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Genes Predisposing to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Pathophysiology: a Narrative Review Tajudeen Yahaya,¹ Titilola Salisu²

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Genes Predisposing to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Pathophysiology: a Narrative Review Tajudeen Yahaya,¹ Titilola Salisu² 100 Med J Indones 2020;29(1) Review Article Genes predisposing to type 1 diabetes mellitus and pathophysiology: a narrative review Tajudeen Yahaya,¹ Titilola Salisu² pISSN: 0853-1773 • eISSN: 2252-8083 ABSTRACT https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.rev.203732 The possibility of targeting the causal genes along with the mechanisms of Med J Indones. 2020;29:100–9 pathogenically complex diseases has led to numerous studies on the genetic etiology Received: April 24, 2019 of some diseases. In particular, studies have added more genes to the list of type 1 Accepted: January 23, 2020 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) suspect genes, necessitating an update for the interest of Authors' affiliations: all stakeholders. Therefore this review articulates T1DM suspect genes and their ¹Department of Biology, Faculty of pathophysiology. Notable electronic databases, including Medline, Scopus, PubMed, Science, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, and Google-Scholar were searched for relevant information. The search identified Kebbi State, Nigeria, ²Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, over 73 genes suspected in the pathogenesis of T1DM, with human leukocyte antigen, Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye, insulin gene, and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 accounting for most of Ogun State, Nigeria the cases. Mutations in these genes, along with environmental factors, may produce Corresponding author: a defective immune response in the pancreas, resulting in β-cell autoimmunity, insulin Tajudeen Yahaya deficiency, and hyperglycemia. The mechanisms leading to these cellular reactions are Department of Biology, Faculty of gene-specific and, if targeted in diabetic individuals, may lead to improved treatment. Science, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Medical practitioners are advised to formulate treatment procedures that target these Kebbi State, Nigeria Tel/Fax: +234-8033550788/ genes in patients with T1DM. +234-8098233774 E-mail: [email protected]/ KEYWORDS autoimmunity, hyperglycemia, insulin, pancreas, type 1 diabetes mellitus [email protected] Diabetes mellitus (DM) begins when hyperglycemia leading to the retention of glucose in the blood.¹ Some occurs. A hormone synthesized by the pancreatic people develop a condition known as secondary DM, β-cells, known as insulin, regulates blood glucose by which is like T1DM, but the immune system does not transporting it from the bloodstream into the cells destroy the β-cells.² Instead, the cells are removed where it is metabolized. Another hormone produced by by certain stimuli in the pancreas, as indicated by the pancreatic α-cells, known as glucagon, also assists histopathological changes.² T1DM was previously the body in the blood glucose regulation process. In named juvenile DM but was renamed because adults most cases, type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) occurs can also develop the disease. Moreover, T1DM is not when the immune system, which normally attacks the only form of DM that affects children and young only foreign antigens, faultly destroys the β-cells. adults. Particularly, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) Consequently, the pancreas stops making insulin, is becoming increasingly prevalent among young Copyright @ 2020 Authors. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are properly cited. For commercial use of this work, please see our terms at https://mji.ui.ac.id/journal/index.php/mji/copyright. mji.ui.ac.idMedical Journal of Indonesia Yahaya, et al. | Type 1 diabetes mellitus suspect genes 101 individuals as more and more children are becoming T1DM SUSPECT GENES obese and overweight nowadays.³ Maturity-onset diabetes of the young and neonatal diabetes mellitus At least 18 regions in the human genome were are other forms of DM that mainly affect children and identified as hotspots for T1DM using genome-wide neonates with different clinical features from T1DM. linkage analysis. These regions host many genes T1DM is the most frequent chronic illness among and are labeled IDDM1-IDDM18 because T1DM was children, accounting for 5–10% of all DM cases.² It is the formerly called insulin-dependent DM (IDDM).⁶ most burdensome form of DM, with a decreased life However, improvement in biological techniques has expectancy.⁴ About 30 million people live with T1DM led to a greater understanding of the genetic basis worldwide, and the prevalence is predicted to increase of T1DM. More precise studies have reaffirmed the three-fold in the 2040s.⁵ Uncontrolled T1DM may roles of some previously suspected genes in T1DM cause chronic complications, including retinopathy, pathogenesis and new ones have been discovered. nephropathy, neuropathy, and vascular diseases. Many genes have been reportedly linked with T1DM, T1DM has a strong genetic etiology modulated by but only those with clear mechanisms are presented some environmental triggers that may prevent in this review. Tables 1–3 show the update on the disease if avoided before autoimmunity. The T1DM candidate genes, grouped according to their treatment involves constant insulin injections, which mechanisms of action, which are disruption of is expensive; thus, a better approach is necessary to T cell regulatory activities, increased susceptibility stem the burden of the disease. As autoimmunity to microbial infection, oxidative stress, cytokine- is the hallmark of T1DM, an intervention that induced β-cell loss, and β-cell reconfiguration. re-programs the immune system may be a potential However, more genes are being added continually. way to treat the disease. This observation suggests that precision medicine that targets causal genes and Most frequently suspected T1DM predisposing genes the pathophysiology of complicated diseases, such Of the genes described in Tables 1–3, mutations in as DM, may provide a future management when fully the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), insulin understood. Hence, this review was initiated to search gene (INS), cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein notable electronic databases, including Medline, 4 (CTLA4), protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor Scopus, PubMed, and Google-Scholar to establish type 2 (PTPN2), and protein tyrosine phosphatase, T1DM suspected genes. The result will facilitate the non-receptor type 22 (PTPN22) genes account for formulation of drugs and treatment procedures that most of the T1DM cases. Detailed information on target these genes and their mechanisms. the diabetogenic activities of these genes is given below. Table 1. T1DM suspect genes that disrupt T cell immune regulatory activities and increase susceptibility to microbial infection Gene Full name Locus Mechanism Cytotoxic Causes massive lymphocyte proliferation, resulting in overexpression of T cells, CTLA4 T-lymphocyte 2q33.2 which attack self-antigens, leading to β-cell apoptosis.⁷ associated protein 4 Disrupts the activities of many endocrine glands, affecting the immune regulatory FOXP3 Forkhead box P3 Xp11.23 T cells and setting of autoimmunity.⁸ Protein kinase C PRKCQ 10p15.1 Loss of T cell signaling, leading to a compromised immune system.⁹ theta Interleukin 7 IL7R 5p13.2 Causes a compromised immune system, characterized by depletion of T cells.¹⁰ receptor IL2 Interleukin 2 4q27 Causes functional loss of T cell (Treg) regulation, resulting in autoimmunity.¹¹ Integrin subunit ITGB7 12q13.13 It disrupts the activities of T cells in the pancreas, resulting in autoimmunity.¹² beta 7 SH2B adaptor SH2B3 12q24.13 Increases self-reactive T lymphocyte proliferation.¹³ protein 3 RAS guanyl releasing Reduced expression results in splenomegaly and autoantibodies, while complete RASGRP1 15q14 protein 1 deletion decreases T cell development in the thymus.¹⁴ Medical Journal of Indonesia 102 Med J Indones 2020;29(1) Table 1. (continued) Gene Full name Locus Mechanism Mediates loss of function of regulatory T cells, leading to autoimmunity of the CD28 CD28 molecule 2q33.2 pancreatic β-cells.¹⁵ Inducible T cell ICOS 2q33.2 It suppresses insulin-specific regulatory T cells.¹⁶ costimulator Antisense to Causes insulitis in which the islets are massively infiltrated by macrophages and ART2/RT6 ribosomal RNA 11p15.4 T cells.¹⁷ transcript protein 2 Ubiquitin associated Increases UBASH3A expression in CD4+ T cells, disrupting NF-κB signaling, which UBASH3A and SH3 domain 21q22.3 in turn represses IL2 gene expression.¹⁸ containing A Small ubiquitin-like Reduces sumoylation capacity, causing overexpression of NF-κB and IL12B, and SUMO4 6q25.1 modifier 4 leading to β-cell autoimmunity.¹⁹ Major MHC histocompatibility 6p21.31 Causes loss of T cell signaling, leading to autoimmunity of the pancreatic β-cells.²⁰ complex Causes defects in Treg phenotype decreasing its signaling activities, culminating NRP1 Neuropilin 1 10p11.22 in autoimmunity of the β-cells.²¹ Macrophage Causes high MIF concentrations in the blood, resulting in dysfunctional pancreatic MIF migration inhibitory 22q11.23 islets. Also causes loss of function of immune cells, such as macrophages and T factor cells, increasing the risk of β-cell autoimmunity.²² Cluster of Increases the frequency of GAD autoantibody and lowers C-peptide levels, CD226 18q22.2 differentiation 226 accelerating β-cell destruction.²³ Impairs immune response, leading to β-cell autoimmunity, it also leads to IL6 Interleukin
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