 The Silver (1956-1970) and Bronze Ages (1970-1985) of Comics Sales…..19 CHAPTER TWO UNDERGROUND COMICS TO MODERN DAY..……………………………23 Pop Art and Comix………………………………………………………....23 Feminist Anthologies……………………………………………………….26 Alternative Comics and Graphic Novels……………………………………27 Women in Refrigerators…………………………………………………….31 “No Girls Allowed” in Comic Books……………………………………….34 Feminist Writers and Heroines…………………………………………......37 Bitch Planet…………………………………………………………………42 CHAPTER THREE MANGA IN AMERICA AND WEBCOMICS….................................................45 A Brief History of Manga…………………………………………………..45 Magical Girls……………………………………………………………….48 Anime and Manga in America………………………………………….......51 Manga-Influenced Fan Spaces and Creations………………………………54 Webcomics………………………………………………………………….56 iii CHAPTER FOUR TRANSFORMATIVE WORKS, FANDOM, AND DETRACTORS…………..61 Rosie, Diana, and Carol…………………………………………………….61 History of Transformative Works…………………………………………..64 Transformative Works as Critique and Commentary…………………........66 Finding a Mirror……………………………………………………………68 The Creative versus the Curatorial…………………………………………71 CHAPTER FIVE COSPLAY AND COSPLAY CULTURE……………………………………….75 Play and Performance………………………………………………………75 Craftsmanship………………………………………………………………78 Performing………………………………………………………………….80 Suspicion of Deceptive Performance and Harassment……………………..82 “Cosplay Is Not Consent”…………………………………………………..86 Cosplay Performance as the “Wrong” Artform…………………………….88 The Creative versus the Curatorial in Cosplay……………………………..91 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………..92 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………...97 Interview with Kelly Sue DeConnick……………………………………….98 E-Mail Transcripts……………………………………………....................114 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………....122 FIGURES……………………………………………………………………….129 iv LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES Page 1. The Kewpies and Duckie Daddles…………………………………………..129 2. Gibson Girl………………………………………………………………………….129 3. Advertisement for Nell Brinkley Bob Curlers……………………………………130 4. Kewpie Postcard Promoting Women’s Suffrage………………………………..130 5. Crime SuspenStories #22………………………………………………………….131 6. Patty-Jo ‘n’ Ginger…………………………………………………………………131 7. Wonder Woman Vol. 1, #178……………………………………………………...132 8. Ms. Magazine……………………………………………………………………….132 9. Zap Comix…………………………………………………………………………..133 10. “The Bunch Plays With Herself”…………………………………………...133 11. Captain America, vol. 2, #2…………………………………………………134 12. Green Lantern #58………………………………………………………….134 13. Amazing Spider-Man #121………………………………………………….135 14. Black Widow: The Name of the Rose………………………………………..135 15. Black Widow: The Name of the Rose……………………………………………..136 16. Still from The Avengers……………………………………………………………136 17. Vengeance…………………………………………………………………..137 18. Young Avengers…………………………………………………………………….137 19. Bitch Planet #1……………………………………………………………...138 20. Bitch Planet #1……………………………………………………………………...138 21. Bathers (from Hokusai Manga)…………………………………………………..139 22. The Japan Punch……………………………………………………………………139 23. Sazae-San……………………………………………………………………………140 24. Ribon no Kishi/Princess Knight…………………………………………………..140 25. Promotional Still for Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon……………………………141 v 26. Magic Knight Rayearth……………………………………………………..141 27. Bleach………………………………………………………………………………..142 28. Directional page added to the English edition of Magic Knight Rayearth, vol. 3………………………………………………………………………...142 29. Boo, M.D…………………………………………………………………………….143 30. Page from Teahouse………………………………………………………………..143 31. Thesis Defense………………………………………………………………144 32. Aradia: Check on Sollux…………………………………………………………...144 33. Tom’s Story, Page 25………………………………………………………..145 34. Depression: Part Two………………………………………………………145 35. Detail of page from The Less Than Epic Adventures of TJ and Ama………..146 36. Detail: Friends with Boys…………………………………………………...146 37. Rosie the Riveter……………………………………………………………………147 38. We Can Do It!.................................................................................................147 39. DC Bombshells: She Can Do It!.....................................................................148 40. Captain Marvel, vol. 1, #2…………………………………………………………148 41. Humorous Illustration of Types of Mary Sues in Star Trek fanfiction………149 42. Las Meninas…………………………………………………………………………149 43. Las Meninas…………………………………………………………………………150 44. Racebent fancast, featuring Daniel Henney as Clark Kent/Superman and Nicole Beharie as John Stewart/Green Lantern…………………………………………150 45. Two-Weisz …………………………………………………………………………..151 46. Still from Cremaster 4………………………………………………………151 47. Cosplay Progress of Star-Lord Helmet from Guardians of the Galaxy………152 48. Cosplay Photo of Star-Lord from Guardians of the Galaxy…………………..152 49. Progress of Lace Front Styling Gamagori Wig…………………………………153 50. Progress of Wefting Ryuko Wig…………………………………………………..153 51. Her Imperial Condescension Ear Molds………………………………………...153 52. Her Imperial Condescension……………………………………………………...154 53. Commodus as Hercules……………………………………………………………155 54. Rajé…………………………………………………………………………155 vi 55. Rhythm 0…………………………………………………………………….156 56. Cosplay is Not Consent Banners at New York Comic Con……………………156 57. Tony Harris’ Facebook Post………………………………………………………157 58. Screenshot of Patrick Broderick’s Facebook Post……………………………..157 59. A Day At The Comics Shop………………………………………………………..158 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My deepest and sincerest thanks to Kent State University’s School of Art faculty for their guidance throughout this process. In particular, thank you to Dr. Diane Scillia and Dr. Kristin Stasiowski as my first and second readers and to the rest of my committee: Dr. Gustav Medicus, Dr. Fred Smith, and Dr. Navjotika Kumar. Thanks are also due to Kelly Sue DeConnick and Marjorie Liu for their correspondence, which was instrumental to formulating this work. Thank you as well to Lexi Attiani, Chelsea Connel, Caitlin Postal, and Haley Oatway for their willingness to share their stories for my thesis. I also thank Ronald Campbell, Regina Campbell, Kate Thompson, Rachel Krislov, and Tony Pearson for their support. viii AUTHOR’S NOTE I am of the belief that gender is a spectrum and, in part, defined by social construct and that more identifications exist beyond the simple binary of “female” and “male.” This work focuses on the obstacles met by those people who identify with the “female” end of that spectrum. In using terms such as women, girls, and female, I am largely relating the experiences of those who identify and present as such. Discussing the feminist issues present in the comics industry requires an intersectional understanding; comics and their blockbuster films disservice women, of course, but also men and women of color, of orientation, of size, and of ability. The lack of diversity within comics and the seeming obsession of gatekeeping within “fandom” contribute to an atmosphere that feeds a self-perpetuating cycle. To discuss feminist issues in comics is to discuss issues of racism, homophobia, and all forms of Othering. ix 1 INTRODUCTION Once ignored as trivial mass media, comic strips and comic books are now recognized as their own art form, one with a rich history and culture all its own. A fairly young art form, comics combine words and art into a continuous storyline, told over the course of multiple panels or pages. They were originally a feature in newspapers but then were written into books whose monthly or weekly installments compiled into one long-running story. A medium and not a single genre, comics’ purview extends over every form of storytelling for every audience. Japanese comic books, called manga, imported overseas have expanded the forms of storytelling available to United States audiences. With so much choice, the medium affords a large and diverse community of readers. Studying the history of the art form means studying the surrounding groups that grew around comics, a subculture referred to as a “fandom” in popular parlance. Fandom, as a singular entity, is a space where likeminded enthusiasts can gather to share in the experience of what they enjoy. With the advent of comic conventions and social media, the line between the fan and the creator is one that has become permeable, allowing fans to interact with comics professionals on a personal level. This increasing democratization also allows fans the opportunity to become creators and distributors on their own, bypassing the traditional need for a publisher. Initially, this manifested in the underground comics scene in the 1970s. The internet age has now allowed independent